Rise of Turkey and Ataturk

Rise of Turkey and Ataturk

1918- 1923

Treaty of Sevres

• San Remo, 1920: Britain and France divided the Middle Eastern mandates

• Division included in the Treaty of Sevres, August 1920

• King Faysal government driven out of Damascus by the French “The Arab dream had been shattered” (Goldschmidt)

• The French and the British practiced “divide & rule” more or less directly

However, three areas of the Middle East gained/salvaged independence

after WWI:• Turkey• Iran• Saudi Arabia

“In each of these states, these changes resulted from the inspiration, the ingenuity, and the industry of a military commander who became a political leader”

• Mustafa Kemal Ataturk• Reza Shah Pahlavi• Ibn Sa’ud

• Mudros Armistice, October 1918 Ottoman Empire out of the war

• Losses in the armed forces:– 325.000 deaths– 400.000 wounded– 250.000 imprisoned/missing

• Economic consequences of the war:– Crushing taxes– Deficit financing– Severe price inflation (cost of living increased by 1800% since 1914)– Deportation of Armenians was a major setback for commerce, finance

and administration

• Other effects of the war– Many areas had lost their young men– Agricultural areas fell into neglect– Deforestation due to lack of coal– Deserted soldiers roamed the countryside– Large number of refugees in the Istanbul area;

displaces people, refugees from Russia

Political situation

• The Young Turk regime (Enver, Talat, Jemal) fled from Istanbul (feared to be held accountable for their treatment of the Armenians)

• The Ottoman Sultan aligned himself with the Western powers and gave in to their demands

• French troops entered Cilicia (southern Anatolia)• Italians claimed Antalya (southwest)• French and British occupied the Straits and Istanbul • Greece landed troops at Smyrna (Izmir) in May 1919

Resistance

• The real political struggle after the war took place in Anatolia, not in Istanbul– CUP had prepared armed resistance groups in

Anatolia before they left the country• Guns and ammunition stored in depots in Anatolia• Guerrilla bands organized• Karakol (the Guard) created; organization to protect

Unionists (CUP)– Public “Societies for the defense of the national

rights” set up by the CUP

Greco-Turkish War• Entente powers soon realized that the Treaty would have to

be imposed; Greece offered to do so by military means. • The Greeks had landed and occupied Izmir in May 1919• By October 1919 the Greek occupation of a much larger area

than originally planned was recognized • The Greek invasion and occupation was a turning point in the

post-WWI situation in AnatoliaThe “war-weary and decimated” Muslim population of

Anatolia joined the resistance (Zurcher)• Many in the administration in Istanbul sympathized with the

resistance information, supplies, etc. provided

The army• The Ottoman army depleted, but it still functioned as one

entity– Command structure intact– Leading officers almost uniformly supported the resistance

sabotaged disarming and demobilization and secretly supplied resistance organizations

• The army’s strength in Anatolia was still unimpressive– In the west they could only harass the Greek army– In the south the situation was a bit better; fighting broke out gainst

the French/Armenians in Jan. 1920– Stronghold of the Ottoman army was in the east; higher numbers,

better equipped and in an inaccessible area

Mustafa Kemal• Had been early member of the CUP, but had become estranged

because of internal rival factions by 1919 he was not associated with the regime

• Had become famous as a general during the war; heroic and respected commander in the Dardanelles , Anatolia and Palestine

An ideal candidate for the leadership of the resistance• Mustafa Kemal was appointed inspector of the Third Army in the

East on behalf of the Ottoman government (but in reality arranged by supporters of the resistance). His mission was to pacify and disarm the Eastern region.

• Landed in Samsun May 19, 1919 (– four days after Greek landing at Izmir)

• Mustafa Kemal was dismissed (just after he had resigned) by the government in Istanbul early in July as a result of his activities in the east

• The military strongman who had been sent to arrest Mustafa Kemal refused to obey orders and claimed his loyalty to Kemal and the national resistance

Majority of the army followed his exampleResult: Open split from the government with the

support of the army

Congress of Erzurum

• Mustafa Kemal began effort to unite regional organizations to one national resistance

• Circular sent to all civil and military authorities in Anatolia – The country was in danger– The government in Istanbul would not protect it– Only the will of the nation could save it

• A congress met in Erzurum in July; participants from Eastern Anatolia agreed on ten-point declaration

The major resolutions of the Erzurum Congress. 1) The unity and integrity of the country are in danger; the mother-land is undivided2) By no means nobody will emigrate from the region; the minorities' destructive and dividing deeds will not be permitted.3) Every kind of national struggle is going to be fulfill to protect the independence and integrity of the mother-land.4) Mandate and protection are not acceptable.

Treaty of Sevres on Turkey

• Straits under permanent Allied commission• Eastern Anatolia Armenia and possibly also

Kurdistan• Greece would get Thrace and Smyrna (backed by

Britain)• Italy and France would get parts of southwestern

Anatolia• The Capitulations would be restored and extendedThe Sultan signed.

National Congress in Sivas

• September, 1919• Resolutions from Erzurum adopted National

Pact• A representative committee was elected and

Mustafa Kemal was made its presidentNational executive of the resistance movement

located in Ankara (from Dec. 1919)• Rapprochement between the government and

resistance movement had no practical effect

Parliament

• Last general election of the Ottoman Empire took place in December 1919– The Defense of Rights Society in complete control

of elections in Anatolia– Anatolian representatives conferred with Mustafa

Kemal in Ankara before going to IstanbulThe parliament in Istanbul acted as the

mouthpiece of the resistance movement based in Ankara

British occupation of Istanbul

• March 1920: Britain occupied Istanbul as a response to the close ties between the parliament and resistance movement

• Mustafa Kemal invited parliamentarians to Ankara and set up a Great National Assembly there (April 1920)

The Ankara government was now a complete government