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Revolution andEnlightenment
1600–1800
.The Big Ideas,SECTION 1: The Glorious Revolution
Throughout history people have struggled for rights. During the
English civil wars and the Glorious Revolution, nobles and wealthy
commoners established the principle of representative
government.
SECTION 2: The Enlightenment Moral and ethical principles
influence the development of political thought.Enlightenment
thinkers believed that human nature was rational and good, and
wanted government and society to be based on reason.
SECTION 3: The American RevolutionThroughout history people have
struggled for rights. Inspired by a belief in naturalrights theory,
American colonists rebelled against Britain to found a new
nation.
World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 2 video,“Women of
the Revolution,” chronicles the impact that women had on thecourse
of the American Revolution.
170
1550 1575 1600 1625 1650 1675
1534English Parliamentpasses Act ofSupremacy
1687Isaac Newtonpublishes thePrincipia
1689TolerationAct andEnglish Billof Rights
1603James I, first Stuart king, ascends Englishthrone
Henry VIII
1690Locke publishesTwo Treatises ofGovernment
1643Louis XIVbecomesking ofFrance
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Louis XIV at the French Royal Academy of Sciences
HISTORY
Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web
site at
and click on Chapter 2–Chapter Overview topreview chapter
information.
wh.mt.glencoe.com1700 1725 1750 1775 1800 1825
1751Diderot becomeseditor of theEncyclopedia
1788The Constitution of theUnited States is ratifiedby nine
states
1748Montesquieupublishes TheSpirit of the Laws
1776American coloniesdeclare indepen-dence from Britain
1792Mary Wollstonecraftpublishes A Vindicationof the Rights of
Women
Denis Diderot
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Careful readers piece together information as they read,
rememberinginformation from different places in the text. They spot
ideas as theygo—sometimes these are found in different sentences,
pages, or evensections. When the reader makes sense of these
related ideas, he or she issynthesizing.
By the end of a section, the reader can usually understand how
the differ-ent ideas are related to one another. Sometimes authors
include a paragraphat the end of a section that will trigger the
connections that you, the reader,have already made. The ending
paragraph might also forecast topics cov-ered in upcoming sections
to help you prepare for additional connections.
Look at this concluding paragraph for Section 1 of Chapter 2.
Seewhich two historical groups are referred to in connection with
theGlorious Revolution.
SYNTHESIZINGYou synthesize when you connect events and ideas
toreveal themes. Synthesizing theinfluences of the Glorious
Revolu-tion, Enlightenment, and theAmerican Revolution
demon-strates that rights and libertiesare a major theme in this
period.
172 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
. . . the Glorious Revolution of 1688 had a hugeimpact. It
inspired French thinkers to speak outagainst absolutism. British
colonists . . . applaudedParliament’s fight, and saw their own
parliamentsin the colonies as having the same rights. Fullyaware of
events in England, the colonists expandedtheir concept of rights
and liberties.
As you read this chapter, keep trackof the factors that led to
the GloriousRevolution as well as the results. Dothe same thing
when you read aboutthe Enlightenment and the AmericanRevolution.
When you are finished,look at your notes for all three
devel-opments. Consider the kind of factorsthat operated in each
and think abouthow they are related to one another.Can you draw any
overall conclu-sions? If so, you are synthesizing.
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How do you think that Locke’s ideashave influenced people’s
perceptionsof themselves and society over time?Make a list of the
natural rights thatyou have just by being human. Howwould you
modify the list that Lockeoriginally proposed?
One skill historians develop is the ability to examine a current
idea or eventand trace it back to its origins. They are then able
to analyze all theconsequences that came about. Tracking the
influence of an idea through timeallows historians to see what
ideas and events have been crucial to determiningour world
today.
Read this selection from John Locke’s Two Treatises of
Government, an Enlighten-ment document published soon after the
Glorious Revolution in England.
“Man being born . . . with a title to perfect freedom, and an
uncontrolled enjoyment of allthe rights and privileges of the law
of nature, equally with any other man, or number ofmen in the
world, hath by nature a power, not only to preserve his property,
that is, hislife, liberty and estate, against the injuries and
attempts of other men; but to judge of,and punish the breaches of
that law in others, as he is persuaded the offence deserves,even
with death itself, in crimes where the heinousness of the fact, in
his opinion,requires it.”
Locke wrote that all people were born with certain natural
rights of life, liberty,and property. He was reacting to the rule
of the Stuart kings in England, whoseemed to be acting like
absolutist rulers. Locke rejected that kind of rule. Hisideas about
the natural rights of all individuals influenced political thought
inother parts of the world, especially in the American
colonies.
Chronological and Spatial Thinking: Standard CS 1 Students
compare thepresent with the past, evaluating the consequences of
past events and decisionsand determining the lessons that were
learned.
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The Birth of a Sonn early June of 1688, as the late-spring sun
warmed theEnglish countryside, the royal family prepared for a
birth.
Queen Mary, the mother-to-be, was the second wife of KingJames
II. The king, who had come to the throne in 1685,already had two
grown daughters, Mary and Anne, by hisfirst wife. Both were
Protestant. Mary would succeed herfather, but a male heir would
take precedence. The problemwas that any male heir would be
Catholic, for the new queenwas Catholic. So too was James II.
As king, James II was head of the Protestant, or Anglican,Church
of England. Most of the English people were Protes-tant, but James
wanted to return England to the Catholic fold.His attitude was, as
he said, “Know I am your King, I will beobeyed.” He even appointed
Catholics as generals of thearmy. Would James then ignore the
wishes of his ProtestantParliament? Would he take England back into
the Catholiccamp?
On June 10, the queen gave birth to a son. Some of theking’s
enemies argued—wrongly—that the child was notreally the king’s son
but someone else’s infant who had beensmuggled into the queen’s
bedroom. Outraged at the thoughtof a Catholic king, seven leaders
of Parliament signed a letterinviting William of Orange, the Dutch
leader and husband ofJames’s older daughter, Mary, to come and rule
as a Protes-tant king. William came with an army, James II fled,
and Eng-land experienced its Glorious Revolution.
I Why It MattersThe Glorious Revolution was animportant turning
point in Englishhistory. When William and Maryaccepted the throne
from Parlia-ment, they agreed to a declarationof rights. This
declaration, soonenacted into law as a Bill of Rights,affirmed
Parliament’s right to makelaws and raise taxes. Parliament wasnow
recognized as a vital part ofgovernment, thus laying the
founda-tions for a constitutional monarchy.Years later, with the
expansion ofthe right to vote to all males, Eng-land would become a
democracy.
History and You In the UnitedStates, the legislature, or
Congress,had power from the very beginning,but not everyone was
representedin Congress. Make a chart showingwhen each of these
groups attainedrepresentation: all adult males,women, African
Americans, and 18-year-olds.
British Parliament members offering the crown to William and
Mary in 1689
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The Glorious Revolution
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
Section PreviewDuring the English civil war and the Glorious
Revolution, nobles and wealthycommoners established the principle
ofrepresentative government.
• In the 1600s, absolutist rulers in Europewere asserting that
their power camedirectly from God, but in England Parlia-ment was
expanding its political power.(p. 176)
• Civil war broke out in England in 1642between supporters of
the king and theParliament, and in 1649 Parliamentproved
victorious. (p. 179)
• England’s Glorious Revolution created aconstitutional, or
limited, monarchy inwhich the monarch shared power withParliament.
(p. 181)
Content Vocabularydivine right of kings, commonwealth, natural
rights
Academic Vocabularyattribute, restraint, consensus,
hypothetical, mutual
People to IdentifyElizabeth I, Puritans, Charles I,
OliverCromwell, Charles II, James II, William ofOrange, John
Locke
Reading Objectives1. Identify problems that troubled
Europe between 1560 and 1650.2. Explain how the Glorious
Revolution
undermined the divine right of kings.
Reading Strategy Summarizing Information As you readthis
section, use a chart like the onebelow to summarize the rulers’
positionson religion and power.
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California
History–Social Science standards.
10.2: Students compare and contrast the Glorious Rev-olution of
England, the American Revolution, andthe French Revolution and
their enduring effectsworldwide on the political expectations for
self-government and individual liberty.
10.2.1: Compare the major ideas of philosophers andtheir effects
on the democratic revolutions in Eng-land, the United States,
France, and Latin America(e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis
Montesquieu,Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Simón Bolívar, ThomasJefferson,
James Madison).
10.2.2: List the principles of the Magna Carta, the EnglishBill
of Rights (1689), the American Declaration ofIndependence (1776),
the French Declaration ofthe Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789),
and theU.S. Bill of Rights (1791).
Position on issues ofRuler religion and power
Henry VIII
Elizabeth I
The Stuarts
Oliver Cromwell
William & Mary
1603Elizabeth I dies
1642Civil war in England begins
1649Charles I is executed
1688Glorious Revolution
✦1600 ✦1620 ✦1640 ✦1660 ✦1680 ✦1700
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176 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Background to Revolution
In the 1600s, absolutist rulers in Europe wereasserting that
their power came directly from God, but inEngland Parliament was
expanding its political power.
Reading Connection Have you ever heard it said thatsomeone acted
as if he or she were “above the law”? Read tolearn how the English
Parliament challenged kings whoclaimed to be accountable only to
God.
At the end of the seventeenth century, Englishnobles and
landowners carried out an importantpolitical revolution called the
Glorious Revolution. Itforced the king to recognize that he must
rule inaccordance with the laws they approved.
This revolution was one of three great politicalevents in the
Western world in this period—the othertwo were the American
Revolution and the FrenchRevolution. Each made a different
contribution to theideas that have shaped the modern world.
The Glorious Revolution introduced the principlethat the king
must bow to the representative body ina nation. The American
Revolution clearly spelledout the roles of government institutions
and therights of citizens in a republic. The French
Revolutionexperimented with several forms of government, andwent
furthest in asserting the principles of liberty
and equality for all people, regardless of their eco-nomic
status.
The Glorious Revolution was the first of thesethree great
revolutions. During the sixteenth and sev-enteenth centuries, most
European countries weregoverned by absolute rulers who asserted
that theirpower came directly from God. Monarchs whobelieved in the
divine right of kings did not considerthemselves accountable to
their citizens, but only toGod. Individuals who dared to question a
monarch’sactions could be put to death. They might be consid-ered
sinners against an established religion becausethey had flaunted a
king who was so close to God.
The most famous absolutist ruler was Louis XIV,who ruled France
from 1643 to 1715. Louis had anunshakeable belief in divine right
and saw no need toconsult his subjects, not even his great nobles.
Louis’sreign can best be summed up by a famous sayingattributed to
him: “I am the state.”
In England, the political system had developed inthe opposite
direction. During the Tudor dynasty ofHenry VIII and Elizabeth I,
the English monarchsdiscovered that having the support of
Parliament—the body of nobles and wealthy commoners whoclaimed to
represent the nation—was an advantage.
By 1700, however, English monarchs not onlyruled with
Parliament, but had to recognize that Par-liament was the ultimate
authority if there were dis-agreements. The idea that a parliament
could limitthe monarch’s power is simple, but it took centuriesand
violent conflict before it was accepted. In Eng-land, the conflict
began in the 1640s and was not set-tled until 1688.
Jacques Bossuet, a seventeenth-century Frenchbishop, explained a
popular viewpoint:
“It is God who establishes kings. They thus act as ministers of
God and His lieutenants on earth. It is through them that he rules.
This is why we have seen that the royal throne is not the throne of
a man, but the throne of God himself. It appears from this that the
person of kings is sacred, and to move against them is a
crime.Since their power comes from on high, kings . . .should
exercise it with fear and restraint as athing which has come to
them from God, and forwhich God will demand an account.”
Bossuet’s ideas about kings became reality duringthe reign of
King Louis XIV.
King Louis XIV of France
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How the Tudors Ruled From 1485 until 1603, Eng-land was governed
by the Tudors, including KingHenry VIII, who reigned from 1509 to
1547, and hisdaughter Elizabeth I, who reigned from 1558 to
1603.Both were strong and shrewd rulers who regularlyconsulted
Parliament to get support for their policies.Their practices helped
create an expectation that Par-liament would be listened to.
Henry and Elizabeth needed Parliament’s help inone area
especially: religious policies. Conflicts overreligion were
dividing powerful interests in the king-dom. Henry really created
the problem when hedemanded that the pope approve a divorce from
hisfirst wife, Catherine. Catherine gave birth to severaldaughters,
but Henry wanted a son to succeed him.He wanted the pope to declare
his marriage invalidso he could remarry.
The pope refused, not only because declaring amarriage invalid
was a rare event, but because Cather-ine’s royal family in Spain
were strong papal support-ers. Henry finally decided to declare
himself the headof the church in England. English archbishops
andbishops were appalled, but Henry ignored them all—the pope,
English church courts, and the advice ofgreat nobles. He had
Parliament pass the Act ofSupremacy in 1534. The king was declared
“the onlysupreme head on earth of the Church of England.”
Why did Parliament agree? First, the king was stillthe most
powerful authority in the kingdom. Second,the king gave many
members in Parliament a goodreason to support him. Church lands
that were seizedwere sold to them. No family that had been
enrichedwith land would ever want the Catholic Churchreestablished
in England.
Henry’s church, the Anglican Church, was theproduct of a
political struggle. By Elizabeth’s reign,conflict over religious
doctrine was more intensebecause the Reformation had spread to
England. Theestablished Anglican religion made England aProtestant
power. England’s rivals for world power,Spain and France, were
Catholic. Thus Englandbecame firmly committed to Protestantism.
At home, Elizabeth moved to solve religiousconflicts made worse
by her half sister, Mary, adevout woman. Mary had passed laws to
favorCatholicism during her five-year reign. Mary wantedto make
England Catholic again and persecutedmany people.
Elizabeth repealed these laws when she took thethrone. Elizabeth
wanted a national Anglican churchbecause it gave the monarch more
power. She did notwant to upset Catholics too much,
however—thatmight bring on bloody religious wars like those
inFrance and the German states.
177CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
This 1570s painting celebrates the Tudors. Henry VIII is in the
center and Queen Elizabeth at right.
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Her solution was to support a moderate Protes-tantism. In many
ways, the Anglican Church still wasvery Catholic: The prayers were
not much different,the services looked almost the same, and priests
woresimilar vestments.
As the Reformation intensified, Elizabeth’s mod-eration was
unacceptable to fervent Protestants. Puri-tans, especially, were
horrified by Anglican servicesthat looked so Catholic. Puritans
were Calvinistswho wanted to purify the Anglican Church.
Theythought that individual worshippers should focus onspiritual
things at church, not indulge their senseswith organ music, stained
glass, and incense.
Equally important, the Puritans wanted a congre-gation to be
independent of the government and ofbishops who might be corrupted
by their lust forpower. If congregations elected their own
ministers,they would be more godly. These ideas challengedthe
queen’s power since the queen as head of thechurch appointed the
bishops.
As the conflict heated up, Puritans in Parliamentdrafted
legislation to change religious policies. In1576, when one Puritan
proposed to change theAnglican prayer book, Elizabeth imprisoned
him.Government persecution increased, and many Puri-tans emigrated
to found colonies in New England.There Puritanism made a
significant contribution tohow future generations of Americans felt
about therelation between state and church.
The Stuarts and Divine Right The Tudor dynastyended in 1603
because Elizabeth had no heir. Eliza-
beth’s cousin, the Stuart king of Scotland, thenbecame James I
of England.
The problems between Parliament and themonarch began when the
Stuarts came to the Englishthrone. The Stuarts did not understand
how theTudors had ruled. The Stuarts believed in the divineright of
kings and wanted to be absolutist rulers likethe glorious kings of
France. The English Parliamentknew a very different tradition.
Conflicts began under James I and intensified dur-ing the reign
of his son, Charles I. Both kings lookedto Louis XIV as their
example. They believed theyshould be able to operate without any
restraint fromParliament—to spend money as they wanted, tobuild
fine buildings, or make alliances abroad if theyfelt like it.
Parliament was outraged. In 1628, Parliamentpassed a petition
that said the king could not im-pose taxes without its consent. At
first, Charles Iaccepted this petition, but later he realized that
itrestricted his freedom far too much. He retaliated the next year
by not allowing Parliament to meet atall. Some members of
Parliament were imprisoned.Others arrived at Parliament only to
find that thedoors had been bolted shut. They remained lockedfrom
1629 until 1640. During this period—known as the Eleven Years’
Tyranny—Charles ruled withoutParliament.
Contrasting How did the Stuarts’view of Parliament differ from
that of the Tudors?
Reading Check
178
History through Art
In this 1861 work by Ferdinand Piloty, QueenElizabeth I is shown
rallying troops against Spain,England’s traditional enemy. Why does
thepainting support national feeling?
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History through Art
Cromwell Opening the Coffin of Charles I, 1831French artist Paul
Delaroche was famous for this painting onan English history theme.
If this event actually occurred,do you think the painting would
realistically captureCromwell’s attitude toward the executed king?
Why orwhy not?Civil War and Aftermath
Civil war broke out in England in 1642between supporters of the
king and the Parliament, and in1649 Parliament proved
victorious.
Reading Connection If you felt a political leader wasacting
against the law, what would you do to show your oppo-sition? Read
to learn how English leaders expressed their oppo-sition to Charles
I.
The English Parliament was very important togoverning the
nation. From every county, the lordsand wealthy landowners and
townspeople traveledto London to sit in the House of Lords and the
Houseof Commons. These men were not simply wealthy,but actively
involved in serving as a network of offi-cials, sheriffs, and
judges in their counties. If a kingwanted to govern without
Parliament’s support, hewould have had to do it by military
force.
In 1642 a civil war, known as the English Revolu-tion, broke out
between supporters of the king andsupporters of Parliament. The
king’s supporters werecalled Cavaliers or Royalists. Parliament’s
supporterswere called Roundheads because they disapprovedof long
fashionable curls and cut their hair short.
Parliament won largely because of the New ModelArmy of Oliver
Cromwell, a military genius whoknew how to use new tactics and
discipline. Liketheir leader, the soldiers were zealous Puritans
whowere fighting for their religion. In Cromwell’s words,“This is
none other but the hand of God, and to Himalone belongs the
glory.”
The victorious forces lost no time in taking control.Cromwell
concluded that Charles I could not betrusted and must be put to
death. When Parliamenthesitated, Cromwell purged Parliament of
anyonewho disagreed with him.
What was left—the 50 to 60 members of the “RumpParliament”—had
Charles I executed on January 30,1649. The beheading of the king
divided families andhorrified much of Europe, especially members of
theruling classes. One writer recounted that “a man in a[mask] . .
. held up to the spectators the head, stream-ing with blood, and
cried aloud, ‘This is the head of atraitor.’” Others saw Charles as
a martyr. To this day,the British commemorate the anniversary of
his deathby carrying wreaths to his statue in London.
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Cromwell’s Puritan Commonwealth FollowingCharles’s execution,
Parliament abolished themonarchy and the House of Lords and
declared Eng-land a republic, or commonwealth.
Cromwell found it difficult to work with theRump Parliament and
finally dispersed it by force in1653. As the members of Parliament
departed, heshouted, “It is you that have forced me to do this,
forI have sought the Lord night and day that He wouldslay me rather
than put upon me the doing of thiswork.” After eliminating both
Parliament and theking, Cromwell set up a military
dictatorship.
Under Cromwell’s puritanical rule, the Englishhad to give up
going to the theater and most Sundayentertainment. The Puritans
wanted a godly society.Used to a freer society, the English people
becamedissatisfied. When Cromwell died, his son wasunable to
maintain Cromwell’s system.
The Restoration Soon after Cromwell’s death, Parliament restored
the Stuart heir to the Englishthrone—Charles II. Most people were
relieved to bedone with Puritanism and dictatorship. Parliamenthad
not forgotten, however, that the Stuarts had atendency toward
absolutism and got certain agree-ments that Charles II would
respect its power.
England’s time of troubles seemed at an end for awhile, but
Charles II was sympathetic to Catholicism.
Fears of Catholicism surfaced again. If Catholicismwere
restored, prominent Protestants would lose landand influence. The
heir to the throne, Charles’s brotherJames, did not hide the fact
that he was Catholic.
To counter any danger, Parliament introduced theExclusion Bill
to bar James from the throne if he pro-fessed his Catholicism. This
bill is famous because itcreated two political groups, later called
parties: theWhigs, who did not want a Catholic on the throne;and
the Tories, who wanted to follow the lawful suc-cession to the
throne.
To foil the Exclusion Bill, Charles dismissed Par-liament in
1681. He died in 1685 and James II, adevout Catholic, succeeded
him. Once again, religionwas a cause of conflict with Parliament.
James beganfavoring Catholics for high positions in the
govern-ment, army, navy, and universities.
Parliament was unhappy, but they did not yetrebel. James was
old, and they hoped that thingswould improve when one of his
daughters, Mary orAnne, succeeded. Both girls had been born to his
firstwife and had been raised Protestant. In 1688, how-ever, James
had a son by his second wife, a Catholic.The possibility of a
Catholic monarchy and a restoredCatholic Church loomed large.
Explaining What was the basis forthe English civil war that
broke out in 1642?
Reading Check
180 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Cromwell is depicted dismissing Parliament in 1653, when he
began his military dictatorship.
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Glorious Revolution and LimitedMonarchy
England’s Glorious Revolution created a con-stitutional, or
limited, monarchy in which the monarchshared power with
Parliament.
Reading Connection Think of a recent conflict dividingyour
country and how it was settled. Read how English lordsbrought about
a “bloodless revolution” in 1688.
By 1688, England had seen decades of struggle overwhat
institution should have the final authority in thekingdom. It had
also seen decades of struggle overreligion. England’s lords and
landowners reached aquiet consensus. They did not want a king to
dictateto them, and they did not want a Catholic king.
A coup was under way. A group of English noble-men invited the
Dutch leader, William of Orange,who was married to James’s
Protestant daughterMary, to come to England. William and Mary
raisedan army and in 1688 arrived without much opposi-tion in
England. James and his wife and infant sonfled to France. With
almost no bloodshed, Englandhad undergone a “Glorious
Revolution.”
Now the issue was who would be monarch. In Jan-uary 1689,
Parliament offered the throne to Williamand Mary if they would
accept the Bill of Rights. Itset forth Parliament’s right to make
laws and levytaxes. It also stated that standing armies could
beraised only with Parliament’s consent. The Bill ofRights also
confirmed citizens’ right to keep armsand have a jury trial.
The Bill of Rights helped create a system of government based on
law and a freely elected Par-liament. Many of its provisions were
used a cen-tury later as a foundation for the American Bill
ofRights.
The same year, Parliament also passed the Tolera-tion Act of
1689. It granted Puritans, but notCatholics, the right to free
public worship. Very fewEnglish citizens were ever again persecuted
becauseof religion. England was one of the most tolerantnations in
Europe, and many people persecuted else-where sought refuge
there.
By deposing one king and establishing another,Parliament had
destroyed the divine-right theory ofkingship. William, after all,
was king by the grace ofParliament, not the grace of God.
Parliament alsoasserted its right to be part of the government.
John Locke The English struggles of the 1600sinspired John Locke
to write Two Treatises of Govern-ment, published in 1690. This work
criticized abso-lutism and defended the Glorious Revolution.
Lockedescribed how governments are formed, and whatjustifies them.
He believed that before society wasorganized, human beings lived in
a state of equalityand freedom. In this state of nature, humans had
cer-
tain natural rights—rights they wereborn with.
In the real world, Locke feltthere were problems in
thishypothetical idea of nature.People could not protect
theirrights very well. That is whythey agreed to contract with
agovernment to protect their
rights.Under this contract, the peo-
ple and the government hadmutual obligations. Government
would protect the rights of the people,and the people would act
reasonably toward govern-ment. If a government broke the contract
by not pro-tecting an individual’s natural rights, then people
werejustified in rebelling and forming a new government.
181CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
300 kilometers
300 miles0
0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
N
SE
W
50 N
60 N
10 W
0
ATLaNTIC OCEaN
NorthSea
FRANCE
ENGLAND DUTCH NETHERLANDSLondon
Amsterdam
Route of William of Orange
Boundary of theHoly Roman EmpireRoute of William of Orange
In November 1688, William of Orange, shownhere with his wife
Mary, set sail with his troops forEngland. William was the
stadtholder, or chiefexecutive, of the Dutch Republic (later the
Nether-lands). Upon arrival, he met with little opposition.
History
Peter Hoadley, William III and Mary Stuart, Rijksmuseum,
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To Locke, “people” meant the landholding elites,not common
people who did not own land. Eventhough Locke did not advocate
democracy, his ideaspromoted democracy. In the American and
FrenchRevolutions, Locke’s arguments were used todemand the rule of
law and individual rights. ; (Seepage 771 to read an excerpt from
Locke’s Two Treatises ofGovernment in the Primary Sources
Library.)
The Glorious Revolution, the American Revolu-tion, and the
French Revolution all utilized naturalrights theory. The Glorious
Revolution was differentin two ways from the two later revolutions,
however.First, it was not violent—later historians have termedit
the “bloodless revolution,” although there had beenmuch violence in
the 1640s. Second, the Glorious Rev-olution was different because
it was not the middleclass and lower class who were demanding
rights, butnobles and wealthy members of Parliament.
Still, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 had a hugeimpact. It
inspired French thinkers to speak outagainst absolutism. British
colonists also took animportant lesson from the Glorious
Revolution. Theyapplauded Parliament’s fight and saw their own
par-liaments in the colonies as having the same rights.Fully aware
of events in England, the colonistsexpanded their concept of rights
and liberties.
Describing Trace the events of thelate 1680s that led to the
English Bill of Rights.
Reading Check
182 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: divine right
of
kings, attribute, restraint, common-wealth, consensus, natural
rights, hypo-thetical, mutual.
2. People Identify: Elizabeth I, Puritans,Charles I, Oliver
Cromwell, Charles II,James II, William of Orange, John Locke.
Reviewing Big Ideas3. Explain why Oliver Cromwell first
purged Parliament and then declared amilitary dictatorship.
Critical Thinking4. Connecting
Events Summarize the reasons behindthe formation of the Church
of England.
5. Compare and Contrast the Catholicand Anglican Churches and
explainwhy the Puritans rejected both of them.
Analyzing Visuals6. Examine the cameo of William and
Mary shown on page 181. How doesthis painting compare to
portraits ofother rulers, such as the one of Louis
XIV on page 176? How is the purpose ofthis painting different
from the purposeof other royal portraits?
CA HI 1
7. Persuasive Writing Compose a let-ter to Oliver Cromwell.
Using exam-ples from history, attempt toconvince him that winning
the sup-port of the English people is impor-tant and give him
specificsuggestions of how to do it.
CA 10WA2.4c
Enlightenment thinker John Locke (shown in oval) was amajor
influence on America’s founders Benjamin Franklin,John Adams, and
Thomas Jefferson. For help with the concepts in this section of
Glencoe World
History—Modern Times, go to andclick on Study Central.
wh.mt.glencoe.com
Study CentralHISTORY
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The Enlightenment
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
Section PreviewEnlightenment thinkers, or philosophes,believed
that human nature was rationaland good, and wanted government
andsociety to be based on reason.
• The philosophes believed that theycould copy the rational
methods of scientists to eliminate unjust laws and create a better
society. (p. 184)
• The philosophes’ belief in logic and rea-son promoted the
beginnings of thesocial sciences, such as economics andpolitical
science. (p. 187)
• Enlightenment ideas spread in Francethrough salons and in the
Westernworld through an expansion of thereading public. (p.
188)
Content Vocabularyphilosophe, deism, separation of powers,social
contract, laissez-faire, salon
Academic Vocabularyevidence, affect, concept
People to IdentifyIsaac Newton, Voltaire, Montesquieu,Rousseau,
Adam Smith, Cesare Beccaria,Denis Diderot, Mary Wollstonecraft
Places to LocateParis, London
Reading Objectives1. Define the central ideas of the
Enlight-
enment.2. Explain the role that religion played
during the Enlightenment.
Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a dia-gram like the
one below to list main ideasof the Enlightenment.
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California
History–Social Science standards.
10.2: Students compare and contrast the Glorious Rev-olution of
England, the American Revolution, andthe French Revolution and
their enduring effectsworldwide on the political expectations for
self-government and individual liberty.
10.2.1: Compare the major ideas of philosophers andtheir effects
on the democratic revolutions inEngland, the United States, France,
and LatinAmerica (e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis Mon-tesquieu,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Simón Bolívar,Thomas Jefferson, James
Madison).
10.2.2: List the principles of the Magna Carta, the Eng-lish
Bill of Rights (1689), the American Declara-tion of Independence
(1776), the FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and the
Citizen(1789), and the U.S. Bill of Rights (1791).
10.2.3: Understand the unique character of the Ameri-can
Revolution, its spread to other parts of theworld, and its
continuing significance to othernations.
Major Ideas of the Enlightenment
1702The first daily newspaper is published in London
1762Rousseau publishesThe Social Contract
1776Adam Smith publishes TheWealth of Nations
1748Baron de Montesquieupublishes The Spirit of the Laws
✦1700 ✦1715 ✦1730 ✦1745 ✦1760 ✦1775 ✦1790
1763Voltaire writes his Treatise on Toleration
183CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment and thePhilosophes
The philosophes believed that they could copythe rational
methods of scientists to eliminate unjust lawsand create a better
society.
Reading Connection Think of a time when you experi-enced an
injustice. Read to learn how imprisonment andforced exile affected
the ideas of Voltaire.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movementthat began in
France. Its leaders were calledphilosophes (FEE•luh•ZAWFS). They
were notphilosophers in the strict sense of the term, but writ-ers,
professors, journalists, economists, and socialreformers. They came
chiefly from the nobility andthe middle class.
These philosophes were amazed by the ScientificRevolution and
saw that reason had enabled scien-tists to discover the secrets of
the universe. Reasonbecame their guide and motto. If reason was
appliedto politics and government, it would be a better, morejust
society for all.
Although the Enlightenment began in France, twoof its heroes
were Englishmen, Isaac Newton and
John Locke. Newton’s discoveries in math andastronomy showed
evidence that the physical uni-verse followed regular natural laws.
The philosopheswanted to be like Newton and find the natural
lawsfor human society.
John Locke was another powerful influence in theEnlightenment.
He had analyzed how a governmentshould rule in Two Treatises of
Government, but inother essays he wrote about how people think
andlearn. Locke said that when infants were born, theirminds were
blank—they were a tabula rasa, or blankslate, on which anything
could be written. Lockeargued that people learned everything from
theirsenses and experiences.
From Locke, Enlightenment thinkers concludedthat if a more
rational environment was created insociety, then people would be
rational and good. Onewriter said that the philosophe is one who
“applieshimself to the study of society with the purpose ofmaking
his kind better and happier.”
The Enlightenment spanned almost a century.Centered in Paris, it
was an international movementwhich evolved over time. For this
reason, one canfind disagreements on certain issues, but all of
thephilosophes focused on the themes of reason, naturallaw, hope,
and progress.
184 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
The French intellectual Voltaire attacked religiousintolerance
in The Ignorant Philosopher:
“I say, there is scarce any city or borough inEurope, where
blood has not been spilled for reli-gious quarrels; I say, that the
human species hasbeen perceptibly diminished, because women
andgirls were massacred as well as men. I say thatEurope would have
a third larger population ifthere had been no theological disputes.
In fine, Isay, that so far from forgetting these abominabletimes,
we should frequently take a view of them,to inspire an eternal
horror for them. . . . It is forour age to make amends by
toleration, for thislong collection of crimes, which has taken
placethrough the lack of toleration during sixteen bar-barous
centuries.”
Religious toleration was one of the major themesof the
Enlightenment.
Isaac Newton analyzing light rays
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Voltaire Of all the great names in the Enlighten-ment, the
greatest was François-Marie Arouet,known simply as Voltaire. A
Parisian, Voltaire camefrom a prosperous middle-class family. He
wrote analmost endless stream of pamphlets, novels, plays,letters,
essays, and histories, which brought him bothfame and wealth.
In 1726, when he was 32, Voltaire clashed with anobleman in
France, who resented an insult Voltairehad directed at him. The
nobleman had powerfulconnections and succeeded in having Voltaire
impris-oned. Voltaire was released only when he agreed toleave
France and go into exile in England.
This experience affected Voltaire deeply. After hisrelease from
prison, he often spoke out against cen-sorship and unjust laws. In
the three years he spentin England, he saw a society that he felt
was superior.As a man of ideas, he liked the freer air in
England—for the most part, men and women could expresstheir
opinions openly. On his return to France, hepublished a work that
criticized French institutionsas compared to the English. The
French king bannedthe book immediately.
Voltaire was a strong opponent of the CatholicChurch. His
opposition had a lot to do with the factthat the Church in France
supported absolutism.Voltaire opposed traditional Christianity,
too, how-ever, because he believed it did not encourage peopleto
think rationally. He mocked what he termedsuperstition wherever he
saw it and campaigned forreligious toleration. His Treatise on
Toleration of 1763reminded governments that “all men are
brothersunder God.”
Voltaire himself was a deist. Deism is based onreason and
natural law. The Supreme Being is not apersonal God, but an
impersonal being. Deists imag-ined that God had created a
world-machine that wasperfect. Once set in motion, the universe ran
accord-ing to natural laws, without the need for
constantsupervision or occasional miracles.
Montesquieu Charles-Louis de Secondat, the Baronde Montesquieu,
came from the French nobility. Hismost famous work, The Spirit of
the Laws, was pub-lished in 1748. Montesquieu used the
scientificmethod to make a close study of governments. In away,
Montesquieu was the first political scientist.
Montesquieu identified three basic kinds of gov-ernments: (1)
republics, suitable for small states; (2)despotism, appropriate for
large states; and (3)monarchies, ideal for moderate-size states. He
usedEngland as an example of a monarchy.
Montesquieu believed that England’s governmenthad three
branches: the executive (the monarch), thelegislative (Parliament),
and the judicial (the courtsof law). He thought that the English
governmentfunctioned through a separation of powers in whichthe
executive, legislative, and judiciary placed limitsand controls on
each other. By preventing one groupfrom having too much power, and
by creating a sys-tem of checks and balances, the English had
createdthe most freedom and security for the nation.
Montesquieu was actually inaccurate in his analy-sis of English
government. Power was not strictlyseparated as he claimed, but
distributed in a muchmore complex way. As just one example, the
kinghad many connections to Parliament through noblefamilies. Yet
essentially Montesquieu was right to saythat power was balanced in
the English system.
It was in America that Montesquieu’s concept ofseparation of
powers made a contribution. Mon-tesquieu’s work was translated into
English, andAmericans read it. They followed his ideas
aboutseparation of powers, and checks and balances, veryclosely in
the United States Constitution.
Rousseau By the late 1760s, anew generation of philo-sophes had
come to maturity.Most famous of these tal-ented writers and
thinkerswas Jean-Jacques Rousseau(ru•SOH). Rousseau wasvery
different from Voltaire,the sophisticated man of Paris,or from
Montesquieu, anaristocrat.
185CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
A London coffeehouse, a typical setting for the discussion
ofpolitics and new ideas
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Rousseau was born into a poor middle-class familyin Switzerland.
As a young man, he wandered throughFrance and Italy, making a
living by holding odd jobsfor low pay. Eventually he made his way
to Paris,where he wrote several essays. His writings attractedthe
attention of Voltaire and other philosophes, butRousseau was always
the outsider. He did not like citylife and often withdrew to be
alone for long periods.
In Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality ofMankind,
Rousseau argued that people had adoptedlaws and government to
preserve their property. Indoing so, they had become enslaved by
government.What should people do to regain their freedom?
In his famous work The Social Contract, published in1762,
Rousseau presented a strikingly new idea aboutsociety. John Locke
had written about a contractbetween people and the government.
Rousseau’ssocial contract was something different, an
agreementamong a whole society that it would be governed bythe
general will. Individuals who wanted to followtheir own
self-interests must be forced to abide by thegeneral will. “This
means nothing less than that [they]will be forced to be free,” said
Rousseau. In Rousseau’stheory, the general will represents what is
best for theentire community.
Another important work by Rousseau is Emile.Written in the form
of a novel, Emile discusses theeducation of “the natural man.”
Rousseau arguedthat education should foster, and not restrict,
chil-dren’s natural instincts.
Most Enlightenment thinkers talked and wrote con-stantly about
reason. Rousseau believed that emotionheld another kind of truth
and was also important tohuman development. His goal was a balance
betweenheart and mind, between emotion and reason.
Rousseau’s ideas about women were not veryadvanced. Women were
“naturally” different frommen: “To fulfill her functions, . . . [a
woman] needs asoft life. . . . How much care and tenderness does
sheneed to hold her family together.” He thoughtwomen should learn
obedience and nurturing skillsso that they could care for their
husbands and chil-dren. He once wrote that he preferred the
traditionalwoman. “I would a thousand times have a homelygirl,
simply brought up than a learned lady and a witwho would make a
literary circle of my house.” Noteveryone, however, agreed with
Rousseau.
Comparing What were the majorcontributions of the Enlightenment
thinkers?
Reading Check
186
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MediterraneanSea
Balti
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Glasgow Edinburgh
OxfordCambridge
London
Greenwich
LisbonMadrid
Paris
Geneva
Turin
Strasbourg
Rome
PisaFlorence Bologna
Padua
Munich Vienna
LeidenAmsterdam
G¨ottingenHalle Leipzig
PragueFrankfurt
Berlin
Krak´ow
Warsaw
Danzig
Copenhagen
Stockholm
Uppsala St. Petersburg
Europe in the Age of Enlightenment
Academy of science
University
Observatory
Palace inspired by Versailles
Publication of scientificor philosophical journals
The intellectuals of the Enlightenment created a movementthat
influenced the entire Western world.
1. Interpreting Maps Examine the key for the map. Whatkind of
information does it contain?
2. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer twoquestions about
the geographic distributions shown on the map. Create a thematic
chart that represents the same information.
CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
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Toward a New Social Science
The philosophes’ belief in logic and reasonpromoted the
beginnings of the social sciences, such aseconomics and political
science.
Reading Connection Have you heard of studies thatinfluence how
politicians draft new laws? Read to learn aboutthe time when
studies in the social sciences first began to influ-ence
government.
The philosophes believed that scientific methodscould be used to
study society. In time, this convic-tion led to new fields of
study, the social sciences.Economics and political science were two
of the firstsocial sciences to develop.
The founders of the modern social science of eco-nomics were the
Physiocrats in France and thephilosopher Adam Smith in
Scotland.
The Physiocrats argued that if individuals werefree to pursue
their economic self-interest, everyonewould be better off in the
end. Believing in this prin-ciple, the Physiocrats argued that the
state should notinterrupt the free play of natural economic forces
byimposing government regulations. The state shouldleave the
economy alone.
This doctrine became known by its French name,laissez-faire
(LEH•SAY FEHR), meaning “to let (peo-ple) do (what they want).” The
best statement of lais-sez-faire was made in 1776 by Adam Smith in
his
famous work The Wealth of Nations. Like the Phys-iocrats, Smith
believed that the state should not inter-fere in the economy.
Instead, Smith argued that thelaw of supply and demand would
naturally regulatethe economy for everyone’s best interest.
In fact, Smith argued that the government hadonly three very
basic roles: protecting society frominvasion (the army); keeping up
certain publicworks, such as roads and canals, that private
indi-viduals could not afford; and defending citizens frominjustice
(the police).
The power of the Enlightenment ideas can be seenin writings on
another aspect of society: crime andpunishment. By the eighteenth
century, most Euro-pean states had developed a system of courts to
for-mally sentence criminals. Punishments were oftencruel.
Governments felt extreme punishments werenecessary to deter crime
because their police forceswere weak and thus unable to capture
criminals.
Following the thinking of the philosophes, oneman came up with
different conclusions. Cesare Beccaria proposed a new approach to
justice in OnCrimes and Punishments, written in 1764.
Beccariaargued that brutal punishments did not stop othersfrom
turning to crime. Moreover, it set an example ofbarbarism: “Is it
not absurd, that the laws, whichpunish murder, should, in order to
prevent murder,publicly commit murder themselves?”
Explaining What is the concept oflaissez-faire?
Reading Check
187CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Mary Wollstonecraft1759–1797—English writer
Mary Wollstonecraft is considered by many to be the founder of
the Euro-pean and American movements for women’s rights.
Wollstonecraft waslargely self-educated. For a while, she earned a
living as a governess butsoon moved to a writing career and worked
for a magazine publisher.
All along, Wollstonecraft continued to develop her ideas on
educationand women’s rights. She wrote in 1792: “Make women
rational creatures,and free citizens, and they will quickly become
good wives; that is—if mendo not neglect the duties of husbands and
fathers!”
Mary Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin in
1797.She died shortly after the birth of their daughter, Mary
Wollstonecraft God-win Shelley, who wrote the famous novel
Frankenstein.
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Magazines, Then and NowBookstores and newsstands carry thousands
of
magazines that appeal to an enormous variety ofinterests. We can
find magazines on fishing, car racing,fashion, politics,
television, furniture making, tourism,wrestling, and a host of
other subjects.
The first magazines in Europe were a product of agrowing reading
public in the seventeenth and eigh-teenth centuries, especially
among the middle classes.The first magazine was published in
Germany in 1633.It contained poems and articles on religion, the
chiefinterest of its editor, Johann Rist.
Many early magazines had serious goals. JosephAddison and
Richard Steele’s Spectator, begun in1711, aimed to “bring
Philosophy out of the closetsand libraries, schools and colleges,
to dwell in clubsand assemblies, at tea-tables and
coffeehouses.”
Some publishers beganto broaden the appeal oftheir magazines.
Someattracted women readers.Ladies’ Mercury, publishedin Britain,
provided adviceon marriage, sewing pat-terns, and gossip. Its
suc-cess inspired a host ofsimilar magazines.
Pretend you are an eighteenth-century magazine edi-tor assigned
to write an article for the next edition.Choose a person or an
event discussed in Chapter 2to be the subject of your article (use
outsideresources if necessary). You could also select
oneEnlightenment idea and present it to your readers.
Argentine magazine stand
188 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Spread of the Enlightenment
Enlightenment ideas spread in France throughsalons and in the
Western world through an expansion ofthe reading public.
Reading Connection Think about the careers open toAmerican women
today. Read to learn how the Enlightenmentfirst promoted ideas
about women’s rights.
It was wealthy elites who experienced the Enlight-enment to the
fullest. However, the movement alsospread to literate people in
urban areas of Europe.
Salons and the Growth of Reading In the eigh-teenth century,
many more books began to be pub-lished. In 1750, French publishers
came out withabout 300 titles, and by 1780, that number hadclimbed
to about 1,600. Publishers were aiming at anew market, too, new
readers among the middleclass, which included women and artisans
and evena few workers in the cities.
Between 1751 and 1772, a French philosophenamed Denis Diderot
published a 28-volume Ency-clopedia, or Classified Dictionary of
the Sciences, Arts,
and Trades. The Encyclopedia became a major weaponin the
philosophes’ crusade against the old Frenchsociety, attacking
superstition and calling for politicalchanges. Many copies were
sold, spreading Enlight-enment ideas. Magazines also changed ideas.
InGreat Britain, an important center for the new maga-zines, 25
periodicals were published in 1700, 103 in1760, and 158 in 1780.
Along with magazines camedaily newspapers. The first was printed in
London in1702. Newspapers were relatively cheap and wereeven
provided free in many coffeehouses.
Enlightenment ideas also spread through salons.Salons were the
elegant drawing rooms of thewealthy upper class’s great urban
houses. Guestsgathered in them to discuss ideas. Salons
broughtwriters and artists together with aristocrats andwealthy
middle-class people. This mixing of theclasses was itself a sign of
progress.
HISTORY
Web Activity Visit the Glencoe World History—ModernTimes Web
site at and click onChapter 2–Student Web Activity to learn more
about thearts in the 1700s.
wh.mt.glencoe.com
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orra
l V/C
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BIS
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Women and the Enlightenment Salons werealways hosted by women.
In this role, women foundthemselves in a position to sway political
opinionand influence literary and artistic taste. At her
fash-ionable home in Paris, for example, Marie-Thérèse deGeoffrin,
the wife of a wealthy merchant, held gath-erings that became the
talk of France and of allEurope. Distinguished foreigners,
including a futureking of Sweden and a future king of Poland,
com-peted to receive invitations.
For centuries, male intellectuals had argued thatwomen were
naturally inferior to men and so it wasnecessary for men to
dominate women. By the timeof the Enlightenment, however, female
thinkers didnot find that these ideas met the test of reason.
TheEnglish writer Mary Wollstonecraft made thestrongest statement
for the rights of women. Manysee her as the original founder of the
movement forwomen’s rights.
In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Woll-stonecraft
identified two problems with how someEnlightenment thinkers viewed
women. She askedwhy the same people who argued that women mustobey
men without question also said that an abso-lutist government was
wrong.
Wollstonecraft also argued that the Enlightenmentwas based on an
ideal of reason in all human beings.Because women have reason, they
too are entitled tonatural rights. Women, Wollstonecraft
declared,should have equal rights in education, as well as
ineconomic and political life.
The Enlightenment in America The Enlighten-ment had a powerful
effect on colonists in America.The British colonies were still part
of European soci-ety in many ways, and educated men and womenread
the same books and journals as the elites ofEurope—at least as soon
as they could get them fortheir libraries or borrow them.
Thomas Jefferson, who drafted the Declaration ofIndependence,
first encountered the writings ofEnlightenment thinkers when he was
a college stu-dent in the early 1760s. He and James Madison,another
influential American leader, were bothattracted to the ideas of
John Locke.
One of the most obvious examples of Locke’sinfluence can be seen
in the Declaration of Indepen-dence. Numerous phrases in the
Declaration bear aresemblance to statements in Locke’s Two
Treatises ofGovernment. Perhaps Locke had the most impactthrough
his argument that citizens were justified inrebelling against a
government that causes harm tothose it governs. Americans were
certain that theBritish government of King George III had
causedthem harm, and that they were justified in rebelling.
Evaluating How did Mary Woll-stonecraft use the Enlightenment
ideal of reason?
Reading Check
189CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: philosophe,
evi-
dence, affect, deism, separation ofpowers, concept, social
contract, laissez-faire, salon.
2. People Identify: Isaac Newton,Voltaire, Montesquieu,
Rousseau, AdamSmith, Cesare Beccaria, Denis Diderot,Mary
Wollstonecraft.
3. Places Locate: Paris, London.
Reviewing Big Ideas4. Explain the influence of Isaac Newton
and John Locke on Enlightenmentthinkers.
Critical Thinking5. Connecting
Ideas What did Rousseau mean whenhe stated that if any
individual wants topursue his own self-interest at theexpense of
the common good, “He willbe forced to be free”?
6. Summarizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to
identify fac-tors that helped spread Enlightenmentideas throughout
Europe.
Analyzing Visuals7. Describe the scene in the painting on
page 182, which portrays Thomas Jef-ferson, Benjamin Franklin,
and JohnAdams drafting the Declaration of Inde-pendence. Does the
scene suggest theseriousness of what they were doing?CA HI 1
Factors that SpreadEnlightenment
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe
WorldHistory—Modern Times, go to andclick on Study Central.
wh.mt.glencoe.com
Study CentralHISTORY
8. Persuasive Writing Mary Woll-stonecraft argued that women
areentitled to the same rights as men.In an essay, present an
argument fortoday’s audience on the same issue,using evidence and
logic.
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The American Revolution
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
Section PreviewInspired by a belief in natural rights the-ory,
American colonists rebelled againstBritain to found a new
nation.
• In theory, the colonies were governedby the British, but in
practice coloniallegislatures often acted independently.(p.
191)
• After the French and Indian War, theBritish angered colonists
by imposingnew taxes to help pay for the war. (p. 191)
• Drawing on natural rights theory andthe ideas of John Locke,
the Declarationof Independence declared the coloniesto be
independent of the British Crown.(p. 192)
• Americans won their independencefrom Britain in 1783 and later
ratified aconstitution that clearly spelled out therights of
individuals and the limits ofgovernment. (p. 194)
• Americans struggled to find a balancebetween individual
freedom and a uni-fied central government. (p. 196)
Content Vocabularycolony, Stamp Act, Declaration of
Inde-pendence, Articles of Confederation, fed-eral system, Bill of
Rights
Academic Vocabularytension, correspondence,
amendments,assembly
People to IdentifyWilliam Pitt the Elder, King George III,George
Washington, Thomas Jefferson
Places to LocateYorktown
Reading Objectives1. Identify the causes of the American
Revolution.2. Describe the short-term and long-term
impact of the American Revolution.
Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a chartlike the one
below to identify key aspectsof the government created by the
Ameri-can colonists.
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California
History–Social Science standards.
10.1.3: Consider the influence of the U.S. Constitutionon
political systems in the contemporary world.
10.2: Students compare and contrast the Glorious Revo-lution of
England, the American Revolution, andthe French Revolution and
their enduring effectsworldwide on the political expectations for
self-government and individual liberty.
10.2.2: List the principles of the Magna Carta, the Eng-lish
Bill of Rights (1689), the American Declara-tion of Independence
(1776), the FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and the
Citizen(1789), and the U.S. Bill of Rights (1791).
10.2.3: Understand the unique character of the Ameri-can
Revolution, its spread to other parts of theworld, and its
continuing significance to othernations.
1721Robert Walpole becomes cabinet head in Britain
1776American Revolution begins
1783Treaty of Paris recognizes Americanindependence
1757William Pitt the Elderbecomes cabinet head
✦1715 ✦1730 ✦1745 ✦1760 ✦1775 ✦1790
CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment190
NewAmerican Government
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How the Colonies Learned Self-Government
In theory, the colonies were governed by theBritish, but in
practice colonial legislatures often actedindependently.
Reading Connection What issues might make you wantto declare
independence from your parents, teachers, andfriends? Read to
discover why colonists took their first steps topolitical
independence.
By 1750, more than one million people lived in thethirteen
British colonies in North America. Locatedon the eastern coast of
the present United States, theyattracted many settlers and became
prosperous.
The colonies were established to supply raw mate-rials to
Britain and to be a market for British goods.In theory, the British
Board of Trade, and ultimatelythe Parliament, were in charge of
them, but thecolonies had set up their own legislatures.
Fordecades, these legislatures operated with little inter-ference
from Britain.
Each of the 13 legislatures functioned like a minia-ture
Parliament and made its own laws. White malecitizens who owned land
elected the representatives.There were also county and local
government insti-tutions which passed laws for towns and
villages.
Comparing How did American andBritish views of their
legislatures differ?
British and French Rivalry in NorthAmerica
After the French and Indian War, the Britishangered colonists by
imposing new taxes to help pay forthe war.
Reading Connection Think about the various kinds oftaxes that
may affect your life. Read this section to see howcolonists reacted
to taxes they felt were unjust.
The French and British colonies in North Americawere set up
differently. French North America, con-sisting of Canada and
Louisiana, was run by theFrench government as a vast trading area.
TheFrench state was unable to get people to move toNorth America,
so its colonies were thinly populated,in contrast to those of
Britain.
Between 1756 and 1763, Britain and France foughtone another in
the Seven Years’ War. The Americanphase of the war is known as the
French and IndianWar. The British and the French were fighting for
con-trol of North America, especially for control of theOhio River
valley. British settlers wanted to expandinto this vast area, and
French forts stood in their way.
Reading Check
191CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congressadopted a
resolution declaring the independence ofthe American colonies. It
read:
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, thatall men are
created equal, that they are endowedby their Creator with certain
unalienable Rights,that among these are Life, Liberty, and the
pursuitof Happiness. That to secure these rights, Govern-ments are
instituted among Men, deriving theirjust powers from the consent of
the governed.That whenever any Form of Government
becomesdestructive of these ends, it is the Right of thePeople to
alter or to abolish it and to institute newGovernment.”
The ideas of the Enlightenment had clearly madean impact on the
colonies in North America. Despitetheir close ties to their
European mother countries,the colonies of Latin America and British
NorthAmerica were developing in ways that sometimesdiffered
significantly from those of Europe.
Thomas Jefferson
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At first, the French, with the help of their Indianallies,
scored some victories. British fortunes wererevived by William Pitt
the Elder, Britain’s primeminister. Pitt was convinced that the
French colonialempire would have to be destroyed for Britain to
haveits own empire. He used the British navy to defeat theweaker
French fleet. The British had the advantage—the French now had a
hard time reinforcing theirtroops in America.
In 1759, British forces defeated the French on thePlains of
Abraham, outside Quebec. The French wereforced to make peace. By
the Treaty of Paris, theytransferred Canada and the lands east of
the Missis-sippi to Great Britain. Their ally Spain
transferredSpanish Florida to British control. In return, theFrench
gave their Louisiana territory to the Spanish.By 1763, Great
Britain had become the world’s great-est colonial power.
After achieving victory in the Seven Years’ War,British leaders
wanted to get new revenues from thecolonies. These revenues would
be used to cover warcosts, as well as to pay for the expenses of
maintain-ing an army to defend the colonies.
In 1765, Parliament imposed the Stamp Act on thecolonies. This
act required that certain printed mate-rials, such as legal
documents and newspapers, carrya stamp showing that a tax had been
paid to Britain.
Opposition was widespread and often violent, andthe act was
repealed in 1766. The crisis was over, butthe cause of the dispute
was not resolved.
Why did British leaders impose theStamp Act on colonists, and
what response did it elicit?
The American Revolution
Drawing on natural rights theory and theideas of John Locke, the
Declaration of Independencedeclared the colonies to be independent
of the BritishCrown.
Reading Connection What comes to mind when you celebrate the
Fourth of July? Read to learn how and why the colonists took the
bold and risky step of declaringindependence.
The tension between Great Britain and thecolonies had started
before the Stamp Act waspassed. The British expected the colonies
to importmostly British goods. Parliament passed taxes
onnon-British goods to make them more expensive. Toavoid these
tariffs, the colonists had been smugglingthem. The British then
clamped down on smugglers,
Reading Check
192 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
The Battle of Quebec in 1759 was a great British victory over
the French in the French and Indian War.
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even searching private homes for illegal goods. Thecolonists
were angry because they thought of them-selves as English citizens
protected by English laws.
On the same day that Parliament repealed theStamp Act, it passed
the Declaratory Act. TheDeclaratory Act said that Parliament had
the right totax and make decisions for the colonies “in all
cases.”New taxes on basic goods were passed. The newtaxes—and the
undermining of the colonial legisla-tures—enraged the colonists.
“No taxation withoutrepresentation!” became the rallying cry behind
anti-British demonstrations, boycotts, and even destruc-tion of
property.
As a result of the colonists’ actions, the British sentmore
troops to the colonies. Clashes between theBritish soldiers and the
colonists grew more volatile.One clash, the Boston Massacre, left
five colonistsdead and led to the spread of anti-British
propa-ganda. In order to restore the peace and reestablishtrade
relations, the British repealed all taxes exceptfor the tea tax,
and the colonists put an end to boy-cotts on British goods.
However, the push for eco-nomic independence was growing
stronger.
After two years of relative calm, tension mountedwhen Parliament
passed the Tea Act of 1773. This actallowed the struggling British
East India Company tobypass American merchants and sell their tea
directly to colonial shopkeepers. This made British tea cheaper
than all other tea, gave the British a monopoly, and decreased
profits for American merchants.
The Colonists Unite in Protest The colonists hadhad enough.
Previously, at Thomas Jefferson’s urging,the colonies had formed
committees of correspon-dence to allow them to communicate with
each otherabout the British. They used these committees to keepEast
India Company tea out of America. At BostonHarbor, two ships
carrying the tea were forced to turnaround and another had its
cargo seized. In December1773, colonists boarded one ship and
dumped 342chests of tea into the harbor, an event that becameknown
as the Boston Tea Party. Despite this radical act, most colonists
were still not ready to throw offBritish rule.
When King George III heard about the Boston TeaParty, he ordered
Parliament to pass the CoerciveActs to punish Massachusetts and put
an end to colo-nial rebellion. The acts—renamed the IntolerableActs
by the colonists—violated several traditionalEnglish rights,
including the right to a trial by juryand the right to not be
forced to quarter, or house,troops in one’s own home.
The Continental Congresses To counteract Britishactions, the
colonies organized the First ContinentalCongress, which met in
Philadelphia in September1774. The mood of many colonists could be
summedup by the words of Patrick Henry, who said, “Thedistinctions
between Virginians, Pennsylvanians,New Yorkers, and New Englanders
are no more. . . . Iam not a Virginian, but an American.”
This Continental Congress called for the repeal ofthe 13
Parliament acts passed since 1763, the boycottof British goods, and
the formation of colonial mili-tias. It sent the king a Declaration
of Rights andGrievances that stated their loyalty but condemnedthe
Coercive Acts. The delegates agreed to meetagain in 1775 if the
crisis had not been resolved.
The reaction of King George III and Parliamentdid not calm the
colonists. When colonial militiaswere formed, the king sent more
British troops to thecolonies. In the spring of 1775, British
troops inBoston were sent to seize the arms and supplies ofmilitias
stored in Concord, Massachusetts. On theirway, the British ran into
colonial militias in Lexing-ton. By the time the British got to
Concord, they facedmore militias and found that the supplies had
beenremoved. The British were harassed all the way backto Boston,
with 99 killed and 174 wounded. News ofthe fighting spread to other
colonies. In Boston, the
A British cartoonist’s image of the Boston Tea Party
193CORBIS
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colonial militia began to stream in and soon theBritish were
surrounded.
The Second Continental Congress Because ofhow the British
reacted, the Second Continental Con-gress was called and met in May
1775. The first issuewas the formation of an organized army, the
Conti-nental Army, which was to be commanded byGeorge Washington.
Before the Continental Armyhad a chance to organize, the British
sent more sol-diers to Boston to suppress revolt. The colonial
mili-tia found out about the plan and met the British at theBattle
of Bunker Hill. Desperately short on supplies,the colonists managed
to kill or wound 1,000 Britishsoldiers. A military stalemate
resumed in Boston, butAmerican confidence was rising.
Still, the colonists did not rush headlong into war.After the
fighting in Lexington and Concord, morethan a year passed before
the decision was made todeclare independence from the British
Empire.
In July 1775, the Second Continental Congress sentthe Olive
Branch Petition to assure King George III oftheir desire for peace.
The colonists asked the king toprotect their rights as English
citizens, which they feltParliament had been taking away. King
Georgerefused to look at the petition. Instead, he sent 30,000hired
German troops to the colonies to fight the rebel-lious
colonists.
Although some colonists, called Loyalists, wantedto remain loyal
English citizens, others, called Patri-ots, began calling for
independence. Beginning inJanuary 1776, Patriot Thomas Paine’s
pamphlets,called Common Sense, began circulating throughoutthe
colonies. Paine’s writings began to convince peo-ple that both
Parliament and King George III wereacting like tyrants, and
complete independence fromGreat Britain was necessary if Americans
were tosecure their rights.
The Birth of a New Nation
Americans won their independence fromBritain in 1783 and later
ratified a constitution that clearlyspelled out the rights of
individuals and the limits of government.
Reading Connection Can you think of a time when agoal you had
finally became a reality? Read to learn about thesteps colonists
took when they finally won independence.
On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congressapproved a
declaration of independence written byThomas Jefferson. Based in
large part on the ideas ofJohn Locke, the Declaration of
Independencedeclared the colonies to be “free and independent
194 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
At the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, Patriot
leaders called for a Continental army.
Courtesy of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection,
Atwater Kent Museum of Philadelphia
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states absolved from all allegiance to the BritishCrown.” Like
Locke, Jefferson stated that life, liberty,and property are natural
rights and it is the govern-ment’s duty to protect those rights.
When govern-ments do not, they can be rightfully overthrown.
Thepeople of the American colonies reacted with cele-bration to the
Declaration of Independence. TheAmerican Revolution had formally
begun.
The Declaration of Independence amounted to adeclaration of war
against Great Britain. Such a dec-laration was an enormous gamble.
The ContinentalArmy was a brand-new creation. The soldiers were
amotley group of ordinary citizens—small farmers,artisans, and
merchants. They had no regular mili-tary training and usually
agreed to serve for only ashort time. These so-called Patriots
faced the world’sbest military force, one supported by a rich
nationwith a healthy economy.
The Patriots had some important advantages,though. The British
had to ship soldiers and suppliesacross the Atlantic, while the
Patriots were fightingon home ground.
One of the most important advantages that thePatriots had was
their motivation to fight. Most ofthe British and German soldiers
were fighting as partof a job or for money. For the Patriots, it
was a battlefor their freedom.
A critical factor for the American victory was thefinancial
support from other countries, especially
France. The French, eager to inflict damage on theBritish in any
way possible, gave arms and money tothe Americans from early in the
war. French officersand soldiers served under General Washington.
Onefamous Frenchman, the Marquis de Lafayette, wrotethis about the
American Revolution: “The future ofAmerica is closely bound up with
the future of allmankind.” Spain and the Dutch Republic,
otherBritish rivals, were also eager to fight against GreatBritain.
The British had their hands full.
Both sides expected the war to be short, but itdragged on for
about seven years, from 1776 to 1783.When the army of General
Cornwallis was finallyforced to surrender to combined American
andFrench forces under Washington at Yorktown in1781, the British
decided to end the war.
The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, recognized theindependence
of the American colonies and grantedthe Americans control of the
western territory fromthe Appalachians to the Mississippi
River.
Explaining Why did foreign coun-tries support the American
cause?
Reading Check
195CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
History through Art
The March to Valley Forge, 1883 was painted byWilliam B.T.
Trego. It conveyed the suffering GeneralWashington and his
Continental Army endured duringthe brutal winter of 1777 at their
headquarters in Pennsylvania. How do you think the public felt
aboutthis event in the year it was painted?
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Ruling a New Nation
Americans struggled to find a balancebetween individual freedom
and a unified central government.
Reading Connection Have you heard the phrase cost-benefit
analysis? Read to learn how Americans balanced thecosts and
benefits of government.
The thirteen American colonies had gained theirindependence. The
former colonies were now stateswhich had to come together to form a
country.Because they had just fought a war to free themselvesfrom a
king, the states feared the potential for con-centrated power.
Also, each state was primarily con-cerned for its own interests.
For these reasons, thestates had little enthusiasm for creating a
unitednation with a strong central government.
The Articles of Confederation, the nation’s firstconstitution,
thus did little to provide for a strongcentral government. It soon
became clear that thegovernment under the Articles lacked the power
todeal with many problems. A movement for a differ-ent form of
national government arose.
The Articles of Confederation had been approvedin 1781. In the
summer of 1787, 55 delegates met inPhiladelphia to revise the
Articles. The convention’s
delegates decided to throw out the Articles of Con-federation
and write a plan for an entirely newnational government. That
meeting became knownas the Constitutional Convention.
The Constitution The proposed Constitution cre-ated a federal
system in which power would beshared between the national
government and thestate governments. The national, or federal,
govern-ment was given the power to levy taxes, raise anarmy,
regulate trade, and create a national currency.
The Framers, or writers, of the Constitution usedMontesquieu’s
ideas and divided the federal govern-ment into three branches, each
with some power tocheck the workings of the others. The first
branchwas the executive branch, with a president serving asthe
chief executive. The president had the power toexecute laws, veto
the legislature’s acts, superviseforeign affairs, and direct
military forces.
Like the British Parliament, the second, or legisla-tive, branch
of government had two houses, a Senateand a House. State
legislatures elected the Senate,while the people voted directly for
the House of Rep-resentatives. Here, too, the Framers built in a
systemof checks and balances.
The Supreme Court and other courts deemed nec-essary by Congress
made up the judiciary, or thirdbranch of government. The courts
would enforce theConstitution as the “supreme law of the land.”
196 CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
This 1867 painting depicts the signing in Philadelphia of a new
plan of government for the former British colonies—the United
States Constitution.
Fraunces Tavern Museum, New York, (inset)Picture Research
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The Bill of Rights To take effect, the Constitutionhad to be
ratified by nine states. The Constitutionwas finally approved, but
in several states, the votingmargin was slim. It was the promise
that a bill ofrights would be added to the Constitution that
wonsufficient supporters.
Why did many colonists insist on a bill of rights?Americans had
just gone through a terrible war fight-ing the tyranny of the
British king and Parliament.They wanted to be sure that there were
written guar-antees defining the limits of the government and
therights of the individual.
In 1789 the new Congress proposed 12 amend-ments. The 10
amendments the states approvedbecame the Bill of Rights. They
guaranteed freedomof religion, speech, press, petition, and
assembly. TheBill of Rights clearly laid out a number of other
rightsthat Americans considered absolute: the right
againstunreasonable searches and arrests, the right to beararms,
and the right to trial by jury. One of the mostwell-known of these
rights is the right to due process.
A long history lies behind the Bill of Rights,including the
Magna Carta set before King John in1215. The natural rights theory
of the Enlightenmentwas, however, the most direct influence on this
doc-ument. Even at the time, American and Europeanintellectuals
felt that the U.S. Constitution embodiedthe ideas of the
Enlightenment. The price of achiev-ing equality and freedom had
been high, but now theway was open to build a better society.
A Model for Democracy The American Revolutiontook place when
Enlightenment ideas were gaining
ground everywhere in the West. In France, the homeof the
Enlightenment, educated people wanted asociety based on reason, not
simply on outdated tra-ditions from medieval times. There were
other causesfor the French Revolution, too—famine, a
financialcrisis, and nobles’ discontent with the king. Yet thenew
American republic was a great inspiration to theFrench. In 1789,
the same year the American Bill ofRights was proposed, the French
Revolution brokeout. It, too, created a new government, one based
onrepresentative institutions and individual rights.
The American experience inspired Latin America,too. Between 1807
and 1825, while Europe was in tur-moil, landowners and middle-class
merchants carriedout revolts against Spain in Mexico, Argentina,
Peru,Chile, Venezuela, and Bolivia.
In the twentieth century, the American legacy con-tinued to
inspire independence movements. National-ist leaders in Africa and
Southeast Asia looked to theUnited States for political principles
and a model forconstitutional government. The same was true
forEastern Europeans and Russians. Even in China,where there is
still no representative government, theAmerican Revolution has
provided a stirring examplefor citizens who want a free and open
society.
Contrasting What was the main differ-ence between the Articles
of Confederation and the Constitution?
Reading Check
197CHAPTER 2 Revolution and Enlightenment
Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: colony, Stamp
Act,
tension, correspondence, Declaration ofIndependence, Articles of
Confedera-tion, federal system, amendments, Bill of Rights,
assembly.
2. People Identify: William Pitt the Elder,King George III,
George Washington,Thomas Jefferson.
3. Places Locate: Yorktown.
Reviewing Big Ideas4. List the freedoms guaranteed under
the American Bill of Rights.
Critical Thinking5. Analyzing
Cause and Effect Why did the Ameri-can colonies declare their
independencefrom the British Empire?
6. Summarizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to
identify the signif-icant events and conflicts that led to
theAmerican Revolution.
Analyzing Visuals7. Examine the painting The March to
Valley Forge on page 195. Use detailsfrom the painting to
explain whetherthis artist sympathizes with the Patriotsor
Loyalists.
CA HI 2
8. Expository Writing Do furtherresearch on how the French
sup-ported the colonies during theAmerican Revolution. Then write
anessay analyzing the importance ofFrench assistance.
CA 10WA2.3a,bCA 10WS1.3
Conflicts Between British and Colonists
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Three influential Enlightenment authors wrote about how they
thought progress should be recorded andmaintained. Read about their
eighteenth-century views on the triumphs of civilization.
SOURCE 1: The Progress of ManEdward Gibbon (1737–1794) published
the first volumeof The History of the Decline and Fall of the
RomanEmpire in 1776. Here, he celebrates how far mankindhas
progressed and his belief in future progress.
. . . [A] philosopher may be permitted . . . to con-sider Europe
as one great republic, whose variousinhabitants have attained
almost the same level ofpoliteness and cultivation. . . . The
savage nations ofthe globe are the common enemies of civilized
soci-ety; and we may inquire with anxious curiosity,whether Europe
is still threatened with a repetition ofthose calamities1 which
formerly oppressed the armsand institutions of Rome. . . .
. . . [From an] abject condition, perhaps the primitiveand
universal state of man, he has gradually arisen tocommand the
animals, to fertilise the earth, to tra-verse the ocean, and to
measure the heavens. His
progress in the improvement and exercise of his men-tal and
corporeal2 faculties has been irregular andvarious, infinitely slow
in the beginning, and increasingby degrees with redoubled velocity.
. . . Yet the experi-ence of four thousand years should enlarge our
hopes,and diminish our apprehensions; we cannot deter-mine to what
height the human species may aspire intheir advances towards
perfection; but it may safely bepresumed that no people, unless the
face of nature ischanged, will relapse into their original
barbarism. . . .
Since the first discovery of the arts, war, commerce,and
religious zeal have diffused, among the savages ofthe Old and New
World, those inestimable gifts: theyhave been successfully
propagated3; they can never belost. We may therefore acquiesce4 in
the pleasing con-clusion that every age of the world has increased,
andstill increases, the real wealth, the happiness, theknowledge,
and perhaps the virtue, of the human race.
SOURCE 2: EncyclopédieThe Encyclopédie was published under the
direction ofDenis Diderot (1713–1784) in 28 volumes. More than140
writers contributed articles. In defining ency-clopédie, Diderot
focuses on why sharing knowledge isimportant to progress.
ENCYCLOPÉDIE, f. n. (Philosophy). Thisword means the
interrelation of all knowl-edge. . . . [T]he aim of an encyclopédie
is tocollect all the knowledge scattered over theface of the earth,
to present its general out-lines and structure to the men with
whomwe live, and to transmit this to those who willcome after us,
so that the work of past cen-turies may be useful to the following
cen-turies, that our children, by becoming moreeducated, may at the
same time become
1calamities: disasters; misfortunes➤
2corporeal: physical; material3propagated: reproduced;
spread4acquiesce: accept; be satisfied
The Enlightenment love of knowledge as seen in a 1766painting by
Joseph Wright of Derby
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more virtuous and happier, and that we may not diewithout having
deserved well of the human race. . . .
It would be desirable for the government to author-ize people to
go into the factories and shops, to seethe craftsmen at their work,
to question them, to drawthe tools, the machines, and even the
premises. . . .
. . . What is the good of divulging the knowledge anation
poss