RHODRI JEFFREYS- JONES CHRISTOPHER ANDREW …oregonstate.edu/instruct/hsts507/doel/Doel_Needell.pdf · ... Present, Future? edited by Wesley ... 1966-1977 National Intellgence and

Page 1

Als

o in

this

ser

ies

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

?50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

Inte

llgen

ce A

naly

sis

and

Ass

essm

ent

edite

d by

Dav

id C

hart

ers ,

A. S

tuar

t Far

son

and

Gle

nn p

, Has

tedt

Cod

ebre

aker

in th

e F

ar E

ast

by A

lan

Stri

pp

War, Strategy and Intelligence

by M

icha

el I

. Han

del

Edi

ted

by

Con

trol

ling

Inte

llige

nce

edite

d by

Gle

nn P

. Has

tedt

RH

OD

RI

JEFF

RE

YS-

JON

ES

CH

RIS

TO

PHE

R A

ND

RE

WS

ecur

ity a

nd In

telli

genc

e in

a C

hang

ing

Wor

ld:

New

Per

spec

tives

for

the

1990

sed

ited

by A

. Stu

art F

arso

n, D

avid

Sta

ffor

d an

d W

esle

y K

. War

k

Spy

Fict

ion,

Spy

Film

s an

d R

eal I

ntel

ligen

ceed

ited

by W

esle

y K

. War

k

From

Inf

orm

atio

n to

Int

rigu

e: S

tudi

es in

Sec

ret S

ervi

ce B

ased

on

the

Swed

ish

Exp

erie

nce

1939

-45

by C.

G. M

cKay

Die

ppe

Rev

isite

d: A

Doc

umen

tary

Inv

estig

atio

nby

Joh

n C

ampb

ell

The

Aus

tral

ian

Sec

urity

Inte

llgen

ce O

rgan

izat

ion:

An

Uno

ffci

al H

isto

ryby Frank Cain

Polic

ing

POlit

ic,s

:Se

curi

ty I

ntel

lgen

ce a

nd th

e L

iber

al D

emoc

ratic

Sta

teby Peter Gil

Esp

iona

ge: P

at,

Pres

ent,

Futu

re?

edite

d by

Wes

ley

K. W

ark

TE

T

1968

: U

nder

stan

ding

the

Surp

rise

Ron

nie

E, F

ord

IFRANK CASS

LO

ND

ON

. PORTLAND

, OR

Iqq:

J

- .-

-..-

----

----

--

-

Page 2

First published

1997

in

Gre

at B

rita

in b

yF

RA

NK

CA

SS

& C

OM

PA

NY

LT

DN

ewbu

ry H

ouse

, 900

Eas

tern

Ave

nue

Lond

on IG

2 7H

HC

onte

nts

Edi

tors' P

refa

ce VII

1 The American Road to Central Intelligence B

radl

ey F

. Sm

ith

2 Why Was

the

CIA

Est

ablis

hed

in 1

947?

Rho

dri J

effr

eys-Jones 21

Inte

llige

nce

and

the

Col

d W

ar B

ehin

d th

eD

ikes

: The

Rel

atio

nshi

p be

twee

n th

eA

mer

ican

and

Dut

ch I

nteJ

lgen

ceC

omm

uniti

es, 1

946-

1994

4 Science

, Sci

entis

ts, a

nd th

e C

IA:

Bal

anci

ng I

nter

natio

nal I

deal

s , N

atio

nal

Nee

ds, a

nd P

rofe

ssio

nal O

ppor

tuni

ties

5 The

Wiz

ards

of L

angl

ey: T

he C

IA'

Dir

ecto

rate

of

Scie

nce

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

6 The

Com

mitt

ee o

f C

orre

spon

denc

e-C

IAFu

ndin

g of

Wom

ens

Gro

ups, 1

952-

1967

7 The

CIA

and

the

Sovi

et T

hrea

t: T

hePo

litic

izat

ion

of E

stim

ates

, 196

6-19

77N

atio

nal I

ntel

lgen

ce a

nd th

e Ir

ania

nR

evol

utio

nA

mer

ican

Eco

nom

ic' I

ntel

ligen

ce:

Past

Pra

ctic

e an

d Fu

ture

Pri

ncip

les

10 The

CIA

and

the

Que

stio

n of

Acc

ount

abili

ty11 The CIA'

s O

wn

Eff

ort t

o U

nder

stan

d an

dD

ocum

ent i

ts P

ast:

A B

rief

His

tory

of

the

CIA

His

tory

Pro

gram

, 195

0-19

9512

Con

clus

ion:

An

Age

nda

for

Futu

reR

esea

rch

Abo

ut th

e C

ontr

ibut

ors

Inde

x

and

in th

e U

nite

d S

tate

s of

Am

eric

a by

FRANK CASS

c/o

ISB

S58

04 N

.E. H

assa

Io S

tree

t , P

ortla

nd. O

rego

n 97

213-

3644

Copyright i! 1997 Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.

Bri

tish

Lib

rar

Cat

alog

uing

in P

ublic

atio

n D

ata

A c

atal

ogue

rec

ord

for

this

boo

k is

ava

ilabl

e fr

om th

e B

ritis

h L

ibra

ry

Lib

rary

of

Con

gres

s C

atal

ogin

g in

Pub

licat

ion

Dat

a

has

been

app

lied

for

ISB

N 0

- 714

6-48

07- 8

(cloth)

ISB

N 0

-714

6-43

60- 2 (paper)

Thi

s gr

oup

of s

tudi

es fi

rst a

ppea

red

in '

Ete

rnal

Vig

ilanc

e? 5

0 Y

ears

of t

he C

IA'

a Special Issue of the journal In

telli

genc

e an

d N

atio

nal S

ecur

ity,

Vo1

.2, N

o.1 (Januar 1997)

publ

ishe

d by

Fra

nk

Cas

s &

Co.

Ltd

.

All

righ

t.\ r

e.'e

n,"e

d. N

o pa

rt v

f th

is p

ublic

ario

n m

ay b

e re

prod

uced

, sto

red

in a

ret

rie1'

al s

yste

mor

Tra

nsm

itted

in a

ny/a

rm. o

r hy

allY

mt:a

ns, e

lecT

roni

c, m

echa

nica

l, ph

otoc

opyi

ng, r

ecor

ding

,or

orh

en\ i

se, w

irho

ll th

e pr

ior

perm

issi

on o

f Fr

ank

Cas

s an

d C

ompa

ny L

imir

ed.

Prin

ted

byA

nton

y R

owe.

Chi

ppen

ham

, Wilt

s

Bob

de

Gra

aff

and

Cee

s W

iebe

s

Ron

ald

E. D

oel a

ndA

llan

A. N

eede

ll 59

Jeff

rey

T. R

iche

lson

82

Helen Lavile 104

Lawrence Freedman 122

Mic

hael

Don

ovan

143

Philp Zelikow 164

Loch K. Johnson 178

Gerald Haines 201

Chr

isto

pher

And

rew

224 23

423

7

_._

Page 3

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

? 50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

43, I

nter

view

s w

ith fo

nner

lOB

offc

ers.

44. L

ette

r to

the

auth

ors

from

the

Cab

inet

Offc

e of

the

Dut

ch P

rime

Min

iste

r.45

. See

for

this

: Kah

in a

nd M

cT. K

ahin

(no

te 2

1) p

p,14

3-21

7.46

. See

for

inst

ance

: R.E

. van

Hor

st P

elle

kaan

, I.c

. de

Reg

!, J

.E B

astia

ans

Patrouile voor de

Papo

ea s

. De

Kon

inkl

ijke

Mar

ine

in N

eder

land

s N

ieuw

-Guinea, I

(Am

ster

dam

: Bat

aafs

che

Leeuwl 989)

pass

im.

47. I

nter

view

s w

ith fo

nner

CIA

offc

ers.

48. Westerfeld

, '

Am

eric

a an

d th

e W

orld

of

Inte

llige

nce

Lia

ison

' (no

te 7

) p.

31.

49. I

nter

view

s w

ith fo

nner

lOB

and

CIA

offc

ers.

50. I

nter

view

s w

ith f

onne

r C

IA a

nd lO

B o

ffci

als.

51. Andre Haamat.

De Revolutie Uitgegleden. Politieke herinneringen

(Am

ster

dam

: Jan

Met

s19

87)

pp.2

01-

11.

52. George Shultz,

Turmoil and Triumph. My Years as Secretary Of State

(NY: Scribners 1993)

pp.2

92-

53. Interview.

54. B

ob W

oodw

ard

VEIL. The Secret Wars of the CIA

1981

-198

7 (L

ondo

n: H

eadl

ine

Boo

ks1988), pp.

239-

41.

55. I

nter

view

s w

ith fo

nner

CIA

offc

ers.

Scie

nce,

Sci

entis

ts, a

nd th

e C

IA:

Bal

anci

ng I

nter

natio

nal I

deal

s,N

atio

nal N

eeds

, and

Prof

essi

onal

Opp

ortu

nitie

s

RO

NA

LD

E. D

OE

L a

nd A

LL

AN

A. N

EE

DE

LL

The

his

tory

and

imm

edia

te p

rehi

stor

y of

the

Am

eric

an C

entr

al I

ntel

ligen

ceA

genc

y cl

osel

y co

inci

de w

ith th

e em

erge

nce

of s

cien

tific

kno

wle

dge

and

scie

ntis

ts a

s ke

y co

ntri

buto

rs to

Am

eric

an m

iltar

y po

wer

and

to n

atio

nal

secu

rity

. Int

ellg

ence

abo

ut s

cien

tific

act

iviti

es a

broa

d, a

nd th

e ap

plic

atio

nof

the

know

ledg

e an

d th

e te

chno

logi

es d

evel

oped

and

use

d by

sci

entis

ts to

cond

uct t

heir

res

earc

hes,

hav

e be

en r

ecog

nize

d as

cen

tral

to th

e m

issi

on a

ndth

e op

erat

ion

of th

e C

IA a

nd it

s predecessor agencies from the very

begi

nnin

g, A

s a

resu

lt, th

e re

latio

ns b

etw

een

scie

nce

and

the

CIA

hav

e be

enin

timat

e, a

lthou

gh th

ey h

ave

also

bee

n m

arke

d by

str

ain

and

by c

ontr

over

sy.

The

re a

re fu

ndam

enta

l diff

eren

ces

betw

een

the

idea

ls a

nd v

alue

s of

inte

llgen

ce g

athe

ring

and

the

idea

ls a

nd v

alue

s th

at s

erve

to d

efin

e th

ein

tern

atio

nal c

omm

unity

of

scie

ntis

ts. T

he h

allm

ark

of in

telli

genc

eop

erat

ions

is s

ecre

cy a

nd th

e ca

refu

l con

trol

of

info

rmat

ion.

Kno

wle

dge

ista

ntam

ount

to p

ower

, usa

ble

by a

n en

emy

to u

nder

min

e an

d to

thre

aten

, and

as a

tool

a n

atio

n ca

n us

e to

pro

tect

itse

lf an

d its

inte

rest

s, In

form

atio

n is

colle

cted

fro

m a

broa

d (c

over

tly if

nec

essa

ry);

info

rmat

ion

is w

ithhe

ld f

rom

thos

e w

ho w

ould

em

ploy

it to

the

natio

ns

detr

imen

t. T

he h

allm

ark

ofsc

ienc

e is

ope

nnes

s. T

here

is a

bsol

utel

y no

roo

m, i

n th

e sc

ient

ific

idea

l, f

orco

nsid

erat

ions

of

polit

ical

ideology or national needs. Indeed, deeply

embe

dded

in th

e tr

aditi

ons

and

self

-im

age

of s

cien

tists

is th

e co

nvic

tion

that

any

atte

mpt

by

nons

cien

tific

inte

rest

s (r

elig

ions

, sta

tes,

or political or

mili

tary

alli

ance

s) to

infl

uenc

e scientific research or to, co

ntro

lco

mm

unic

atio

ns b

etw

een

scie

ntis

ts m

ust b

e re

sist

ed a

t all

cost

s.

The

way

s in

whi

ch th

ese

fund

amen

tal d

iffe

renc

es h

ave

been

neg

otia

ted

- sometimes re

conc

iled,

but

mos

tly n

ot -

in th

e cl

imat

e of

the

Col

d W

arha

ve h

ad e

norm

ous

cons

eque

nces

for

the

CIA

and

its

abilt

y to

rec

ruit

and

to m

ake

effe

ctiv

e us

e of

exp

erts

of

vari

ous

sort

s. T

hey

have

als

o pr

ofou

ndly

alte

red

the

imag

e an

d pr

actic

e of

sci

ence

in p

ostw

ar A

mer

ica.

- -

----

---

" '

' ,' ,

" '

' ", '

, '

Page 4

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

? 50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

SCIE

NC

E, S

CIE

NT

IST

S, A

ND

TH

E C

IA

Am

eric

an s

cien

tists

fac

ed a

pro

foun

d di

lem

ma

with

the

end

of W

orld

War

II,

On

the

one

hand

mos

t had

don

nant

pro

fess

iona

l res

earc

h ca

reer

s to

tend

to, a

nd o

n th

e ot

her

man

y ha

d be

com

e ac

cust

omed

to tb

e st

atus

and

the

acce

ss to

res

ourc

es a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith w

ar r

esea

rch

and

orga

nizi

ng a

ctiv

ity.

The

Uni

ted

Stat

es' e

mer

genc

e fr

om W

orld

War

II a

s th

e w

orld

's leading

mili

tary

and

eco

nom

ic p

ower

and

the

maj

or, i

f no

t yet

pre

cise

ly d

efin

edro

le th

at th

e U

S w

as b

ound

to p

lay

in e

stab

lishi

ng a

new

glo

bal p

ostw

arre

gim

e, insured that the nation

s ne

ed to

mai

ntai

n th

e instruments of

mili

tary

and

eco

nom

ic p

ower

wou

ld n

ot e

nd w

ith th

e ce

ssat

ion

of h

ostil

ties,

Man

y sc

ient

ists

wer

e qu

ite w

iling

- even anxious - to continue, at least

part

-tim

e, working di

rect

ly f

or th

eir

gove

rnm

ent.

Giv

en th

e cr

ucia

lco

ntri

butio

ns th

at s

cien

ce-b

ased

wea

pons

- th

e at

omic

bom

b an

d ra

dar

mos

tpr

omin

ently

- h

ad m

ade

to th

e A

llied

vic

tory

, and

giv

en th

e lo

omin

g th

reat

of n

ew w

eapo

ns -

bio

logi

cal a

nd c

hem

ical

the

mos

t wid

ely

antic

ipat

ed -

itis

no

surprise that the leaders of A

mer

ican

inte

llige

nce

oper

atio

nsre

cogn

ized

the

impo

rtan

ce th

at th

e co

untr

ys

mili

tary

pla

nner

s an

d po

litic

alle

ader

s sh

ould

be

accu

rate

ly in

fonn

ed a

bout

rel

evan

t sci

entif

ic a

dvan

ces

whe

reev

er s

uch

adva

nces

mig

ht o

ccur

.In

deed

, am

ong

the

maj

or p

rom

oter

sof

this

spe

cial

ized

sor

t of

inte

llige

nce

wer

e sc

ient

ists

, esp

ecia

lly th

e gr

oup

of in

flue

ntia

l sci

entis

ts w

ho h

ad p

laye

d le

adin

g ro

les

orga

nizi

ng w

eapo

nsre

sear

ch d

urin

g W

orld

War

II

and

thos

e w

ho w

ere

intim

atel

y fa

mili

ar w

ithsc

ient

ific

inte

llige

nce

oper

atio

ns th

at h

ad b

een

carr

ed o

ut d

urin

g th

atco

nflc

t.B

ut th

ose

sam

e sc

ient

ists

als

o kn

ew th

at s

cien

tific

inte

llgen

ce-g

athe

ring

duri

ng W

orld

War

II

had

not b

een

wel

l coo

rdin

ated

, The

Man

hatta

n Pr

ojec

tun

der

the

cont

rol o

f M

ajor

Gen

eral

Les

lie R

. Gro

ves,

est

ablis

hed

its o

wn

Fore

ign

Inte

llige

nce

Bra

nch

to s

py o

n re

late

d ac

tiviti

es a

broa

d, e

spec

ially

on p

rosp

ectin

g fo

r ur

aniu

m o

re.

The

Off

ice

of S

cien

tific

Res

earc

h an

dD

evel

opm

ent e

stab

lishe

d an

off

ice

in L

ondo

n an

d as

sign

ed s

ome

of th

ena

tion

s le

adin

g sc

ient

ists

to w

hat c

an b

e de

scri

bed

as in

tellg

ence

gat

heri

ngfu

nctio

ns. T

he A

nny

and

the

Nav

y, a

s w

ell a

s th

e O

SS, d

id th

e sa

me.

As

the

war

dre

w to

a c

lose

a s

peci

al e

ffor

t to

gath

er a

s m

uch

info

nnat

ion

aspo

ssib

le f

rom

Gen

nany

and

Jap

an w

as s

et in

mot

ion.

And

alth

ough

a s

peci

alre

adin

g pa

nel w

as s

et u

p w

ithin

the

OSR

D to

rev

iew

inco

min

g in

telli

genc

ean

d at

tem

pt to

mak

e su

re th

at th

ose

who

req

uire

d th

e in

fonn

atio

n w

ere

prom

ptly

info

nned

, few

wer

e sa

tisfi

ed w

ith th

e re

sult.

How

this

sci

entif

icin

put w

as to

be

arra

nged

was

the

grea

t uns

olve

d pr

oble

m,

As

the

natio

n be

gan

the

com

plex

task

of

dem

obili

zatio

n, e

xist

ing

mea

nsof

gat

herin

g sc

ient

ific

inte

llige

nce

had

to b

e transfonned along with so

man

y ot

her

war

-fas

hion

ed o

r w

ar-e

xpan

ded

orga

niza

tions

, Sci

entis

ts, w

ho

achi

eved

unp

rece

dent

ed s

tatu

s an

d in

flue

nce

duri

ng th

e w

ar, s

trug

gled

tode

fine

for

them

selv

es a

pen

nane

nt p

ostw

ar r

ole.

Thi

s st

udy

is in

tend

ed a

s a

sket

ch o

f th

e m

anne

r in

whi

ch th

at w

as a

ccom

plis

hed

, and

as

a m

eans

of

rais

ing

som

e of

the

cruc

ial,

if li

ttle

exam

ined

, iss

ues

the

evol

ving

rel

atio

nsbe

twee

n th

e in

tellg

ence

and

sci

entif

ic c

omm

uniti

es h

ave

raised for both.

INT

EL

LIG

EN

CE

AN

D T

HE

PO

STW

AR

OR

GA

NIZ

AT

ION

OF

MIL

ITA

RY

R&

D

The

mos

t im

port

ant o

rgan

izat

iona

l arr

ange

men

t for

con

tinue

d sy

stem

atic

scie

ntif

ic in

put i

nto

natio

nal s

ecur

ity p

lann

ing

was

the

Join

t Res

earc

h an

dD

evel

opm

ent B

oard

, est

ablis

hed

by th

e Se

cret

arie

s of

War

and

the

Nav

y in

the

sum

mer

of 1

946.

Cha

ired

by V

anne

var

Bus

h, w

ho h

ad s

erve

d as

bot

h th

ewartime leader of th

e ci

vilia

n O

ffce

of

Scie

ntif

ic R

esea

rch

and

Dev

elop

men

t (O

SRD

) an

d th

e ch

ainn

an o

f th

e m

ilita

rys

own

Join

t New

Wea

pons

Com

mitt

ee (

repo

rtin

g di

rect

ly to

the

Join

t Chi

efs

of Staff, the

JRD

B w

as c

harg

ed w

ith th

e re

spon

sibi

lity

of r

evie

win

g th

e st

atus

of

all

exis

ting

rese

arch

and

dev

elop

men

t pro

ject

s an

d, in

the

case

of

over

lapp

ing

responsibilties or of duplication, t

o as

sign

pri

mar

y re

spon

sibi

lty to

one

of

the

serv

ices

. As

impo

rtan

t, th

e JR

DB

rec

ruite

d lit

eral

ly h

undr

eds

of c

ivili

ansc

ient

ists

from

indu

stry

and

the

natio

ns

mos

t pre

stig

ious

uni

vers

ities

tose

rve

on a

dvis

ory

com

mitt

ees

and

pane

ls, B

egin

ning

late

in 1

946,

thes

epa

nels

initi

ated

a s

yste

mat

ic in

vent

ory

of r

esea

rch

area

s an

d pe

rson

nel w

ithth

e in

tent

ion

of a

dvis

ing

the

full

Boa

rd a

nd, through them, the nation

mili

tary

pla

nner

s.T

o gu

ide

its o

pera

tions

the

JRD

B c

reat

ed a

spe

cial

Pol

icy

Cou

ncil,

a

high

leve

l com

mitt

ee c

hair

ed b

y ra

dio

engi

neer

/iono

sphe

ric

phys

icis

t Llo

ydV

. Ber

kner

(in

his

cap

acity

as

JRD

B E

xecu

tive

Secr

etar

y).5

The

Pol

icy

Cou

ncil

was

, in

Ber

kner

s ow

n w

ords

, '

resp

onsi

ble

for

criti

cal a

naly

sis

ofth

e tr

ends

of

rese

arch

and

dev

elop

men

t and

the

vita

l pla

nnin

g as

soci

ated

with

the

utili

zatio

n of

new

wea

pons

: Significantly, a representative of the

rece

ntly

est

ablis

hed

Cen

tral

Int

ellig

ence

Gro

up w

as in

vite

d to

take

par

.M

embe

rs o

f th

e Po

licy

Cou

ncil

quic

kly

reco

gniz

ed th

at th

ey w

ould

requ

ire

timel

y an

alys

is o

f th

e st

ate

of s

cien

ce a

nd s

cien

tific

res

earc

h, b

oth

with

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

and

abr

oad,

To

prov

ide

itsel

f w

ith h

igh-

leve

lscientific input, a fonnal sc

ient

ific

adv

isor

y co

mm

ittee

was

fonn

ed.

App

oint

ed w

ere

I. I.

Rab

i and

Alfr

ed L

oom

is, v

eter

ans

of th

e W

orld

War

II

rada

r de

velo

pmen

t eff

ort;

Wili

am S

hock

ley,

the

Bel

l Lab

orat

ory

elec

tron

ics

expe

rt; C

aryl

Has

kins

, the biologist director of the personally

fina

nced

Has

kins

Lab

orat

orie

s in

New

Yor

k an

d w

artim

e E

xecu

tive

Ass

ista

nt to

the

Cha

inna

n of

the

ND

RC

; and

Geo

rges

F. D

orio

t, p

rofe

ssor

of i

ndus

tria

lm

anag

emen

t at t

he H

arva

rd B

usin

ess

Scho

ol a

nd w

artim

e D

eput

y D

irec

tor

of th

e W

ar D

epar

tmen

ts

Res

earc

h an

d D

evel

opm

ent O

ffce

.? T

his

advi

sory

com

mitt

ee w

as g

iven

spe

cial

top

secr

et b

rief

ings

abo

ut c

urre

nt w

ar p

lans

and

stra

tegy

,

" "

--'

"".

-'-'

' ", "

, ,-

-' '

'', '

.. '

,,, '

, ,

, ,,-

;-.

. ', "

'-'.._

_._.

._-_

.-.

,~~~

Page 5

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

? 50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

SCIE

NC

E, S

CIE

NT

IST

S, A

ND

TH

E C

IA

PLA

NN

ING

SC

IEN

TIF

IC IN

TE

LLIG

EN

CE

The

indi

vidu

al th

at V

anne

var

Bus

h an

d th

e JR

DB

eve

ntua

lly r

ecom

men

ded

to d

evel

op th

is o

ffic

e w

as W

alla

ce R

. Bro

de, D

esce

nded

fro

m a

n ol

d O

hio

fam

ily w

ith s

tron

g sc

ienc

e in

tere

sts

(his

fat

her

and

twin

bro

ther

wer

e al

sopr

ofes

sors

), B

rode

s ca

reer

typi

fied

that

of

man

y A

mer

ican

sci

entis

ts w

hobe

cam

e in

volv

ed in

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e in

the

late

194

0s a

nd 1

950s

, APh

D f

rom

Ilin

ois

who

taug

ht p

hysi

cal c

hem

istr

y at

Ohi

o St

ate

until

Wor

ldW

ar I

I, B

rode

had

fou

nd w

artim

e re

sear

ch m

uch

to h

is li

king

, The

for

mer

OSR

D li

aiso

n of

fice

hea

d in

Par

is, B

rode

had

gai

ned

fam

iliar

ity w

ithE

urop

ean

scie

nce

thro

ugh

a 19

26 G

ugge

nhei

m F

ello

wsh

ip a

nd th

roug

h a

sola

r ec

lipse

exp

editi

on to

the

Sovi

et U

nion

, But

wha

t par

ticul

arly

dre

w th

ePo

licy

Cou

ncil

advi

sors

and

Van

neva

r B

ush'

s at

tent

ion

to B

rode

was

his

post

-war

ass

ignm

ent a

s di

rect

or o

f th

e Sc

ienc

e D

epar

tmen

t of t

he N

aval

Ord

nanc

e T

est S

tatio

n at

Inyo

kern

, California, w

here

he

had

deve

lope

dpl

ans

for

scie

ntif

ic in

telli

genc

e ga

ther

ing,

Bus

h al

so a

ppre

ciat

ed B

rode

outs

poke

n di

sdai

n fo

r m

ilita

ry c

omm

anda

nts

who

reg

arde

d sc

ient

ists

as

mer

ely

assi

gned

civ

ilian

labo

rers

(di

rect

ed)

to p

rodu

ce s

uch

item

s as

asupersonic torpedo, just as he might direct another gr

oup

to d

ig a

ditc

hac

ross

the

road

'. B

rode

s sc

ient

ific

elit

ism

mat

ched

Bus

h's

conv

ictio

n th

atsc

ient

ists

nee

ded

to e

nerg

etic

ally

def

ine

thei

r ro

le w

ithin

the

natio

nal

mili

tary

est

ablis

hmen

t."In

stal

ling

Bro

de a

s th

e cl

ande

stin

e le

ader

of

scie

ntif

ic in

tellg

ence

requ

ired

nov

el a

ccom

mod

atio

ns w

ithin

the

Am

eric

an s

cien

tific

com

mun

ity,

Apparently on Bush's

urgi

ng, A

dmira

l Ros

coe

HiH

enko

ette

r m

et w

ithE

dwar

d U

, Con

don

, dir

ecto

r of

the

Nat

iona

l Bur

eau

of S

tand

ards

. Con

don

soon

aut

hori

zed

the

appo

intm

ent o

f B

rode

as

Ass

ocia

te D

irec

tor

with

an

imm

edia

te (

and

secr

et)

leav

e of

abs

ence

, aut

hori

zing

him

to u

se th

e po

sitio

nas a "bl

ind"

, fo

r hi

s in

tellg

ence

act

iviti

es. B

ut C

ondo

n al

so a

gree

d th

ataf

ter

one

year

, Brode would actually

beco

me

the

seco

nd-i

n-co

mm

and

at th

eN

BS

, Thi

s in

duce

men

t was

intended to bu

ttres

s B

rode

s long-term

prof

essi

onal

sta

ndin

g, s

ince

the

Ohi

o ch

emis

t was

for

ced to resign his

tenu

red

prof

esso

rshi

p at

Ohi

o S

tate

in 1

947

, hav

ing

exce

eded

the

num

ber

ofpe

rmitt

ed a

nnua

l abs

eric

es,

All

thes

e ar

rang

emen

ts a

side

, Bro

de w

as n

ot s

ucce

ssfu

l. D

urin

g th

e ye

arhe

led

the

scie

ntif

ic b

ranc

h w

ithin

the

Off

ice

of R

esea

rch

Est

imat

es (

OR

E),

from

Oct

ober

194

7 to

Oct

ober

194

8, B

rode

labo

red

to d

efin

e an

d ha

veac

cept

ed a

cle

ar m

anda

te f

or a

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e br

anch

with

in th

e ne

wag

ency

. He

favo

red

an e

xpan

sive

mis

sion

. Usi

ng th

e gu

ided

mis

sile

as

anex

ampl

e of

a m

odem

wea

pons

sys

tem

dem

andi

ng c

lose

atte

ntio

n, B

rode

argu

ed th

at '

the

scie

ntif

ic o

rder

of

battl

e' r

equi

red

CIA

ana

lyst

s to

exa

min

efo

reig

n 's

cien

tific

res

earc

h an

d de

velo

pmen

t to

the

poin

t of

prod

uctio

n. H

ech

ampi

oned

the

idea

, ear

lier

advo

cate

d by

Rab

i and

Ber

kner

, of

build

ing

amaster biographical database on all foreign sc

ient

ific

and

tech

nolo

gica

lpe

rson

aliti

es; t

his

was

late

r im

plem

ente

d in

Int

ellig

ence

Dir

ectiv

e 8

of th

eN

atio

nal S

ecur

ity C

ounc

il. (

To

disg

uise

inte

llgen

ce in

tere

st in

the

natu

ral

scie

nces

alo

ne, B

rode

rec

omm

ende

d pe

rsua

ding

a f

ound

atio

n to

pub

lish

sim

ilar

stud

ies

of d

ram

a, e

duca

tion

, and

mus

ic to

lend

the

prop

osed

pro

ject

a 'c

ultu

ral'

atm

osph

ere,

)1J

Nev

erth

eles

s, b

y O

ctob

er 1

948

Bus

h re

port

ed to

Sec

reta

ry o

f D

efen

seJa

mes

For

rest

al th

at th

e C

IA r

emai

ned

high

ly in

effi

cien

t, p

artic

ular

ly in

the

scie

ntif

ic a

nd te

chni

cal a

rea

, Ral

ph C

lark

, Bus

h's

dire

ctor

of

prog

ram

s at

the

now

-ren

amed

RD

BI.

mor

e bl

untly

dec

lare

d th

at th

e ' R

DB

has

rec

eive

dsu

bsta

ntia

lly n

o sc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce o

f the

type

wan

ted

from

CIA

' ,W

hy B

rode

fai

led

to d

evel

op a

via

ble

scie

ntif

ic in

tellg

ence

org

aniz

atio

nw

ithin

the

CIA

rev

eals

muc

h ab

out t

he r

elat

ions

hip

betw

een

scie

ntis

ts a

nd

At p

relim

inar

y in

form

al m

eetin

gs w

ith th

e JR

DB

lead

ersh

ip in

late

194

6th

e 'technical advisors' discussed an ex

trao

rdin

arily

bro

ad r

ange

of

stra

tegi

c co

ncep

ts. T

hey

wer

e al

so g

iven

spe

cifi

c ta

sks,

non

e de

emed

mor

ees

sent

ial t

han

resp

ondi

ng to

a r

eque

st f

rom

Gen

eral

Hoy

t Van

denb

erg,

hea

dof the Central In

telli

genc

e G

roup

, for

assistance in locating qualified

tech

nica

l per

sonn

el f

or n

atio

nal i

ntel

ligen

ce w

ork,

At t

heir

fir

st a

nd s

econ

d m

eetin

gs th

e sc

ient

ific

gro

up d

iscu

ssed

a p

lan

for

recr

uitin

g sc

ient

ists

and

for

'ev

alua

ting

tech

nica

l int

ellg

ence

, and

agre

ed to

sub

mit

that

pla

n to

the

full

JRD

B in

late

Dec

embe

r, D

urin

g th

ead

viso

rs' J

anua

ry 1

947

mee

ting

it w

as n

oted

that

thei

r fo

rmal

pap

er, w

hich

was

ent

itled

' Pro

gram

for

JR

DB

-C

IG C

oope

ratio

n in

the

Fiel

d of

Sci

entif

icIn

telli

genc

e, had been approved by both th

e C

IG a

nd J

RD

B, and a

cons

ider

able

am

ount

of

time

was

spe

nt g

oing

ove

r a

list o

f po

tent

ial

cand

idat

es f

or th

e jo

b of

chi

ef o

f a

plan

ned

scie

ntif

ic b

ranc

h w

ithin

the

CIG

, The

qua

lific

atio

ns w

ere

in c

erta

in r

espe

cts

cont

radi

ctor

y: th

e id

eal

cand

idat

e w

ould

be

a le

adin

g re

sear

cher

wel

l ver

sed

in s

ever

al fi

elds

, but

also

one

who

gra

sped

the

need

s of

inte

llige

nce.

As

impo

rtan

t, th

e ca

ndid

ate

had to be willng to work in anonymity. The te

chni

cal a

dvis

ors

hope

d to

prov

ide

this

sci

entis

t a c

over

pos

ition

in a

Was

hing

ton-

area

uni

vers

ity, a

fede

ral a

genc

y, o

r 'o

ther

sci

entif

ic in

stitu

tions

of

note' such as JR

DB

Cha

irman

Van

neva

r B

ush'

s C

arne

gie

Inst

itutio

n of

Washington, They

rega

rded

the

phys

ical

sci

ence

s as

cri

tical

fie

lds

of s

cien

tific

inte

llgen

ce, y

etre

cogn

ized

indi

vidu

als

of h

igh

stat

ure,

like themselves and w

artim

esc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce le

ader

and

CIG

adv

isor

, Princeton physicist H. P.

Rob

erts

on, w

ere

unw

iling

to a

band

on th

eir

univ

ersi

ty c

hairs

and

pub

licro

les

to ta

ke o

n fu

ll-tim

e co

vert

ass

ignm

ents

of t

his

kind

,

Page 6

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

? 50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

SCIE

NC

E, S

CIE

NT

IST

S, A

ND

TH

E C

IA

the

natio

nal s

ecur

ity e

stab

lishm

ent d

urin

g th

e ea

rly

Col

d W

ar, and the

part

icul

ar d

iffc

ultie

s of

inte

grat

ing

scie

ntis

ts a

s a

clas

s of

exp

erts

into

the

trad

ition

al c

ircl

es o

f fo

reig

n po

licy-

mak

ing.

The

pri

ncip

al p

robl

em th

atB

rode

con

fron

ted

was

one

fac

ed b

y th

e in

telli

genc

e co

mm

unity

as

a w

hole

:th

at o

f co

ordi

natin

g, c

olle

ctin

g, a

nd r

evie

win

g va

st a

mou

nts

of in

fonn

atio

nfr

om a

bew

ilder

ing

rang

e of

sou

rces

, Bro

de f

avor

ed a

hig

hly

cent

raliz

edof

fice

, mod

eled

aft

er h

is e

xper

ienc

e in

Ann

y In

tellg

ence

and

fun

ctio

nally

sim

ilar

to th

e su

cces

sful

Sci

entif

ic I

ntel

lgen

ce S

ervi

ce c

reat

ed in

Gre

atB

rita

in d

urin

g W

orld

War

II

by th

e E

dinb

urgh

exp

erim

enta

l phy

sici

st R

. V.

Jone

s. B

ut B

rode

had

insu

ffci

ent r

esources and standing to deal with

exis

ting

inte

llgen

ce s

ectio

ns w

ithin

the

Ann

y, N

avy,

and

Ato

mic

Ene

rgy

Com

mis

sion

, not

to m

entio

n in

fonn

atio

n po

tent

ially

ava

ilabl

e fr

om th

eD

epar

tmen

ts o

f Ju

stic

e, A

gric

ultu

re, C

omm

erce

, Tre

asur

y an

d In

teri

or, t

he

Library of Congress, the National Research Council, and the National

Adv

isor

y C

ounc

il on

Aer

onau

tics,

Nor

did

he

have

the

stat

ure

to f

orce

thes

epo

tent

ial s

ourc

es to

sha

re in

fonn

atio

n w

ith him, This gap between

info

nnat

ion

sour

ces

and

the

need

s of

pol

icy

plan

ners

pre

sent

ed a

dau

ntin

gm

anag

emen

t pro

blem

that

wou

ld p

erpl

ex m

aste

rs o

f sc

ient

ific

inte

llige

nce

for

year

s to

com

e,A

noth

er c

halle

nge

that

Bro

de fa

ced

was

creating an organizational

stru

ctur

e fo

r th

e sc

ient

ific

bra

nch,

How

land

Sar

gean

t, a

Stat

e D

epar

tmen

tof

ficia

l tap

ped

to m

anag

e sc

ient

ific

mat

ters

for

OR

E before Brode

appo

intm

ent,

had

foc

used

on

six

fiel

ds '

of im

med

iate

inte

rest

: aer

onau

tics,

atom

ic e

nerg

y, b

iolo

gica

l war

fare

, che

mic

al w

arfa

re, c

omm

unic

atio

ns a

ndel

ectr

onic

s, a

nd g

uide

d m

issi

les,

Whi

le th

ese

cate

gori

es p

aral

lele

d st

andi

ngte

chni

cal c

omm

ittee

s w

ithin

the

RD

B, a

nd B

rode

acc

epte

d th

eir

prio

rity

as

criti

cal n

atio

nal s

ecur

ity c

once

rns,

he

argu

ed th

at scientific intelligence

wou

ld b

est b

e se

rved

by

trea

ting

scie

nce

with

in s

uch

fam

iliar

dis

cipl

inar

yfr

amew

orks

as

phys

ics,

che

mis

try,

and

bio

logy

. By

recr

eatin

g th

e un

iver

sity

mod

el w

ithin

the

scie

ntif

ic b

ranc

h, B

rode

bel

ieve

d th

at a

naly

sts

coul

d be

stid

entif

y po

tent

ial t

hrea

ts n

ot a

ntic

ipat

ed b

y ta

rget

ed '

fiel

ds, M

oreo

ver,

by

mai

ntai

ning

the

prof

essi

onal

str

uctu

re f

amili

ar to

sci

entis

ts, B

rode

hop

ed to

miti

gate

the

prob

lem

of

recr

uitin

g ne

w s

cien

ce P

hDs

to th

e C

IA. B

rode

organizational plan

, app

rove

d in

Jan

uary

194

8, u

ltim

atel

y pr

evai

led

as th

eba

sis

for

CIA

scientific intellgence. It be

cam

e hi

s m

ost e

ndur

ing

cont

ribu

tion

to th

is o

ffce

. Bro

des

succ

esso

rs m

aint

aine

d th

e un

iver

sity

mod

el in

to th

e 19

50s,

add

ing

new

fie

lds,

suc

h as

med

icin

e an

d as

tron

omy,

as th

eir

impl

icat

ions

for

nat

iona

l sec

urity

bec

ame

clea

r,A

thir

d problem that Brode faced was lack of bureaucratic support

with

in th

e C

IA, p

artic

ular

ly fr

om H

ilenk

oette

r, it

s fi

rst d

irec

tor.

In

cont

rast

to C

IG le

ader

Hoy

t Van

denb

erg,

who

wor

ked

clos

ely

with

Bus

h in

nego

tiatin

g th

e in

terim

RD

B-C

IG a

gree

men

t on

coop

erat

ion

in s

cien

tific

inte

llgen

ce, H

ilenk

oette

r se

emed

indi

ffer

ent t

o th

e sp

ecia

l req

uire

men

ts o

fscientific intellgence collection, a

naly

sis,

and

pro

duct

ion.

He

allo

wed

com

petin

g O

RE

bureau chiefs to usurp responsibility for gathering

scie

ntif

ic in

fonn

atio

n, b

ypas

sing

Bro

des

own

netw

ork

of c

onta

cts.

He

sim

ilarl

y le

ft B

rode

to f

loun

der

whe

n a

seni

or o

ffic

ial c

halle

nged

Bro

deto

p-le

vel c

lear

ance

in n

ucle

ar e

nerg

y, A

war

e th

at a

Nuc

lear

Ene

rgy

Bra

nch

crea

ted

in M

arch

194

8 in

the

Off

ce o

f Sp

ecia

l Ope

ratio

ns, w

hich

ran

the

CIA

's spying activities, violated the Vandenberg-Bush agreement

Hilenkoetter suggested to Bush that the ag

reem

ent h

ad o

utliv

ed it

sus

eful

ness

, Ang

ered

by

Hile

nkoe

tters nonchalance, B

ush

rem

inde

d hi

mth

at th

e R

DB

was

'pro

babl

y yo

ur p

rinci

pal c

lient

in th

e fie

ld o

f sci

entif

icin

tellg

ence

.., t

hus

far

I do

not

fee

l tha

t the

Boa

rd has been supplied with

adeq

uate

sci

entif

ic in

tellg

ence

for

its

guid

ance

. His

adm

oniti

on d

id li

ttle

how

ever

to in

crea

se B

rode

s au

thor

ity w

ithin

the

CIA

,Ultimately more troubling to Brode than Hilenkoetter

s fa

ilure

topr

otec

t him

with

in th

e C

IA w

as h

is in

abilt

y, o

r un

wili

ngne

ss, t

o sh

ield

him

from

loya

lty r

evie

w p

ress

ures

out

side

the

Age

ncy.

In

the

sum

mer

of

1948

Edw

ard

Con

don

, pla

nnin

g to

atte

nd a

n in

tern

atio

nal c

onfe

renc

e on

wei

ghts

and

mea

sure

s in

Par

is, a

sked

Bro

de to

ser

ve a

s N

BS

dire

ctor

in h

is p

lace

.K

now

ing

that

Con

don

was

then

und

er in

vest

igat

ion

by th

e H

ouse

Un-

Am

eric

an A

ctiv

ities

Com

mitt

ee, H

illen

koet

ter

firs

t con

ferr

ed w

ith H

UA

Cch

ainn

an 1

. Par

nell

Tho

mas

, who

insi

sted

that

no

CIA

off

icia

l cou

ld

asso

ciat

e w

ith C

ondo

n, H

ilenk

oette

r th

en r

efus

ed to

gra

nt B

rode

atemporary leave. Brode argued that the or

der

unde

nnin

ed h

is c

over

tap

poin

tmen

t, an

d T

rum

an o

ffic

ials

, ala

nned

by

Hill

's '

pecu

liar

beha

viou

ras

ked

Whi

te H

ouse

off

cial

s Jo

hn S

teel

man

and

Cla

rk C

liffo

rd to

rev

iew

the

mat

ter.

But

Hile

nkoe

tter

s fe

ckle

ssne

ss n

onet

hele

ss w

as th

e fi

nal s

traw

for

Bro

de. B

y su

bmitt

ing

his

resi

gnat

ion,

Bro

de b

ecam

e ye

t ano

ther

cas

ualty

of

the

post

war

loya

lty h

earin

gs in

to U

S s

cien

tific

com

mun

ity,

ES

TA

BLI

SH

ING

AN

OF

FIC

E O

F S

CIE

NT

IFIC

INT

ELL

IGE

NC

E

In a September 1948 m

emo

to H

ilenk

oette

r, B

rode

dec

lare

d th

at th

eor

gani

zatio

nal p

robl

ems

whi

ch h

ad s

tym

ied

him

cou

ld b

e ov

erco

me

only

thro

ugh

the

'dra

stic

' ste

p of

cre

atin

g an

Off

ce o

f Sc

ient

ific

Int

ellg

ence

on

a pa

r w

ith th

e O

RE

. At f

irst

Hile

nkoe

tter

took

no

actio

n, B

ut b

y la

te 1

948

the

prob

lem

of

scie

ntif

ic in

tellg

ence

beg

an to

rec

eive

atte

ntio

n fr

om s

ever

alna

tiona

l com

mitt

ees.

One

was

the

task

forc

e on

national security

orga

niza

tion,

cha

ired

by Ferdinand Eberstadt as part of the H

oove

r

Com

mis

sion

inve

stig

atio

n of

way

s to

incr

ease

eff

icie

ncy

in th

e ex

ecut

ive

bran

ch o

f gov

ernm

ent.

Ala

nned

by

test

imon

y th

at m

edic

al in

tellg

ence

was

virt

ually

non

-exi

sten

t and

that

info

nnat

ion

in th

e at

omic

ene

rgy

and

othe

r

Page 7

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

? 50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

SCIE

NC

E, S

CIE

NT

IST

S, A

ND

TH

E C

IA

fiel

ds w

as li

ttle

bette

r, E

bers

tadt

ste

rnly

war

ned

that

'(f

Jailu

re p

rope

rly

toap

prai

se th

e ex

tent

of

scie

ntif

ic d

evel

opm

ents

in e

nem

y co

untr

ies

may

hav

em

ore

imm

edia

te a

nd c

atas

trop

hic

cons

eque

nces

than

fai

lure

in a

ny o

ther

fiel

d of

inte

llige

nce' .

20 B

y se

curi

ng e

xper

t tes

timon

y fr

om le

adin

g A

mer

ican

scie

ntis

ts a

nd R

DB

off

cial

s, E

bers

tadt

ens

ured

that

his

arg

umen

ts w

ould

reac

h H

ilenk

oette

r an

d ot

her

inte

llgen

ce o

ffci

als,

Fur

ther

pre

ssur

e ca

me

from

the

inte

rnal

ly-r

un D

ulle

s-Ja

ckso

n-C

orre

a re

port

on

the

CIA

to th

eN

atio

nal S

ecur

ity C

ounc

il (t

he s

o-ca

lled

Dul

les

Rep

ort)

, whi

ch r

each

edsi

mila

r co

nclu

sion

s ab

out t

he s

tate

of

scie

ntif

ic in

telli

genc

e, I

n re

spon

seH

ilenk

oette

r cr

eate

d a

dist

inct

Offc

e of

Sci

entif

ic In

telli

genc

e (O

SI)

on 31

Dec

embe

r 19

48.

Rat

her

than

bei

ng th

e or

igin

of s

cien

tific

inte

llgen

cew

ithin

the

CIA

, as

it is

som

etim

es p

ortr

ayed

, the

fou

ndin

g of

this

off

ce w

asone climax in the postwar struggle to in

tegr

ate

scie

nce

with

in th

ebu

rgeo

ning

inte

llgen

ce c

omm

unity

.H

ilenk

oette

rs

orde

r to

est

ablis

h a

dist

inct

OS

I with

in th

e In

telli

genc

eD

irect

orat

e af

fnne

d th

e hi

gh s

tand

ing

of th

e R

DB

with

in th

e na

tiona

lm

ilita

ry e

stab

lishm

ent.

His

ord

er a

lso

refle

cted

a g

reat

er w

iling

ness

by

military and intellgence offcials as well as sc

ient

ists

to e

xper

imen

t with

new

way

s of

gat

heri

ng a

nd c

oord

inat

ing

scie

ntif

ic in

tellg

ence

, The

sec

ond

Tru

man

adm

inis

trat

ion

mar

ked

a tim

e of

incr

ease

d at

tent

ion

to s

cien

ce a

s an

inst

rum

ent o

f fo

reig

n po

licy

and

mili

tary

pla

nnin

g, I

n hi

s se

cond

inau

gura

laddress in January 1949, Truman announced th

e so

-cal

led

Poi

nt IV

initi

ativ

e, w

hich

cal

led

on A

mer

ican

s to

mak

e av

aila

ble

thei

r ex

peri

ence

and

tech

nica

l kno

w-h

ow to

the

deve

lopi

ng n

atio

ns o

f the

wor

ld, M

oreo

ver

thro

ugh

the

1950

s sc

ienc

e an

d te

chno

logy

con

tinua

lly g

aine

d si

gnifi

canc

eas

sym

bols

of

natio

nal a

nd id

eolo

gica

l sup

erio

rity

, Tho

ugh

this

evo

lutio

n of

scie

ntif

ic a

chie

vem

ents

into

inst

rum

ents

of

fore

ign

polic

y ha

d on

ly li

mite

din

fluen

ce o

n th

e O

SI b

y th

e tim

e th

e K

orea

n W

ar b

egan

(w

hich

in tu

rnhi

ghlig

hted

def

icie

ncie

s in

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e fo

r m

iltar

y of

fens

ive

and

defe

nsiv

e ca

pabi

litie

s), t

he K

orea

n ex

perie

nce

spur

red

the

CIA

to e

xpan

d its

invo

lvem

ent i

n sc

ienc

e an

d de

epen

ed it

s re

latio

ns w

ith th

e A

mer

ican

scie

ntif

ic c

omm

unity

,T

he ta

sk o

f de

fini

ng th

e fu

nctio

n an

d op

erat

ion

of th

e ne

w O

SI f

ell t

oB

rode

s su

cces

sor,

Wila

rd M

achl

e, A

lmos

t cer

tain

ly M

achl

e's

sele

ctio

n as

dire

ctor

of

new

OSI

was

infl

uenc

ed b

y E

bers

tadt

s cr

itici

sm th

at m

edic

alintelligence - particularly in

volv

ing

biol

ogic

al weapons and human

physiology -

I rem

aine

d un

avai

labl

e to

the

CIA

. An

MD

by

trai

ning

and

fonn

erly

a p

rofe

ssor

of

med

icin

e, M

achl

e ha

d be

com

e in

volv

ed in

war

time

com

bat s

tudi

es w

ithin

the

med

ical

bra

nch

of th

e O

SRD

and

had

dir

ecte

d th

eA

nnor

ed F

orce

Med

ical

Res

earc

h La

bora

tory

in K

entu

cky,

In 1

946

Mac

hle

rece

ived

the

Leg

ion

of H

onor

for

his

phy

siol

ogic

al r

esea

rch

, jus

t thr

ee y

ears

before he cjm

e director of scientific intelligence, masked by

blin

d

appo

intm

ents

at t

he A

EC

and

the

Ope

ratio

ns R

esea

rch

Off

ice

at J

ohns

Hop

kins

,C

onso

lidat

ing

the

colle

ctio

n an

d ev

alua

tion

of '

natio

nal'

scie

ntifi

cin

tellg

ence

with

in th

e C

IA, a

nd e

stab

lishi

ng th

is a

s a

prio

rity

ove

r th

e m

ore

agen

cy-f

ocus

ed g

oals

of

serv

ice

inte

llige

nce

units

, rem

aine

d a

chie

f ai

m o

fO

SI le

ader

s, T

hrou

gh th

e fi

rst h

alf

of 1

949

this

goa

l see

med

as

elus

ive

toM

achl

e as

it h

ad b

een

to B

rode

.Earth sciences intellgence remained

finnly within the province of Naval. Intelligence, f

or in

stan

ce, a

nd p

rim

arily

resp

onsi

ve to

Nav

y re

quire

men

ts. T

his

was

so even though such

info

nnat

ion

was

cri

tical

for

eva

luat

ing

deve

lopm

ents

in u

nder

sea

war

fare

and

guid

ed m

issi

les

, bot

h hi

ghly

sen

sitiv

e in

telli

genc

e ar

eas

of s

igni

fica

nce

to th

e hi

ghes

t lev

els

of n

atio

nal s

ecur

ity p

lann

ing,

It w

as d

etec

tion

of th

e fi

rst S

ovie

t ato

mic

bom

b te

st in

Sep

tem

ber

1949

,an

em

barr

assi

ng 1

6 m

onth

s be

fore

the

earl

iest

dat

e th

at th

e C

IA h

ad f

orec

ast

the

prev

ious

yea

r, th

at g

ave

Mac

hle

his

mos

t pow

erfu

l ope

ning

, In

a fo

ur-

page

mem

o on

the

'Ina

bilit

y of

OSI

to A

ccom

plis

h its

Mis

sion

, hur

redl

yco

mpo

sed

as S

ovie

t rad

ioac

tive

debr

is d

rift

ed th

roug

h th

e st

rato

sphe

re,

Mac

hle

insi

sted

that

the

non-

coop

erat

ion

of m

ilita

ry a

genc

ies

jeop

ardi

zed

the

CIA

's a

bilit

y to

pro

vide

nat

iona

l sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e on

ato

mic

biol

ogic

al, a

nd c

hem

ical

wea

pons

, as

wel

l as

med

ical

inte

llige

nce

and

basi

csc

ienc

e fie

lds.

Aware of co

ntin

ued

RD

B fr

ustr

atio

n w

ith th

e C

IAH

ilenk

oette

r is

sued

an

unch

arac

teri

stic

ally

bol

d re

orga

niza

tion

plan

, DC

ID3/

3, on 28 October, Bucking po

wer

ful m

ilita

ry in

tere

sts,

Hile

nkoe

tter

orde

r ga

ve th

e O

SI r

espo

nsib

ility

not

onl

y fo

r ba

sic

scie

nce

but f

or n

eww

eapo

ns s

yste

ms

'up

to th

e initiation of series production' - that is

tech

nolo

gica

l as

wel

l as

rese

arch

dev

elop

men

ts, S

uppo

rted

by

Rob

erts

onB

erkn

er, Bush, and other influential advisors, t

he m

ove

plac

ed C

IAsc

ient

ific

inte

llige

nce

on a

par

alle

l cou

rse

with

its

Bri

tish

coun

terp

art a

ndte

mpo

rari

ly e

nerg

ized

rel

atio

ns b

etw

een

the

OSI

and

the

RD

B,

Mac

hle

s ta

sk w

as m

ade

easi

er b

y th

e co

oper

atio

n, a

nd a

t tim

es d

irect

assi

stan

ce, o

f le

adin

g m

embe

rs o

f th

e U

S sc

ient

ific

com

mun

ity, A

fter

194

8,es

peci

ally

aft

er th

e C

omm

unis

t tak

eove

r of

Cze

chos

lova

kia,

the

attit

udes

of

man

y A

mer

ican

sci

entis

ts d

arke

ned

alon

g w

ith th

ose

of o

ther

citi

zens

; the

ygr

ew p

artic

ular

ly d

istr

esse

d as

Tro

fim

Lys

enko

s ca

mpa

ign

agai

nst S

ovie

tge

netic

ists

inte

nsifi

ed a

nd p

ublis

hed

atta

cks

on W

este

rn scientists as

lear

ned

lack

eys

of c

apita

lism

' inc

reas

ed, B

y th

e tim

e th

e K

orea

n W

ar b

roke

out in 1950, m

ost A

mer

ican

sci

entis

ts r

egar

ded

the

Sovi

et U

nion

as

acr

edib

le th

reat

to A

mer

ican

nat

iona

l sec

urity

, and

acc

epte

d th

at C

omm

unis

tP

arty

inte

rfer

ence

was

dis

tort

ing

the

Sov

iet s

cien

tific

com

mun

ity.28

As

a

resu

lt, i

n w

ays

and

to a

deg

ree

long

con

ceal

ed fr

om c

olle

ague

s an

d po

orly

docu

men

ted

in tr

aditi

onal

arc

hiva

l mat

eria

ls, s

cien

tists

beg

an to

aid

CIA

offc

ials

in c

olle

ctin

g, g

athe

ring

, and

inte

rpre

ting

know

ledg

e ab

out f

orei

gnsc

ient

ific

adv

ance

s,

Page 8

ET

ER

NA

L V

IGIL

AN

CE

? 50

YE

AR

S O

F T

HE

CIA

SCIE

NC

E, S

CIE

NT

IST

S, A

ND

TH

E C

IA

With

man

pow

er s

hort

ages

com

mon

in m

ost f

ield

s of science, and

rest

rict

ions

aga

inst

ope

n pu

blic

atio

n an

d cl

ande

stin

e se

rvic

e a

bar

to f

utur

epr

ofes

sion

al e

mpl

oym

ent,

few

US

sci

entis

ts w

ere

wili

ng to

wor

k fo

r th

eC

IA fu

ll-tim

e,29 Yet it is increasingly clear that m

any

seni

or a

cade

mic

rese

arch

ers

cont

ribu

ted

to th

e O

SI o

n a

part

- tim

e ba

sis:

Van

neva

r B

ush,

for

exam

ple,

join

ed th

e so

-cal

led

' Pri

ncet

on C

onsu

ltant

s, w

hich

met

reg

ular

lywith Allen Dulles; in 1950, J

ames

Kili

an, George Kistiakowsky, and

Jero

me

Wie

sner

est

ablis

hed

the

'Bos

ton

Scie

ntif

ic A

dvis

ory

Pane

l' to

hel

pth

e A

genc

y ad

dres

s th

e po

vert

y of

US

inte

llige

nce

on S

ovie

t wea

pons

development. All were prominent sc

ient

ists

: Kis

tiako

wsk

y, a

Har

vard

chem

ist,

was

a s

enio

r ve

tera

n of

the

Man

hatta

n Pr

ojec

t, w

hile

Kili

an w

asth

e fu

ture

pre

side

nt o

f M

IT. A

ll th

ree

also

wen

t on

to s

erve

as

Pres

iden

tial

scie

nce

advi

sors

und

er E

isen

how

er a

nd K

enne

dy, I

n th

e fi

nal a

naly

sis,

the

goal

s of

sci

entif

ic in

tellg

ence

wer

e sh

aped

less

by

bure

aucr

atic

lead

ers

like

Bro

de a

nd M

achl

e th

an b

y B

ush

, Kis

tiako

wsk

y, a

nd o

ther

elit

e m

embe

rs o

fth

e U

S ph

ysic

al s

cien

ces

and

engi

neer

ing

com

mun

ities

,T

he w

iling

ness

of A

mer

ican

sci

entis

ts to

see

the

goal

s of

nat

iona

lse

curi

ty a

s co

mm

ensu

rate

with

impr

ovin

g th

e st

andi

ng o

f A

mer

ican

sci

ence

enco

urag

ed r

oles

for

inte

llgen

ce in

man

ifest

ly o

vert

sci

entif

ic a

ctiv

ities

.Fo

r ex

ampl

e, s

cien

tists

(fu

lly c

ogni

zant

of

thei

r po

tent

ial i

ntel

ligen

ce v

alue

)w

ere

inst

rum

enta

l in

the establishment within the State D

epar

tent

of

scie

ntif

ic a

ttach

e po

sitio

ns w

ithin

em

bass

ies

cons

ider

ed s

trat

egic

for

weapons or te

chno

logi

cal d

evel

opm

ent,'

Lik

ewis

e B

erkn

ers so-called

Science and Foreign Relations report in 1950 to the State D

epar

tmen

t(w

hich

sur

veye

d its

res

pons

ibili

ties

in th

e fi

eld of science) was closely

coor

dina

ted

with

CIA

rep

rese

ntat

ives

.O

ther

Am

eric

an s

cien

tists

will

ingl

y se

rved

as

brok

ers

of in

fonn

atio

nfr

om th

eir

prof

essi

onal

com

mun

ities

to th

e C

IA. T

he e

xten

t to

whi

ch U

Sre

sear

cher

s to

ok p

art i

n di

scip

linar

y su

rvey

s or

res

earc

h pr

ojec

ts f

unde

d by

the

CIA

can

not b

e accurately estimated, a

s of

fici

al s

ecre

cy a

s well as

pers

onal

and

pro

fess

iona

l dis

cret

ion

have

larg

ely

kept

suc

h ca

ses

from

view

Y B

ut th

e na

ture

of

thes

e in

tera

ctio

ns is

sug

gest

ed b

y on

e in

stan

ce th

atha

s co

me

to li

ght.

In 1

959

Ger

ard

p, K

uipe

r, a University of Chicago

astr

onom

er a

nd d

irect

or o

f its

affl

iate

d Y

erke

s-M

cDon

ald

obse

rvat

orie

s,ag

reed

to p

repa

re a

leng

thy

revi

ew o

f So

viet

wor

k in

pla

neta

ry a

nd s

tella

ras

trop

hysi

cs, u

nder

con

trac

t to

the

CIA

, The

rev

iew

was

larg

ely

wri

tten

bya

visi

ting

Yug

osla

vian

ast

rono

mer

who

se y

ear-

long

res

earc

h ap

poin

tmen

tw

as m

ade

poss

ible

by

thes

e co

ntra

ct f

unds

, Kui

per,

a n

atur

aliz

ed U

S ci

tizen

who

se w

artim

e se

rvic

e du

ring

Wor

ld W

ar I

I ha

d in

clud

ed a

ssig

nmen

ts w

iththe Radio Research Laboratory and the

Als

os

mis

sion

(a

civi

lian-

scie

ntif

icte

am d

eplo

yed

behi

nd a

dvan

cing

Alle

d tr

oops

to in

terv

iew

sci

entis

ts a

bout

thei

r pr

ogre

ss in

wea

pons

res

earc

h), k

ept t

he n

atur

e of

this

con

trac

t sec

ret

from

his

col

leag

ues.

Con

cern

for

nat

iona

l sec

urity

par

tly e

xpla

ins

Kui

per

wili

ngne

ss to

aid

the

CIA

. But

he

also

saw

the contract providing

prof

essi

onal

adv

anta

ges:

by

surv

eyin

g th

e leading frontiers of Soviet

astr

onom

y, K

uipe

r ho

ped

to im

prov

e th

e co

mpe

titiv

e ed

ge o

f hi

s in

stitu

tion

and

his

own

rese

arch

,D

espi

te in

road

s of

this

sor

t, O

SI le

ader

s co

ntin

ued

to f

ind

it di

ffic

ult t

om

eet t

he d

eman

d of

clie

nts

such

as

the

RD

B f

or s

cien

tific

inte

llgen

ce. O

nepr

oble

m w

as th

e St

ate

Dep

artm

ent

s ha

phaz

ard

and

ultim

atel

y lim

ited

use

of it

s sc

ienc

e at

tach

es, w

hich

alw

ays

had

been

inte

nded

, in

part

, to

prov

ide

a ba

ck c

hann

el f

or th

e co

llect

ion

of s

ensi

tive

inte

llige

nce,

Few

if a

nysc

ient

ific

atta

ches

wer

e ex

plic

itly

inst

ruct

ed a

bout

spe

cifi

c co

llect

ion

need

sal

low

ing

them

to d

efin

e th

emse

lves

as

amba

ssad

ors

of A

mer

ican

sci

ence

, a

role they clearly preferred,35

Mor

eove

r , c

aree

r S

tate

Dep

artm

ent o

ffcer

sw

hose

trai

ning

and

bac

kgro

und

shar

ed f

ew c

omm

on in

ters

ectio

ns w

ithsc

ient

ists

, ofte

n re

gard

ed th

e ef

fort

s of

sci

entis

ts to

mai

ntai

n in

tern

atio

nal

cont

acts

as

syno

nym

ous

with

com

mun

ist s

ympa

thie

s. B

etw

een

1952

and

1957

the

num

ber

of s

cien

ce a

ttach

es f

ell f

rom

12

to z

ero

(the

pro

gram

was

late

r re

vive

d in

195

8). Y

et it

see

ms

unlik

ely

that

sci

ence

atta

ches

cou

ld h

ave

been

exp

ecte

d to

ful

fi in

tellg

ence

-gat

heri

ng r

oles

eve

n w

ith g

reat

er S

tate

Dep

artm

ent b

acki

ng: F

renc

h co

mm

unis

t int

elle

ctua

ls, i

nclu

ding

the

nucl

ear

phys

icis

t Fre

deric

Jol

iot-

Cur

ie, b

last

ed th

e at

tach

e pr

ogra

m a

s 'la

ctiv

itees

pion

age

, and

Wes

t Gen

nan

scie

ntis

ts p

oint

edly

igno

red

Bon

ns

scie

nce

atta

ches

unt

il th

ey d

emon

stra

ted

thei

r di

sint

eres

tedn

ess

in s

ensi

tive

topi

cs,

Inadvertent publication of a cl

assi

fied

rec

omm

enda

tion

to s

hift

the

back

stop

ping

of

scie

nce

atta

ches

dir

ectly

to th

e C

IA in

195

5 pr

ejud

iced

the

situation stil further.

A s

econ

d pr

oble

m la

y in

the

diff

culty

that

sci

entif

ic e

xper

ts, n

o le

ss th

an

thei

r co

lleag

ues

in o

ther

fiel

ds, f

aced

in a

ttem

ptin

g to

dec

iphe

r th

e he

alth

and

vita

lity

of S

ovie

t science. Detailed studies from outside consultants

wer

e ha

rdly

infa

llble

: Kui

per

s fi

rst O

SI r

epor

t in

1959

crit

iciz

ed L

unik

Il's

his

toric

imag

es o

f the

luna

r fa

rsid

e as

pos

sibl

e fa

kes,

a v

iew

Kui

per

revi

sed

the

follo

win

g ye

ar a

fter

a lo

ng p

riva

te m

eetin

g w

ith a

chi

ef L

unik

proj

ect s

cien

tist.

Alth

ough

inte

rvie

ws

with

US

scie

ntis

ts r

etur

ning

fro

m th

eSo

viet

Uni

on w

ere

used

to a

ugm

ent t

hese

rep

orts

(pa

rtic

ular

ly a

s So

viet

part

icip

atio

n in

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

entif

ic u

nion

s ba

lloon

ed a

fter

Sta

lins

deat

h

in 1953), the di

fficu

lties

of c

olle

ctin

g appropriately detailed technical

info

nnat

ion

from

suc

h su

bjec

ts r

emai

ned

fonn

idab

le.

A f

inal

pro

blem

for

OSI

lead

ers

thro

ugh

the

earl

y 19

50s

wer

e th

eir

alw

ays

diff

icul

t rel

atio

ns w

ith o

ther

chi

ef s

ourc

e of

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

eth

e m

ilita

ry in

tellg

ence

age

ncie

s, D

espi

te h

igh-

leve

l pro

ddin

g fr

om th

e fir

st

Hoo

ver

Com

mis

sion

and

the

Dul

les

Surv

ey, N

avy

and

Air

For

ce

inte

llige

nce

serv

ices

wer

e re

luct

ant t

o as

sign

add

ition

al o

ffce

rs to

sci

entif

ic

' ':"

", ,

' '. -

- '"

-" "

'" '

- -:

",,.

., '

- -

' ,. .

, -' -

, ,-.,o

: . "

'"