Rise of Totalitarianism Isms & Dictators. Conservative Authoritarianism Traditional form of antidemocratic government in Europe (e.g., Metternich, Catherine.

Rise of Totalitarianism

Isms & Dictators

Conservative Authoritarianism

Traditional form of antidemocratic government in Europe

(e.g., Metternich, Catherine the Great) Prevented major changes undermining

existing social order Popular participation in government

forbidden or severely limited

Conservative Authoritarianism Limited in power and in objectives (usually sought status

quo) Lacked modern technology and communications and

could not control many aspects of their subjects’ lives. Usually limited demands to taxes, army recruits, and

passive acceptance of the regime Conservative Authoritarianism revived after WWI,

especially in less-developed Eastern Europe and Spain and Portugal; only Czechoslovakia remained democratic.

Great Depression ended various levels of democracy in Austria, Bulgaria, Rumania, Greece, Estonia, and Latvia

vs. Totalitarianism

Dictatorship that tried to control every aspect of the lives of the people.

New technology made this possible: radio, automobile, telephone

Tools of totalitarianism: censorship, indoctrination, terror

Existed first in Russia, then Italy?, Japan and Germany (sought expansion, except Russia)

Fascist Italy Causes for rise of fascism In early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state with

civil rights and constitutional monarchy. Versailles Treaty: Italian nationalists angry that Italy

did not receive any Austrian or Ottoman territory, (Italia Irredenta) or Germany’s African colonies as promised.

Depression in 1919 caused nationwide strikes and class tension

Fascist Italy

Causes for rise of fascism Wealthy classes fearful of communist revolution looked to

strong anti-communist leader By 1921 revolutionary socialists and conservatives were

all opposed to liberal parliamentary government. Fascism in Italy = a combo of conservative

authoritarianism and modern totalitarianism (although not as extreme as Russia or Germany)

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) ("Il Duce")

Organized the Fascist party Combination of

• socialism

• nationalism: territorial expansion

• benefits for workers,

• land reform for peasants. Initially failed to succeed because of competition

from well-organized Socialists. 1920, Mussolini gained support of conservative

classes and frightened middle class for anti-Socialist rhetoric; abandoned his socialist programs.

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) ("Il Duce")

Blackshirts (squadristi): Paramilitary forces attacked Communists, socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program

Later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts" followed this example

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) ("Il Duce")

March on Rome, October 1922: led to Mussolini taking power Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov’t and his own

appointment by the king. Fascists marched on Rome to threaten king to accept

Mussolini's demands. Government collapsed; Mussolini received right to organize a

new cabinet (government). Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorial powers for 1 year to

end nation’s social unrest.

Corporate State Was the economic basis for Italian fascism. “Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing

against the state.” By 1928, all independent labor unions organized into

government-controlled syndicates Established organizations of workers and employers and

outlawed strikes and walkouts. Created corporations which coordinated activities between

worker-employer syndicates. Authority from the top, unlike socialist corporate states

where workers made decisions.

Corporate State Right to vote severely limited. All candidates for parliament selected by

Fascist party. Gov’t ruled by decree. Fascists put in control of schools. Created fascist youth movement, labor unions,

and other fascist organizations: Dopolavoro (After Work) and Balilla (Fascist Youth Organization) failed to regulate leisure time.

Mussolini Never Became All-Powerful

Failed in attempt to “Fascistize” Italian society by controlling leisure time

Old power structure of conservatives, military, and church remained intact.• Mussolini never attempted to purge conservative classes.

He propagandized and controlled labor but left big business to regulate itself.

No land reform occurred Did not establish “ruthless” police state (only 23 political

prisoners executed bet. 1926-1944) Racial laws not passed until 1938 and savage persecution of

Jews not until late in WWII when Italy was under Nazi control.

Italian Women

Divorce abolished and women told to stay home and procreate.

Decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934.

1938, women limited by law to a maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in industry & gov't

Fascist Accomplishments Internal improvements made such as

electrification and roadbuilding. More efficient municipal governing. Suppression of the Mafia Lateran Pact, 1929, resulted in reconciliation

with the papacy• Vatican recognized as a tiny independent state; received

$92 mil for seized church lands• In return, Pope Pius XII recognized legitimacy of the

Italian state.

Fascist Failures

Italian democracy destroyed Terrorism became a state policy. Poor industrial growth due to militarism

and colonialism. Disastrous wars resulted from attempt to

recapture imperialistic glories of Ancient Rome.

NAZI GERMANY

Roots of Nazism: Extreme nationalism + racism = Nazism

Adolf Hitler

Became leader of National German Workers Party (NAZI) after WWI

S.A.: "Brown Shirts" terrorized political opponents on the streets

Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Hitler failed to overthrow Bavaria and sentenced to 1 year in jail

Hitler realized he'd have to take control of Germany legally, not through revolution

Hitler’s SA

Mein Kampf

1923 written while in jail: became the blueprint for Hitler's future plans• Lebensraum (“living space”): Germans

should expand east, liquidate the Jews and turn the Slavs into slave labor

• Anti-Semitism: Hitler blamed the Jews for Germany's political and economic problems

• Leader-dictator, Fuhrer, would have unlimited arbitrary power

Fall of Weimar Republic the Result of the Great Depression

Unemployment reached 43% by end of 1932

Hitler began promising German voters economic, political, and military salvation.

Hitler promised big business leaders he would restore the economybreak Germany’s strong labor movement + reducing workers’ wages if necessary.

Hitler assured top army leaders that the Nazis would reject the Versailles Treaty and rearm Germany.

Nazis also appealed to German youth: 40% of party under age 30 in 1931; 67% under 40

The Ruhr Crisis

France occupies Germany’s key coal, iron and steel producing region in order to punish Germany for default on its reparation payments. And to extract payment in form of coal, etc.

German workers there go on strike.

Germany prints more money to support the workers

Hyperinflation explodes.

Dawes plan is enacted to give Germany relief

Locarno Pact: 1925Locarno Pact: 1925

GustaveGustaveStresemannStresemann(Ger.)(Ger.)

GustaveGustaveStresemannStresemann(Ger.)(Ger.)Aristide

Briand(Fr.)

AristideBriand

(Fr.)

Austin Chamberlain (Br.)Austin Chamberlain (Br.)

Guaranteed the common boundaries of Belgium, France, and Guaranteed the common boundaries of Belgium, France, and Germany as specified in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. Germany as specified in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. Germany member of LoN. France no longer occupies Germany.Germany member of LoN. France no longer occupies Germany.

Germany signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, Germany signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, agreeing to change the eastern borders of Germany by agreeing to change the eastern borders of Germany by arbitration only. arbitration only.

Guaranteed the common boundaries of Belgium, France, and Guaranteed the common boundaries of Belgium, France, and Germany as specified in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. Germany as specified in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. Germany member of LoN. France no longer occupies Germany.Germany member of LoN. France no longer occupies Germany.

Germany signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, Germany signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, agreeing to change the eastern borders of Germany by agreeing to change the eastern borders of Germany by arbitration only. arbitration only.

Kellogg-Briand Pact: 1928Kellogg-Briand Pact: 1928

15 nations committed to 15 nations committed to outlawing aggression and war for outlawing aggression and war for settling disputes.settling disputes.

Problem Problem no way of no way of enforcement.enforcement.

15 nations committed to 15 nations committed to outlawing aggression and war for outlawing aggression and war for settling disputes.settling disputes.

Problem Problem no way of no way of enforcement.enforcement.

If a state (8) does not fulfill the obligations laid upon it by the Reich constitution or the Reich laws, the Reich President may use armed force to cause it to oblige.In case public safety is seriously threatened or disturbed, the Reich President may take the measures necessary to reestablish law and order, if necessary using armed force. In the pursuit of this aim he may suspend the civil rights described in articles 114, 115, 117, 118, 123, 124 and 154, partially or entirely.The Reich President has to inform Reichstag immediately about all measures undertaken which are based on paragraphs 1 and 2 of this article. The measures have to be suspended immediately if Reichstag demands so.If danger is imminent, the state government may, for their specific territory, implement steps as described in paragraph 2. These steps have to be suspended if so demanded by the Reich President or the Reichstag. Further details are provided by Reich law.

Article 48

Fall of Weimar Republic the Result of the Great Depression

1930, Chancellor gained permission from President Hindenburg for emergency rule by decree

Struggle between Social Democrats & Communists contributed to breakdown of gov't.

Nazi's won largest percentage of votes in the Reichstag in 1933 elections

Hitler becomes Chancellor on January 30, 1933; appointed by Hindenburg.

Third Reich (1933-1945) Hitler Consolidates Power

Reichstag fire: occurred during violent electoral campaign: used by Nazis to crack down on communists

Enabling Act: (March 1933) passed by Reichstag – Gleichschaltung (“coordination”)• Gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years

• Only the Nazi party was legal Hitler outlawed strikes and abolished

independent labor unions.

Third Reich (1933-1945) Hitler Consolidates Power

Publishers, universities, and writers brought into line

Democratic, socialist, and Jewish literature put on blacklists.

Students and professors burned forbidden books in public squares.

Modern art and architecture was prohibited ("degenerate art")

Joseph Goebbles: minister of propaganda effectively glorified Hitler and the Nazi state

Third Reich (1933-1945) Hitler Consolidates Power

“Night of Long Knives” (June 1934) Hitler realized the army and big business were suspicious of the

S.A. Hitler’s elite personal guard—the SS—arrested and shot without

trial about 1,000 SA leaders and other political enemies. S.S. grew dramatically in influence as Hitler's private army and

secret police Led by Heinrich Himmler SS joined with the political police, the Gestapo, to expand its

network of special courts and concentration camps.

Goebbles, Himmler, & SS

Persecution of Jews

By the end of 1934, most Jewish lawyers, doctors, professors, civil servants, and musicians had lost their jobs and the right to practice their professions.

Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship.

By 1938, 25% of German Jews had emigrated (many were the "cream of the crop")

Kristallnacht 1938 (“The Night of Broken Glass”)

Using assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by young Jewish boy as pretense, Hitler ordered an attack on Jewish communities.

Well-organized wave of violence destroyed homes, synagogues, and businesses.

Thousands of Jews were arrested and made to pay for the damage.

Kristallnacht

“This people must disappear from the face of the earth.”• Heinrich Himmler, “Speech to the Leaders of the

Nazi Party.”

• Posen, October 6, 1943

Russia under Stalin

Entire Politburo from Lenin's time was eventually purged leaving Stalin in absolute control.

Trotsky & Stalin

Major Cause of Revolution

WWI Massive Russian casualties Food shortages

February Revolution

Overthrew the Czar and instituted the Provisional Government

Revolution started by women rioting for bread in Petrograd; workers and soldiers joined in

Duma responded by declaring a provisional gov’t on March 12, 1917.

Provisional gov't wanted to continue the war; Soviets control the army

Alexander Kerensky

Becomes leader of the Provisional Gov’t Implements liberal program: equality before

the law; freedom of religion, speech, and assembly; right of unions to organize & strike; election of local officials; 8-hr work day

Rejects social revolution: doesn't confiscate large landholdings and give them to peasants

Army Order #1

Stripped officers of their authority and placed power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers (soldiers afraid in the future they might be liable for treason against the czar)

Led to collapse of army discipline Anarchy in Russia by summer of 1917 Kerensky's refusal to end the war and prevent

anarchy leads to fall of Provisional Gov't

Rise of Vladimir I. Lenin

April 1917 Germany arranged for Lenin to be transported back to Russia; hoped to get Russia out of war

"April Theses": Lenin rejected all cooperation with the “bourgeois” provisional gov’t

Called for a "Socialist revolution" and establishment of a Soviet republic

Nationalization of banks and landed estates “All Power to the Soviets”; “All Land to the Peasants”

Lenin

Kornilov Affair

Military coup by General Kornilov failed. Kerensky lost all credit with army

October Revolution (Actually in November) results

in a communist dictatorship Politburo formed to organize

revolution: includes Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin

Leon Trotsky, leader of the Petrograd Soviet (the Red Army), led Soviet overthrow and arrest of the provisional gov’t

October Revolution

New elections: Bolshevik's lost (only 25% of vote) but overthrew new gov't with Red Army

Lenin: "Peace, Land, Bread" Lenin gave land to peasants (although peasants already

took it, like French Revolution) Lenin gave direct control of individual factories by local

workers’ committees. Signed Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 to take

Russia out of WWI Bolsheviks renamed "communists" These actions lead to opposition to Bolsheviks and the

Russian Civil War

Russian Civil War

Reds (Bolsheviks) vs “Whites” (included officers of old army, and 18 groups proclaiming themselves the real gov't of Russia--had no leader to unify them)

Allies sent troops to help "Whites" (Archangel Expedition; Siberia)

By 1921, the communists had defeated their opponents

Communists extremely well organized (Trotsky); Whites were poorly organized

Russian Civil War

“war communism”: Bolsheviks mobilized the home front for the civil war

Earliest form of socialism in the Soviet Union Applied "total war" concept to a civil war Cheka: Secret police formed to hunt down and

execute thousands of real or supposed opponents, such as the tsar and his family and other “class enemies.”

Results of the Russian Revolution

Costs: 15 million dead, economy ruined, international trade gone, millions of workers fled

Creation of world's first communist society: one of the monumental events of 20th century

Economic Problems

Though the Whites were put down, the Soviet internal situation remained critical in 1921, with the economy being below pre-war levels.

The anarchists and peasants began to revolt in the countryside in an attempt to do something about the starvation & suffering of the masses.

The New Economic Policy (NEP)

This was Lenin’s stop-gap measure to retain control and provide temporary relief.

Under the NEP, peasants were allowed to keep part of their produce, which they were allowed to sell for cash profit on newly-recreated local markets.

The gov’t kept control of heavy industry & internat’l trade, but light manufacturing and internal trade was returned to private hands.

NEP, continued

The Kulaks (large peasant farmers) and other entrepreneurs made large profits by taking advantage of this liberalization.• As a result, some Bolsheviks, such as

Trotsky, wanted to kill them

• Some other people wanted to extend the NEP to include even more private business

• Lenin believed both groups were wrong, and that the NEP was necessary until a full communist society could be realized in the future.

The Power Struggle: Stalin vs. Trotsky

Lenin had a series of strokes between 1922 & 1924. He finally died in 1924.

Trotsky & Stalin both wanted to be Lenin’s successor.• Trotsky was a theorist who had organized the Red

Army and the Petrograd Soviet.

• Stalin was an activist who had been instrumental in forcing the minority republics to unite into the USSR. He also had control of the machinery of gov’t.

Stalin vs. Trotsky

Trotsky wanted to promote world revolution ASAP, while Stalin was willing to wait & instead concentrate on rebuilding the USSR, 1st.

When Trotsky publicly criticized Stalin’s foreign policy in 1927, Stalin had him exiled to Siberia.

Trotsky eventually escaped to the west & was assassinated by Stalin’s men in 1941.

Russia under Stalin

Entire Politburo from Lenin's time was eventually purged leaving Stalin in absolute control.

Trotsky & Stalin

Lenin’s Testament

In his will, Lenin stated that Stalin was too power-hungry and too brutal and uncouth to become his successor.

Lenin believed Trotsky should be the next head of the USSR.

Stalin, however, gained full control of the USSR, after the exile of Trotsky.

Stalin’s 5-Year Plans "Revolution from above" (1st Five Year

Plan), 1928; marked end of NEP Objectives: Total industrial output to increase by 250%;

steel by 300%; agriculture by 150% 1/5 of peasants were scheduled to give up

their private plots and join collective farms “We are 50 or 100 years behind the advanced

countries. We must make good this distance in 10 years. Either we do it or we shall go under.”

Stalin’s 5-Year Plans

Results: steel up 400% (now 2nd largest steel producer in Europe); oil up 300%; massive urbanization (25 million people moved to cities)

Costs: quality of goods suspect; standard of living did not rise

Collectivization Was the greatest of all costs Purpose: bring peasantry under absolute control of the

communist state• Consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled

enterprises.• Farmers paid according to amount of work; portion of harvest paid to

gov't Goals:

• Use of machines in farm production, to free more people to work in industry

• Gov't control over production• Extend socialism to countryside

Collectivization

Opposed by farmers as it placed them in a bound situation like the mirs.

Kulaks, wealthiest peasants, offered greatest resistance to collectivization

Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class."

10 million dead due to collectivization (7 million in forced starvation in Ukraine)

Collectivization

Agricultural output no greater than in 1913 By 1933, 60% of peasant families were on

collective farms; 93% by 1938. Eventually, the state was assured of grain for

bread for urban workers who were more important politically than the peasants.

Collective farmers first had to meet grain quotas before feeding themselves.

"Off to collective work," a Soviet poster.

Russian Soldier on Communism

“They pretend to pay us, we pretend to work.”

Structure of USSR Gov't

Central Committee: was the apex of Soviet power (about 70 people in 1930s)

Politburo: About a dozen members; dominated discussions of policy and personnel

General Secretary: highest position of power; created by Stalin

Stalin’s Propaganda Campaign

Purpose: To glorify work to soviet people--an at tempt to encourage worker productivity

Used technology for propaganda• Newspapers (esp. Pravda), films, and radio broadcasts

emphasized socialist achievements and capitalist plots.• Sergei Eisenstein: patriotic Russian filmmaker • Writers & artists expected to glorify Stalin and the state;

work was closely monitored Religion was persecuted: Stalin hoped to turn

churches into "museums of atheism"

“Long live the Great Stalin” 1938.

"Under the Leadership of the Great Stalin." 1951

Benefits for Workers Old-age pensions, free medical services, free

education, and day-care centers for children Education was key to improving one’s position:

specialized skills and technical education. Many Russians saw themselves building

world’s first socialist society while capitalism crumbled during the Great Depression

USSR attracted many disillusioned Westerners to communism in the 1930s.

Women Russian Revolution immediately proclaimed complete equality

of rights for women. In 1920s divorce and abortion made easily available. Women urged to work outside the home and liberate

themselves sexually. Many women worked as professionals and in universities. Women still expected to do household chores in off hours as

Soviet men considered home and children women’s responsibility.

Men continued to monopolize the best jobs. Rapid change and economic hardship led to many broken

families.

Great Terror (1934-38) First directed against peasants after 1929, terror used

increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason.

The "Great Terror" resulted in 8 million arrests Show trials used eradicate "enemies of the people"

(usually ex-party members) Late 1930s, dozens of Old Bolsheviks tried and

executed (Lenin's closest followers) Purges: 40,000 army officers were expelled or liquidated

(weakened USSR in WWII)• Millions of citizens were killed, died in labor camps, or simply

disappeared

Gulags Prison camps Located in isolated

areas such as Siberia Many sentenced to 20-

25 yrs Many died in the

camps due to malnutrition & worked to death

Spanish Civil War 1936: Mussolini and Hitler use conflict as a

testing ground for their military forces: Italy's army; Germany's airforce -- Luftwaffe

Fascism prevails under Francisco Franco; also known as Falangists (or Royalists)

League ineffective in helping republicans (Loyalists) against Franco.

Rome-Berlin Axis formed ("Fascintern"): an alliance between fascist Italy and Germany