Rice Mill

Introduction: The Rice milling is the process that helps in removal of hulls and brans from paddy grains to produce polished rice. Rice is rich in genetic diversity with thousands of varieties grown throughout the world. Rice has been one of man's most important foods. Today, this unique grain helps sustain two-thirds of the world's population. It is life for thousands of millions of people. It is deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of their societies. About four-fifths of the world's rice are produced by small-scale farmers and are consumed locally.

Chapter 2Rice production in India

Rice production in India is an important part of the national economy. India is one of the world's largest producers of white rice and brown rice, accounting for 20% of all world rice production. Rice is India's pre-eminent crop, and is the staple food of the people of the eastern and southern parts of the country. Production increased from 53.6 million tons in FY 1980 to 74.6 million tons in year 1990, a 39 percent increase over the decade. By year 1992, rice production had reached 181.9 kg, second in the world only to China with its 182 kg. Since 1950 the increase has been more than 350 percent. Most of this increase was the result of an increase in yields; the number of hectares increased only 0 percent during this period. Yields increased from 1,336 kilograms per hectare in FY 1980 to 1,751 kilograms per hectare in FY 1990. The per-hectare yield increased more than 262 percent between 1950 and 1992.

The country's rice production had declined to 89.14 million tonnes in 2009-10 crop year (JulyJune) from record 99.18 million tonnes in the previous year due to severe drought that affected almost half of the country.India could achieve a record rice production of 100 million tonnes in 2010-11 crop year on the back of better monsoon this year. The India's rice production reached to a record high of 104.32 million tonnes in 2011-2012 crop year(JulyJune.

Rice is one of the chief grains of India. Moreover, this country has the biggest area under rice cultivation, as it is one of the principal food crops. It is in fact the dominant crop of the country. India is one of the leading producers of this crop. Rice is the basic food crop and being a tropical plant, it flourishes comfortably in hot and humid climate. Rice is mainly grown in rain fed areas that receive heavy annual rainfall. That is why it is fundamentally a kharif crop in India. It demands temperature of around 25 degree Celsius and above and rainfall of more than 100cm. Rice is also grown through irrigation in those areas that receives comparatively less rainfall. Rice is the staple food of eastern and southern parts of India. In 2009-10, total rice production in India amounted to 89.13 million tonnes, which was much less than production of previous year, 99.18 million tonnes.

Rice can be cultivated by different methods based on the type of region. But in India, the traditional methods are still in use for harvesting rice. The fields are initially ploughed and then fertiliser is applied which typically consists of cow dung and then the field is smoothed. The seeds are transplanted by hand and then through proper irrigation, the seeds are cultivated. Rice grows on a variety of soils like silts, loams and gravels. It can also tolerate alkaline as well as acid soils. However, clayey loam is well suited to the raising of this crop. Actually the clayey soil can be easily converted into mud in which rice seedlings can be transplanted easily. Proper care has to be taken as this crop thrives if the soil remains wet and is under water during its growing years. Rice fields should be level and should have low mud walls for retaining water. In the plain areas, excess rainwater is allowed to inundate the rice fields and flow slowly. Rice raised in the well watered lowland areas is known as lowland or wet rice. In the hilly areas, slopes are cut into terraces for the cultivation of rice. Thus, the rice grown in the hilly areas is known as dry or upland rice. Interestingly, per hectare yield of upland rice is comparatively less than that of the wet rice.

The regions cultivating this crop in India is distinguished as the western coastal strip, the eastern coastal strip, covering all the primary deltas, Assam plains and surrounding low hills, foothills and Terai region- along the Himalayas and states like West Bengal, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. India, being a land of eternal growing season, and the deltas of Kaveri River, Krishna River, Godavari River and Mahanadi River with a thick set-up of canal irrigation, permits farmers to raise two, and in some pockets, even three crops a year. Irrigation has made even three crops a year possible. Irrigation has made it feasible even for Punjab and Haryana, known for their baked climate, to grow rice. They even export their excess to other states. Punjab and Haryana grow prized rice for export purposes. The hilly terraced fields from Kashmir to Assam are idyllically suited for rice farming, with age-old hill irrigational conveniences. High yielding kinds, enhanced planting methods, promised irrigation water supply and mounting use of fertilizers have together led to beneficial and quick results. It is the rain fed area that cuts down average yields per hectare.

In some of the states like West Bengal, Assam and Orissa two crops of rice are raised in a year. Winter season in the north western India are extremely cold for rice. Rice is considered as the master crop of coastal India and in some regions of the eastern India where during the summer monsoon rainy season both high temperature and heavy rainfall provide ideal conditions for the cultivation of rice. Almost all parts of India are suitable for raising rice during the summer season provided that the water is available. Thus, rice is also raised even in those parts of western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana where low level areas are waterlogged during the summer monsoon rainy season.

Winter rice crop is a long duration crop and summer rice crop is a short duration crop. At some places in the eastern and southern parts of India, rice crop of short duration is followed by the rice crop of long duration. Winter rice crop is raised preferably in low lying areas that remain flooded mainly during the rainy season. Autumn rice is raised in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Summer, autumn and winter rice crops are raised in West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Orissa. Summer rice crop is raised on a small scale and on a small area. However, winter rice crop is actually the leading rice crop accounting for a major portion of the total Hectare under rice in all seasons in the country. Moreover in the last few years, several steps in order to augment yield per hectare were taken up very seriously at all levels. Wheat is a rabbi crop in this country. India ranks fourth in the production of wheat in the world. Favorable Geographical Condition for Wheat Cultivation: In India, wheat is a winter crop. Wheat requires a moderate cool climate with moderate rain. In India, it is grown in winter. It needs temperature 10 degree C to 15 degree C for its cultivation. It thrives well in an average temperature of 16-degree C. Warm and sunny weather is essential at the time of ripening. Wheat requires a rainfall of 50cm to 100cm during the growing season. Too much rain is injurious to the plant. On irrigated lands, a rainfall of 40cm to 50cm is sufficient. Light rainfall and cloudiness before the grain ripens increase the productivity. Alluvial level plains are ideal for wheat cultivation. Slightly rolling plains are also suitable. Plains should be well drained so that water cannot stand there. Wheat requires fertile alluvial soil. Clay loamy soils or even black cotton soils are suitable. Soil should retain moisture. A certain amount of lime in the soil is beneficial. Labor factors are not as important in the wheat cultivation as in the case of rice. However, labor is essential for the cultivation. The other requirements of wheat cultivation include (i) irrigation, (ii) high yielding varieties of seeds and (iii) capitals

Top Ten Rice Producing States: 2012-13RankState NameProduction- Thausand Toones

1 West Bengal15023.68

2 Uttar Pradesh14416

3 Andhra Pradesh11510

4 Punjab11374

5 Bihar7529.3

6 Orissa 7295.45

7 Chhattisgarh6608.83

8 Assam5128.51

9 Tamil Nadu4049.9

10 Haryana3976

METHODSOFCULTIVATIONOFRICEIn India Rice is mainly grown in two types of soils i.e., (i) uplands and (ii) low lands. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends largely on factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of labourers intensity and distribution of rainfalls. The crop of rice is grown with the following methods:-Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation(a) Broadcasting the seed(b) Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling.Wet or lowland cultivation(a) Transplanting in puddled fields.(b) Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields.

Selection of SeedsThe use of quality seeds in cultivation of rice is an important factor to get better crop yield. Therefore, proper care has to be taken in selecting seeds of the best quality. Much of the success in raising the healthy seedlings depends on the quality of seed. Seeds intended for sowing should satisfy the following requirements:-1. The seed should belong to the proper variety, which is proposed to be grown.2. The seed should be clean and free from obvious mixtures of other seeds.3. The seed should be mature, well developed and plump in size.4. The seed should be free from obvious signs of age or bad storage5. The seed should have a high germinating capacity.Before sowing the seed should be treated with fungicides which protects the seed against soil-born fungi and also give a boost to the seedlings.Methods of Nursery RaisingThere are three major methods of raising nursery - viz.1. The dry nursery where the dry seed is sown in dry soil. This method is practiced in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet nursery2. Wet nursery where sprouted seed is sown on the moist puddled soil. Wet nurseries are preferred under irrigated condition3. And the "dapog" method. This method of raising nursery has been introduced in India from Philippines."Dapog" method is commonly prevalent in Philippines. The essential feature of this method is to have a very thick stand of the nursery seedlings without any contact with the soil. Generally, seedlings become ready for transplanting in 12 to 14 days.

Seed RateThe seed rate naturally influences the growth of the seedlings. Thin sowing gives strong and tillered seedlings, whereas thick sowing provides thin and tall seedlings without tillers. Thin sowing in nurseries is always better and it will produce strong and sturdy seedlings, which can withstand adverse climatic conditions better and produce better yields. Therefore, 40 to 60 grams of seed per square metre should be sown in the nursery beds. About 500 square metre area of nursery is sufficient to transplant one hectare area. In case of late sowing of nursery, the nursery area should be increased to 750-1000 square metre.

TransplantingBefore transplanting, field should be puddled properly with bullock or tractor drawn puddlers. Puddling is a very important operation in transplanted rice. Puddling helps to kill the weeds and buries them in puddled soils. It also suppresses the germination of weeds in subsequent growing period of crop. Puddling keeps the soil surface in a more even condition, besides creating beneficial physical, biological and chemical conditions for rice plant growth.Transplanting should be done with proper age of seedlings. In case of short duration varieties, the seedlings should be uprooted from the nursery beds for transplanting , when it is three to four weeks old. In case of medium and long duration varieties, four to five weeks old seedlings should be transplanted. Always healthy seedlings should be used for transplanting at the four to five leaf stage or when they are about 15-20 cms. high. As far as possible, delayed transplanting should be avoided because it leads to poor tillerings, early flowering of the main tillers and resulting in reduction in yield. In alkaline soils aged seedlings of 45 days old should be transplanted because old seedlings establish better than young seedlings of 25 days age or so.

SpacingUnder good management and adequate nitrogen levels, the optimum spacing for varieties like IR-8 should be around 20x10 cms both for kharif and rabi crops. With excellent cultural practices, the spacing may be slightly wider, say 20x15 cms but under sub-normal conditions, the spacing should be slightly narrower, say 15x10 cms.

Number of Seedlings per HillTransplanting two to three seedlings per hill under normal conditions is enough. The use of more seedlings per hill, besides not being any additional advantage, involves an extra expense on seedlings. In case of transplanting with old seedlings, the number of seedlings per hill can be increased.Depth of Planting and Directions of RowsDepth of planting has assumed considerable importance after the introduction of high yielding varieties. The high yielding varieties are characterized with high tillering capacity. The high tillering potential of these varieties is, however, best expressed with shallow planting. The tiller buds formed at the basal node are not suppressed in case of shallow plantings . Therefore, the seedlings should be transplanted at 2 to 3 cm depth. Shallow planting gives better yields. The deeper planting results in an increased height of the plants besides delays and inhibits tillering.The crop planted with rows running in the north-south direction generally gives better yield particularly in rabi season. The adoption of this practice is worthwhile, since it does not involve any extra expenditure.

Practices in the Direct-Seeded CropsThe success of the direct seeded rice depends entirely on the monsoon rains, besides proper stand of crop. If sowing is done in a properly prepared land, proper stand of crop can be achieved. A field with fine tilth facilitates the seed to come in contact with the soil moisture after drilling and enables the seed to germinate quickly and uniformly. Thus, an ideal preparation of the land will help to achieve a uniform stand, facilitate weeding and fertilizer practices. Therefore, with number of ploughings of the field and timely sowing, the direct seeded crop generally gives better yield.

Different Methods of SeedingSeeding is done in three different ways - viz. (i) drilling i.e. sowing in the furrow behind a plough, (ii) dibbling and (iii) broadcasting. The light soils which generally come into conditions quickly, any method can be adopted. Seeding with drilling method has got a greater advantage over other methods, because of the uniformity of the stand and the control of the population of the plants per unit area. Heavy soils which do not come in conditions quickly, other methods except broadcasting are not feasible. It has been found that drilling or dibbling always gives considerably better yields than broadcasting system.

Broadcasting Sprouted Seeds in Puddled LandThis method is adopted in an area where agricultural labourers are not easily available for transplanting or some time labourers are very expensive. In this method field is prepared and puddled just like in the case of transplanting. About 100 kg seed is required for one hectare area. In the puddled field sprouted seeds with radical length of one to two millimeter are uniformly broadcast by hand.Manure and Fertilizer ApplicationOrganic manures are as much as important for rice cultivation as inorganic fertilizers. In case of upland rice cultivation, the use of bulky organic manure is very much desirable in order to maintain the physical condition of the soil and also to increase the water holding capacity of the soil for maximum utilization of rain water. In upland fields 10-15 tonnes of well rotted Farm Yard Manure or compost should be applied in one hectare area preferably 4 to 6 weeks before sowing. Organic manures should be spread evenly on the upper surface of the soil and ploughed in to get it well mixed in the soil.Application of chemical fertilizers depends basically upon (i) fertility states of the field and (ii) previous crop grown and amount of organic manure applied. Before deciding the fertilizer dose, soil is required to be got tested to know the status of the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil. After testing the soil, fertilizer dose should be calculated accordingly.Soil fertility status varies in different agroclimatic zones to a considerable extent. Therefore, common fertilizer dose can not be recommended for all regions. The Department of Agriculture of various states and State Agriculture University have formulated fertilizer recommendations for rice crop in their states keeping in view the variability in soil fertility and local conditions.

Application of fertilizer in transplanted rice field is quite different from upland rice. A series of reactions-physical, chemical and biological take place in transplanted rice fields due to presence of excess water in the field. In the root zone anaerobic environment is formed from aerobic condition due to depletion of oxygen in the soil profile, which is responsible for gaseous loss of nitrogen fertilizer due to de-nitrification process. This anaerobic environment also affects the behavior of phosphorus and micro-nutrients specially iron and manganese.The soil in the transplanted rice fields after puddling develops two zones in water logged conditions. The upper layer of soils ( 1 to 10 millimetre thick) generally receives Oxygen periodically from fresh supplies of irrigation water and turns in to brown colour called "Oxidised zone" and reacts like an unflooded upland soil. The remaining lower portion of puddled soil without oxygen is called "reduced zone". When ammonical nitrogen fertilizer is applied in such soils, it gets oxidised to nitrate (NO3 ) form in the oxidised zone (upper surface layer of the soil). Afterwards nitrate nitrogen is leached down to the reduced zone and further gets denitrified to gaseous nitrogen. This gaseous nitrogen is lost. If ammonical nitrogen is incorporated in to the reduced zone of the soil, where it is held, the loss can be prevented. Fertilizers containing nitrogen in the nitrate form are more susceptible to loss of nitrogen through leaching and de-nitrification process. Therefore, ammonical form of nitrogen is found more beneficial for rice crop.Due to variation in soil fertility, rainfall and climatic condition , a common dose of fertilizer can not be recommended for all regions. However, in general a level of 30 to 40 kg of nitrogen per hectare in kharif and 60 to 80 kg of nitrogen per hectare in rabi appears to be the optimum dose for the tall indicas and double that level for the high yielding varieties on soils of average fertility in the southern and eastern regions. In the northern region, where sunshine is available for longer hours, higher dose of nitrogen is beneficial in the kharif season.The maximum efficiency can be obtained in the direct seeded upland rice by applying 50% nitrogen dose, three weeks after seeding, 30% at 45 days age and the rest at the boot-leaf stage.In order to obtain better results, full dose of phosphorus, potash and half dose of nitrogen should be applied before last puddling. Remaining half dose of nitrogen should be applied in two equal doses, first at tillering stage and second dose at panicle initiation stage.

Water ManagementThe water requirement of rice crop is comparatively higher than any other crop of the similar duration. Assured and timely supply of irrigation water has a considerable influence on the yield of the crop. During the crop growth period, the water requirement is generally high at the initial seedling establishment stage. After the transplanting , water should be allowed to stand in the field at a depth of two to five centimeters till the seedlings are well established. The second, the most important critical stage is tillering to flowering and in this period the crop should not be subjected to soil moisture stress. The water supply should be ensured in required amount during panicle initiation to flowering stage. About five centimeters depth of water should be maintained in the field up to the dough stage of the crop. Before harvesting, water should be drained out from the field to allow quick and uniform maturity of grain.

Harvesting and ThreshingThe maximum quantity and better quality paddy and rice depend on the harvesting of the crop at the correct maturity stage. Therefore, it is of the paramount importance to harvest the crop at suitable time. Harvesting of the crop when it is not fully matured might result in loss of yield with poor quality grains. If harvesting is delayed, grain may be lost due to damage by rats, birds, insects, shattering and lodging. Thus, timely harvesting ensures better yield, good quality of grains, consumer acceptance and less breakage when milled. The right stage for harvesting as commonly understood by laymen is when panicles turn into golden yellow and the grains contain about 20 percent moisture. When the moisture in the paddy grains reaches 16-17% in the standing crop in the fields, the crop sustains a heavy loss owing to shattering and damage by birds and rodents.Extensive studies have been carried out on specifying the optimum time of harvesting. Based on the results of the various studies, in general, three criteria are taken into consideration to specify the right time of harvesting viz. (i) the moisture content of the grains, (ii) the number of days after planting or flowering and (iii) the dry matter of the plant or seed.The most common and old methods of threshing of paddy is trampling by bullocks or lifting the bundles and striking them on the raised wooden platform. Now pedal threshers are being used. Power driven stationary threshers are also used for quick threshing.

History of Rice in India India is an important centre of rice cultivation. The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India), stretching through Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Southern China, the japonica variety was domesticated from wild rice in southern China which was introduced to India. Perennial wild rice still grow in Assam and Nepal. It seems to have appeared around 1400 BC in southern India after its domestication in the northern plains. It then spread to all the fertile alluvial plains watered by rivers. Some says that the word rice is derived from the Tamil word arisi.Climatic Requirements In India rice is grown under widely varying conditions of altitude and climate. Rice cultivation in India extends from 8 to35N latitude and from sea level to as high as 3000 meters. Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions which have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water. The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21 to 37 C. Maximum temp which the crop can tolerate 400C to 42 0C. Nutritional value of Rice Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most important component is carbohydrate (starch). On the other hand, rice is poor in nitrogenous substances with average composition of these substances being only 8 per cent and fat content or lipids only negligible, i.e., 1per cent and due to this reason it is considered as a complete food for eating. Rice flour is rich in starch and is used for making various food materials. It is also used in some instances by brewers to make alcoholic malt. Likewise, rice straw mixed with other materials is used to produce porcelain, glass and pottery. Rice is also used in manufacturing of paper pulp and livestock bedding.The variability of composition and characteristics of rice is really broad and depends on variety and environmental conditions under which the crop is grown. In husked rice, protein content ranges in between 7per cent to 12per cent. The use of nitrogen fertilizers increases the percentage content of some amino acids.Medicinal Value The immense diversity of rice germplasm is a rich source for many rice based products and is also used for treating many health related maladies such as indigestion, diabetes, arthritis, paralysis, epilepsy and give strength to pregnant and lactating mothers. Ancient Ayurvedic literature testify the medicinal and curative properties of different types of rice grown in India. Medicinal rice varieties like Kanthi Banko (Chhattisgarh), Meher, Saraiphul & Danwar (Orissa), Atikaya & Kari Bhatta (Karnataka), are very common in India. Few varieties cultivated in restricted pockets of Kerala for their medical properties e.g. Chennellu, Kunjinellu, Erumakkari & Karuthachembavu etc.Crop Production Practices In India Rice is mainly grown in two types of soils i.e., (i) uplands and (ii) low lands. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends largely on factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of labourers intensity and distribution of rainfalls. The crop of rice is grown with the following methods Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation Broadcasting the seed Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling Wet or lowland cultivation Transplanting in puddled fields. Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields.Selection of Seeds The use of quality seeds in cultivation of rice is an important factor to get better crop yield. Therefore, proper care has to be taken in selecting seeds of the best quality. Much of the success in raising the healthy seedlings depends on the quality of seed. Seeds intended for sowing should satisfy the following requirements The seed should belong to the proper variety, which is proposed to be grown. The seed should be clean and free from obvious mixtures of other seeds. The seed should be mature, well developed and plump in size. The seed should be free from obvious signs of age or bad storage. The seed should have a high germinating capacity.Before sowing the seed should be treated with fungicides which protects the seed against soil-born fungi and also give a boost to the seedlings.

Cultivation of Rice in India: Conditions, Methods and ProductionRice is the most important food crop of India covering about one-fourth of the total cropped area and providing food to about half of the Indian population.This is the staple food of the people living in the eastern and the southern parts of the country, particularly in the areas having over 150 cm annual rainfall. There are about 10,000 varieties of rice in the world out of which about 4,000 are grown in India.Rice is life for thousands of millions of people. In Asia alone, more than 2,000 million people obtain 60 to 70 per cent of their calories from rice and its products. Recognising the importance of this crop, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2004 as the International Year of Rice (IYR).The theme of IYRRice is life reflects the importance of rice as a primary food source, and is drawn from an understanding that rice-based systems are essential for food security, poverty alleviation and improved livelihood.Conditions of Growth:Rice is grown under varying conditions in India from 8 to 25 N latitude and from sea level to about 2,500 metre altitude. It is a tropical plant and requires high heat and high humidity for its successful growth. The temperature should be fairly high at mean monthly of 24C. It should be 20- 22C at the time of sowing, 23-25C during growth and 25-30C at the harvesting time. The average annual rainfall required by rice is 150 cm.It is the dominant crop in areas of over 200 cm annual rainfall and is still an important crop in areas of 100-200 cm rainfall. The 100 cm isohyet forms the limit of rice in rainfed areas. In areas receiving less than 100 cm annual rainfall, rice can be grown with the help of irrigation, as is done in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. About 40 per cent of rice crop in India is raised under irrigation.However, it is the temporal distribution of rainfall, rather than the total amount of annual rainfall which is more decisive. The rainfall should be fairly distributed throughout the year and no month should have less than 12 cm of rainfall. Lesser amount of rainfall is required as the harvesting time approaches.The fields must be flooded under 10-12 cm deep water at the time of sowing and during early stages of growth. Therefore, the fields must be level and have low mud walls to retain water. This peculiar requirement of rice makes it primarily a crop of plain areas. Rice grown in well watered lowland plain areas is called wet or lowland rice.In hilly areas, the hill slopes are cut into terraces for the cultivation of rice. Such a cultivation in which the hill slopes are cut into terraces is called terraced cultivation. The supply of water to the hill terraces is not as much as in the plain areas and the rice grown in hilly areas is called dry or upland rice.Rice can be grown on a variety of soils including silts, loams and gravels and can tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils. However, deep fertile clayey or loamy soils which can be easily puddled into mud and develop cracks on drying are considered ideal for raising this crop.Such soil requirements make it dominantly a crop of river valleys, flood plains, deltas and coastal plains and a dominant crop there. High-level loams and lighter soils can be used for quick maturing varieties of rice. Black lava soil is also useful for rice cultivation.Rice culture is not much suited to mechanisation and is called hoe-culture. Most of the work in preparing the seed-bed, in broadcasting seeds, or in transplantation of plants from nurseries to the fields, in harvesting and in winnowing operations is done by human hand. Thus it is a labour intensive cultivation and requires large supply of cheap labour for its successful cultivation.It is, therefore, primarily grown in areas of high population density which provide abundant labour and at the same time, offer ready market for its consumption. In most rice producing states, labour is locally available but in Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation mainly depends upon the migrant labourers from Bihar and eastern U.P.To sum up it can be said that rice needs plenty of heat, plenty of rain, plenty of alluvium and plenty of labour to provide plenty of food for plenty of people. There is no other food crop which is so plentiful as rice in India.Methods of Rice Cultivation:Following methods of rice cultivation are practised in India.1. Broadcasting method:Seeds are sown broadcast by hand. This method is practised in those areas which are comparatively dry and less fertile and do not have much labour to work in the fields. It is the easiest method requiring minimum input but its yields are also minimum.2. Drilling method:Ploughing of land and sowing of seeds is done by two persons. This method is mostly confined to peninsular India.3. Transplantation method:This method is practised in areas of fertile soil, abundant rainfall and plentiful supply of labour. To begin with, seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are prepared. After 4-5 weeks the seedlings are uprooted and planted in the field which has already been prepared for the purpose. The entire process is done by hand. It is, therefore, a very difficult method and requires heavy inputs. But at the same time it gives some of the highest yields.4. Japanese method:This method includes the use of high yielding varieties of seeds, sowing the seeds in a raised nursery-bed and transplanting the seedlings in rows so as to make weeding and fertilizing easy. It also involves the use of a heavy dose of fertilizers so that very high yields are obtained. The Japanese method of rice cultivation has been successfully adopted in the main rice producing regions of India.Rice Cropping Seasons:Rice is grown almost throughout the year in hot and humid regions of eastern and southern parts of India where two to three crops in a year are not uncommon. But in the northern and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too cold for rice cultivation and only one crop is grown in those areas. Table 24.1 gives the period of sowing and harvesting the rice crop.

Cultivation of Rice: Suitable Conditions Required for the Cultivation of Rice (6 Conditions)Suitable factors required for the cultivation of rice are : 1. Temperature, 2. Rainfall, 3. Soils, 4. Surface, 5. Fertilizers and 6. Labour !1. Temperature: Rice is a tropical crop and grown where the average temperature during the growing season is between 20C and 27C.Abundant sunshine is essential during its four months of growth. The minimum temperature should not go below 15C as germination cannot take place below that temperature.2. Rainfall: Paddy requires more water than any other crop. As a result, paddy cultivation is done only in those areas where minimum rainfall is 115 cm. Although the regions are having average annual rainfall between 175300 cm are the most suitable.Paddy also needs flooded conditions with the depth of water varying over 25 mm at the time of transplanting to as much as 150 mm for 10 weeks of the growing period.3. Soils: Paddy is grown in wide range of soil, from the podzolic alluvium of China to the impermeable heavy clay of central Thailand. Fertile riverine alluvial soil is best for rice cultivation.Clayey loam soil in monsoon land is considered to be the best for rice cultivation as water retention capacity of this soil is very high. Rice is also grown in saline areas of deltic region. Rice cultivation needs high fertilizer application.4. Surface: Unlike other crops, paddy needs a level surface to enable the fields to be flooded at least during the growing period. Its ideal habitat is therefore in the great alluvial deltas and river basins of the world: the Ganges, Siking, Yangtzekiang, Irrawaddy, Menam Chao Phraya and Mekong, where there is practically no gradient.5. Fertilizers: Paddy requires three essential plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Most paddy lands have a moderate quantity of such nutrients, but if they are deficient, organic manure or artificial fertilizers have to be used.6. Labour: Paddy cultivation is extremely labour-intensive, therefore, requires more labour in comparison to other cereal crops. Labour is necessary for: preparing the field, weeding, sowing, transplanting, manuring, harvesting, threshing, winnowing and milling. For rice cultivation large number of cheap labour is required.

Rice Cultivation in India: Milling, Plant Protection and Uses of Rice Cultivation

Rice:

Rice is predominantly a crop of Asia. 95% of the worlds area being concentrated in south-eastern Asia extending from West Pakistan to Japan. India has the largest area. 79 million acres in the world under rice cultivation, and production is about 25 million tonnes per year India and Indo-China are supposed to be the centres of origin of rice. It is believed that the cultivation of rice in India dates back of ancient periods even earlier than 3,000 B.C.The traditional use of rice in the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, associated with birth marriage and death is a testimony to its great antiquity as also to the intimate place it has in the life of the people. The crop is cultivated in almost all the states of India, extending from the delta region of the south to the higher altitudes of 900 to 1500 above seam level in the Kashmir valley in the north. It is mostly cultivated in the valley of the Ganga and its delta and the low-lying coastal areas in southern and north-eastern India.Of all the principal crops grown in the country rice has the largest area under it. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are the main producing states; together they account for more than 90% of the total average under the crop.Cultivation:The rice grows best on damp soils underlain with semi-impervious subsoil in places where it can be flooded. A considerable interest has been aroused in India during last decades in the Japanese Method of Rice Cultivation. This combines improved cultural practices with proper maturing and Plant Protection measures.The increased acre yields obtained by this method have naturally led to its popularity. The results of breeding for high-yield have also been very satisfactory and many improved varieties have been evolved which give an enhanced yield.It has also been realized that the newer intensive methods of cultivation and maturing demand varieties which are capable of giving higher yields. There has been started an intensive hybridization programme between the japonica and indica varieties of rice. The japonica varieties are high yielding, while the indica varieties, have a better tailoring capacity and are resistant to disease and adverse climatic conditions.The fields are ploughed and the rice is transplanted from seedbeds when 22.5 or 25 cm young plants are covered with water, and the water is kept in circulation. As soon as ripening starts the water is drawn off and field is allowed to dry out. Rice is harvested and the stalks are stacked up to dry.Investigations have carried out to determine the role of blue-green algae in rice nutrition and their effect on the fertility of soil. The results indicate that the fixation of nitrogen is increased by the activity of blue-green algae.It has been established that incorporation of green matter in paddy soil improves yield. It provides the cheapest way of maturing rice fields wherever facilities for raising green-manure crops are available. Sesbanea aculeate (dhaincha) found to be the most suitable crop for rice areas as it can stand the soil and water conditions prevailing in these areas. In Kashmir valley, green maturing of rice crop with Lens esculents was found to be very effective. In Uttar Pradesh Crotalaria juncea is becoming popular.Milling:The grains of rice are removed by Thrashing. The grains are to be husked when they are to be used, and then pounded in a mortar (okhli) with a wooden mallet (musal) and winnowed. The resulting grain is very nutritious as it contains protein and fat as well as starch.In the commercial preparation the impurities are removed and the paddy is passed between millstones to break up the husk. This chaff is moved by blowers. Now the grain is pounded in huge mortars and a portion of the bran layer and embryo is removed.The waster is called rice bran. The white rice is then scoured by friction and polished. In polishing the embryo which contains proteins, vitamins and oils is knocked out due to lack of strong link between the embryo and the endosperm during this process the outer, more nutritive parts of the grain are removed.Plant-Protection:At Jorhat, 5 inundative releases of Trichogramma japonicum at 50,000/ha/week, starting from 30 days after transplanting (DAT), gave effective control of stein-borer during rabi. At Ludhiana, 9 simultaneous releases of Trichogramma chilonis and Trichogramma japonicum Lit 10 days interval lit 100,000/ha, starting from 20 DAT, proved effective in controlling rice stem-borer and leaf-folder.Uses:The chief use of rice is as food, and more people use it then any other cereal. The rice is generally eaten with pulses (legumes) or some other food rich in proteins. A diet of rice and soybeans makes the food of millions. The rice-straw is used for making straw boards, paper and mats.Rice bran oil is used for making soaps and cosmetics. Rice starch is much used in European countries. In several tropical countries intoxicating beverages are prepared from rice. Important beverage of Japan, sake is prepared by fermenting rice. Important Andhra Pradesh intoxicating beverages are prepared from rice.