Review of rammed earth buildings in the UK Lessons learned from: WISE Lecture Theatre at the Centre for Alternative Technologies Hill Holt Wood Venue Centre Pines Calyx Conference Centre Rivergreen Centre Educational Centre at the Mount Pleasant Ecological Park CHRISTINA ANTONELLI Registration Number: 120185540 Supervisor: Dr Lucy Jones Word Count: 14,994 ARC 6990 Advanced Project MSc Sustainable Architecture Studies University of Sheffield School of Architecture Sheffield, 02/09/2013
Dissertation | MSc Sustainable Architecture Studies | University of Sheffield
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Review of rammed earth buildings in the UK
Lessons learned from:
WISE Lecture Theatre at the Centre for Alternative Technologies
Hill Holt Wood Venue Centre
Pines Calyx Conference Centre
Rivergreen Centre
Educational Centre at the Mount Pleasant Ecological Park
CHRISTINA ANTONELLI
Registration Number: 120185540
Supervisor: Dr Lucy Jones
Word Count: 14,994
ARC 6990 Advanced Project
MSc Sustainable Architecture Studies
University of Sheffield
School of Architecture
Sheffield, 02/09/2013
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all the people that were willing full to be interviewed, to show me around the
buildings and share with me knowledge and observations through their experiences. Without their support
and contribution this research would not be possible.
Dr. Lucy Jones offered me advice and support throughout regarding all possible areas that this research
could lead but also on how to set the final project.
Special thanks to my parents, family and friends who always encourage, support and advise me for the
best.
Abstract
The research that follows examines the modern applications of rammed earth construction method in UK.
Through the careful presentation and examination of five case studies buildings it attempts a demonstration
of the process that has been followed for their successful accomplishment, the knowledge required, the
people involved and the perception of the final outcome from the users. The comparative analysis
concentrates on three main categories of the buildings’ timeline:
- Before the construction
- During the construction
- After the construction
It recognises the values of rammed earth buildings but also illustrates the limitations of the current
construction industry which currently is not ‘in favour’ of this method. Finally, it draws conclusions and
suggestions that indicate how future applications can be encouraged at a public and private level.
Contents
1. Introduction – Objectives 8
2. Literature Review 10
2.1 Earthen Architecture 10
2.2 Rammed Earth 10
2.2.1 Definition 10
2.2.2 Virtues of Rammed Earth Architecture 10
2.3 Earth Construction Codes 13
2.4 Engineering Considerations 14
2.5 Earthen Architecture in UK 14
2.6 Overview 16
3. Methodology 18
3.1 Introduction 18
3.2 Case Studies Selection 18
3.3 Methods 19
4. Data Collection – Case Studies Presentation 23
4.1 WISE Lecture Theatre, CAT 23
4.1.1 Introduction 23
4.1.2 Interview with Pat Borer (09.08.2013) 25
4.2 HHW Venue Centre 31
4.2.1 Introduction 31
4.2.2 Interview with Nigel Lowthrop (09.06.2013) 33
4.3 Pines Calyx Conference Centre 39
4.3.1 Introduction 39
4.3.2 Interview with Alistair Gould (09.07.2013) 40
4.4 Rivergreen Centre 46
4.4.1 Introduction 46
4.4.2 Interview with Peter Candler (19.06.2013) 48
4.5 Educational Centre, MPEP 53
4.5.1 Introduction 53
4.5.2 Interview with Tim Stirrup (13.07.2013) 53
5. Data Analysis – Discussion 59
5.1 Introduction 59
5.2 Analysis 59
5.2.1 Before the Construction 59
5.2.2 During the Construction 60
5.2.3 After the Construction 61
5.3 Overview 62
6. Conclusions 64
6.1 Introduction 64
6.2 Key Findings 64
6.3 Evaluating the Methodological Approach 64
6.4 Recommendations 65
6.5 Future Research 65
6.6 Overview 65
7. Bibliography 66
8. Useful Internet Addresses and Links 71
9. Images Sources 72
Appendices 74
A. Participant Information Sheet 74
B. Comparative Table of case studies’ structural characteristics 76
Figures
Fig. 2.1 Earthen Architecture in the UK 15
Fig. 2.2 All the buildings (identified through literature review) with RE/chalk elements, built over the last three
decades in UK 16
Fig. 2.3 List of all the buildings (identified through literature review) with RE/chalk elements, built over the last three
decades in UK (public - private) 17
Fig. 3.1 List of Interviewees 19
Fig. 3.2 List of Data Intended to be collected from interviews 20
Fig. 4.1 WISE Lecture Theatre, CAT – Project Information 23
Fig. 4.2 HHW Centre – Project Information 31
Fig. 4.3 Pines Calyx Conference Centre – Project Information 39
Fig. 4.4 Rivergreen Centre – Project Information 46
Fig. 4.5 Educational Centre, MPEP – Project Information 53
Abbreviations
BRE: Building Research Establishment
BREEAM: Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
CAT: Centre for Alternative Technology
EBUK: Earth Building in UK
HHW: Hill Holt Wood
KTP: Knowledge Transfer Partnership
MPEP: Mount Pleasant Ecological Park
RE: Rammed Earth
WISE: Wales Institute for Sustainable Education
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1. Introduction - Objectives
Earth is humanity’s most ancient building material and its importance can be depicted in the earthen
architectural heritage found all around the world (Minke 2006; Houben and Guillaud 1994). Over the last few
decades there has been a growing interest in earth building construction as environmentally and
economically beneficial for the sustainable development of today’s and future’s society (Correia et al. 2011;
Calkins 2009; Rael 2009). A significant revival of modern earth buildings can be found in most regions of the
world (Rael 2009; Harris et Borer 1998). However, only in a few countries (New Zealand, Australia, USA,
Zimbabwe, Spain, Germany, France) exist earthen construction related standards; even more the existing
normative documents do not cover the whole range of earth building techniques and in some cases are
applicable only to a limited territory of the above countries (Silva et al. 2013; Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali 2012;
Gomez et al. 2011; Jimenez and Canas Guerrero 2007; Walker et al. 2003).
In UK there are a number of organizations, practitioners and individuals that are involved in the use of
earth for new constructions, organizing and executing training sessions that aim to develop a theoretical and
practical awareness of the related techniques. Additionally, research is being conducted at university level
(Bath, Sheffield, Plymouth), on both the conservation and the use of earth in new buildings (Correia et al.
2011).
RE was recently rated as a BREEAM A+ material, making it the first earth building material that has been
included in the internationally recognized system of assessment of building materials (BRE).
However, the lack of experience and expertise by the mainstream construction industry along with the lack
of specific national regulatory framework are the two main barriers to overcome in order to officially add
earth as a building material for new buildings and certify its safe use (Silva et al. 2013).
“In 2009, was established a national body, Earth Building UK, with an aim to foster the conservation,
understanding and development of building with earth in the United Kingdom. The EBUK brings together
builders, academics, researchers, architects, engineers, conservators and manufacturers to work in areas of
common interest at a national and local level. EBUK has identified a need to survey and quantify earth
building in the UK as one of their key activities” (Correia et al. 2011, p.191).
From all the above it comes up that there is a necessity of knowledge dissemination actions and a prompt
development of a specific normative related to earth buildings if they are to be encouraged as the heart of
future sustainable construction.
This dissertation focuses particularly on buildings with RE elements that have been constructed the last
three decades in UK. More specifically, five case study buildings are examined with the scope to gain a
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deeper understanding of modern RE construction in UK by showing the process of going from a conceptual
idea into a building and its perception by the end users. The aim is:
a) to map out the knowledge that is required for RE buildings to become a reality
b) to identify how this knowledge-power is spread out amongst the involved people in all phases of the
buildings’ timeline
c) to provide proof for future actions that need to be taken for the promotion of RE buildings
The ultimate goal is to demonstrate clearly what is happening at the moment in UK and illustrate
limitations of the current system. It is envisaged that plausible recommendations for further improvement of
this system could be obtained which could lead to enhancing RE buildings as a more approachable and
reasonable option for both public and private sector.
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2. Literature Review
2.1 Earthen Architecture
Earth can be considered as one of the most ancient building materials (Minke 2000). In developed countries
the practice of building with earth has fallen in disuse over the past century, as a consequence of the
technological development and the extensive use of modern building materials-concrete and steel (Silva et
al. 2013).
Twelve main techniques of using earth as a building material can be recognised, from which seven are
commonly used:
- Rammed earth
- Adobe
- Straw-clay
- Wattle-and-daub
- Compressed earth blocks
- Cob
- Direct Shaping
(Silva et al. 2013; Houben and Guillaud 2008)
Building with these techniques requires shaping, filling, moulding, stacking or compacting an earth mix. For
each one it is required a different mix consistency, which is function of the water content. Despite of the
diversity of earth building techniques, nowadays the most widespread are the adobe, rammed earth and
Compressed earth blocks (Silva et al. 2013; Minke 2000).
2.2 Rammed Earth
2.2.1 Definition
Rammed earth
“Rammed earth is a form of unbaked earthen construction used primarily to build walls. Other applications
include floors, roofs and foundations. Recently it has also been used for furniture, garden ornaments and
other features” (Walker et al. 2005, p.2).
RE building involves compacting moist sub-soil between shuttering, or formwork, which is later removed.
Soil mixes for RE vary; however, the mix is different from other earth construction techniques as it contains
less water. Soil mixes generally contain 15% dimensionally stable clay, 35% silt and 50% sand (both coarse
and fine aggregate) (Calkins 2009; Harris and Borer 2005).
1
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“Loose moist soil is placed in layers 100-150mm deep and compacted. Traditionally, manual rammers have
been used for compaction but nowadays pneumatically powered dynamic rammers are commonly used. Once
the soil has been adequately compacted the formwork is removed, often immediately after compaction,
leaving the finished wall to dry out. Walls are typically 300-450mm thick, but this can vary widely according
to design requirements” (Walker et al. 2005, p.2).
RE is a versatile material which can be used equally effectively for curves and arches as well as straight
walls. RE construction has low material cost but is a labour intensive construction method as compared to
other earth building systems (Calkins 2009; Harris and Borer 2005).
Stabilised Rammed Earth
In some cases where the existing sub-soil is not subjected to be suitable for the RE construction it can be
altered with stabilisers to make it appropriate. Stabilisation can be mechanical (e.g., compacting), physical
(e.g., addition of fibers or minerals), or chemical (e.g., cement, lime, or asphalt emulsions)(Adams and
Elizabeth 2010; Standards Australia 2002; SASZ 724:2001 2001; Houben and Guillard 1994).
A stabilisation process is usually associated with benefits stemming from the fact that the durability and
load capacity of the earth can be improved. However, it should not be underestimated that the embodied
energy and the C02 emissions attributed to the stabilised rammed earth construction increase dramatically
(Calkins 2009).
Rammed Chalk
“Rammed chalk construction is a particular type of wall construction using the rammed earth technique
found in some regions of Britain, such as central southern England, where suitable deposits of chalk are
readily available. The method of construction differs little from rammed earth; walls are formed from chalk
rubble rather than from clay-bearing sub-soil. The excavated chalk is broken down into fragments before
ramming” (Walker et al. 2005, pp. 30-31).
2.2.2 Virtues of Rammed Earth Architecture
Environmentally Friendly and Responsive
Low C02 embodied content and low embodied energy: As RE constructions do not require bricks to be
fired or cement manufactured and the materials are minimally processed and associated with minimal
transport, there is a significant reduction of C02 emissions and a relatively low embodied energy.
Recyclable: It is just earth, which means that after the structure’s useful life, the materials can either be
returned to the environment or reused on a new building.
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High thermal mass: Earth buildings perform very well thermally, with the thick walls moderating
temperature extremes and acting as thermal mass for storing and releasing heat gain from sunlight, reducing
the energy requirement for heating.
Low toxicity: Most earth materials are nontoxic and nonpolluting.
Fire-resistance: RE is generally built using only inorganic non-flammable mineral-based materials.
Occasionally natural fibres may be included, but their quantity is unlikely to impair performance in fire
significantly.
Good noise insulation: The typical thick and dense walls of earth constructions promote a quite ambient
inside.
Local: The raw materials for earth construction, primarily soil and sand, are inexpensive, and often can be
found on or near the project site, reducing transport requirements, emissions and pollution (Pacheco-Torgal
and Jalali 2011; Cooke 2010).
Aesthetic
RE walls have a layered appearance and together with the colour and texture create an inherited quality to
the building that other materials do not offer (Kapfinger and Rauch 2011; Walker et al. 2005). The
psychological impact from human’s response to the texture, shape and irregularities of RE architecture is
positive (Weismann and Bryce 2006).
Healthy
Clay minerals present in RE are hygroscopic, absorbing and releasing moisture in response to changes in the
surrounding environment. This characteristic contributes significantly on regulating the internal
environmental conditions and creating a comfortable and healthy interior ambient (Minke 2006; Walker et
al. 2005).
Durability
“In comparison with other forms of earthen construction, such as cob and adobe, rammed earth
construction offers enhanced density (typically 1770 to 2100 kg/m3), compressive strength (1 to 3 N/m2 for
unstabilised rammed earth) and durability” (Walker et al. 2005, p.13).
Autonomous
The earth as a readily available material encourages and allows self built construction. As the material is
easily accessible, the construction is relatively quick and easy. The success of an earth construction though
relies on craft skills and techniques, apprentices and master craftsmen. In places where these skills are
negated and in decline, the earth architecture places value on these skills and intangible heritage. In the
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modern society the autonomous nature of earthen architecture, which enables construction to occur
separate from the global construction industry can be a powerful attribute (Cooke 2010).
Humanity
Earthen architecture can be a community activity that embraces the value of collaboration and respect of
people in a social context. Earth, as a natural, living and ‘breathing’ material creates a feeling of connection
to the people that live in earthen buildings. Symbolic associations between ‘living’ and ‘dead’ materials
impact the perceived appropriateness of the material. In the past, the ‘living’ qualities of earth were
perceived as a ‘vice’ and had a negative impact on the view of earthen architecture. On the opposite, today
those ‘living’ properties are taken on as a ‘virtue’ and contribute to the positive view of the material (Cooke
2010).
Modernity
Architectural modernity can be expressed through the environmental responsiveness and friendliness that
characterize earth building materials. The reflection of environmental concern combined with complex and
dynamically beautiful earth buildings can allow modern construction forms to take place. One such is the
case of modern RE buildings (Cooke 2010).
2.3 Earth Construction Codes
In some countries, where earth has been used extensively in recent years for the construction of new
buildings, technical standards and codes of practice have been adopted and now form the basis of regulatory
or advisory systems for controlling and overseeing earth-wall construction. Countries whose national or in
some cases regional governments have now adopted such standards include Germany, New Zealand,
Australia, Switzerland, France, Spain, Zimbabwe and New Mexico, USA (Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali 2011; Keefe
2005).
At the present there are no British standards regarding the use of earth for building construction (Correia et
al. 2011). ‘Rammed Earth, Design and construction guidelines’, by Walker et al. 2005, is the only existing
book regarding this technique in UK and provides mostly guidance rather than setting a control of regulation.
RE structures can be challenging as the standards do not currently cover those type of constructions and
engineers are not trained to design them; however, the body of research on structural performance of RE is
growing (Calkins 2009).
It is important to always bear in mind that “In setting standards and codes of practice for earth building
there are two key issues that need to be addressed. The first relates to the raw material and how its
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suitability for building construction may best be assessed and the second concerns the need to ensure that the
construction process is carried out to a satisfactory standard by suitably trained and experienced personnel”
(Adams and Elizabeth 2005, p.158).
2.4 Engineering Considerations
RE is certainly not a universal panacea for sustainable building. There are many situations where RE is
entirely suitable, however, its limitations, weaknesses and drawbacks need to be carefully considered during
selection and design. The most significant issues for consideration are the following:
- Durability
- Wall thickness
- Thermal resistance
- Material selection and variability
- In-situ construction
(Walker et al. 2005)
Walker et al. in their well written book ‘Rammed Earth, Design and construction guidelines’ cover all of the
above issues along with certain recommendations/guidelines on how to evaluate soil suitability for a RE
construction. Analytic structural methods and structural details are also presented.
2.5 Earthen Architecture in UK
Earthen architecture in UK is divided in two categories:
- buildings undertaken in historic heritage contexts
- new buildings
“The regional basis established in Terra Britannica remains important. In the South-West, cob
predominates, whilst in the Eastern part of the country clay lump is common. There are numerous other areas
that use earth on a supporting framework (wattle and daub, mud and stud). As in the rest of the world, since
the 18th century, vernacular practices were challenged by so called ‘conventional’ building materials. A
number of modern rammed earth projects in regions with no historical precedence have been undertaken
more recently” (Correia et al. 2011, p.189).
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Fig. 2.1 Earthen Architecture in the UK (Correia et al. 2011)
Earth building is diverse and vibrant, with passionate individuals presenting a consistent and persuasive
argument for the use of earth in conservation and new build projects. EBUK brings together all people
involved in areas of common interest at a national and local level. They range between practitioners, regional
interest groups (Devon Earth Building Association, East Anglia Earth Buildings Group) and universities that
undertake research in relation to conservation and the use of earth in new construction. The BRE Centre for
Innovative Construction Materials, in the Faculty of Engineering and Design at Bath University, has been
active in developing approaches to the use of unfired clay masonry and RE (Walker et al. 2005), which has
been included in the BRE Green Guide to Specification (Correia et al. 2011).
Rowland Keable (Ram-Cast CIC) has been involved in a number of high profile projects using RE across the
UK over the last 20 years and has trained a range of businesses and individuals in the use of RE. He has
worked with this method since 1985, in Africa and Australia, but mainly in UK the last years, and he is
probably the most expert at the moment.
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“National initiatives supported from a variety of different funding sources, such as the heritage building
skills bursary scheme, are intended to address skills within the traditional crafts and built heritage sector. The
current planning requirements for conservation and ecological use of materials in new construction are a
good background for development into the 21st century. A number of high-status projects continue to inspire
the use of earth for artistic and aesthetic reasons, alongside environmental aspirations” (Correia et al. 2011,
p.191).
2.6 Overview
In this tentative context, earth might once more be a material of choice for the mass market rather than
specialist applications. An analysis of existing RE buildings could highlight aspects related to the required
knowledge, technology and construction in UK, aiming to evaluate the current system’s situation and provide
a basis for improvement and further development of that system.
Fig. 2.2 All the buildings (identified through literature review) with RE/chalk elements, built over the last three decades
in UK
Name Location Built Year
Use Type of Rammed earth elements
1 Arch building Cornwall 2012 Barn The building stand on a rammed earth plinth making the floor level with the ground sloping down to the existing barn
2 Ecobarn, King Edward VI Academy Spilsby, Lincolnshire 2011 Classrooms Rammed Earth Wall
3 Classroom Block , Netherfield Centre for Sustainable Food and Farming
East Sussex 2011 Classrooms Load bearing rammed earth walls
1992 Fruit/Vegetable Store Cement stabilised and natural load bearing rammed earth; external and internal walls
Fig. 2.3 List of all the buildings (identified through literature review) with RE/chalk elements, built over the last three decades in UK (public - private)
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3. Methodology
3.1 Introduction
As previously discussed, on the one side, there is a general perception that the lack of experienced
engineers, skilled craftsmanship, code officials and contractors, the absence of earth related courses and
regulations and most of all the fact that earth construction is usually associated with low income status may
currently be the largest obstacle to earth buildings in many areas around the world.
However, on the other end of the spectrum, a significant number of new RE/chalk buildings built over the
last three decades can be found in UK. Yet, the number of these buildings comparing it to the total number
of buildings in UK can be considered as negligible, but it signs that society is brought on a way of re-
examining the values of earth as an essential material for use in the architecture of tomorrow.
In that context a careful investigation of these buildings would reveal key issues that came up during the
whole process of their completion. A critical evaluation of the various aspects that have been taken into
consideration from all the parts involved into these projects could identify possible similarities or differences
regarding the process that has been followed for each project. Thus, by comparing and synthesising all the
gathered information there is an attempt to give an outline of valuable lessons learned out from the stories
of these buildings.
3.2 Case Studies Selection
Even though an examination of all the buildings would give more informed conclusions, for the purposes of
this dissertation and considering the limited time duration, it was decided that five buildings would be
selected as case study buildings:
- WISE Lecture Theatre, CAT, 2010
- Hill Holt Wood Venue Centre, 2008
- Pines Calyx Conference Centre, 2006
- Rivergreen Centre, 2005
- Educational Centre, MPEP, 2003
The buildings were selected according to the following criteria:
- They are public/semi-public buildings, which also made them more accessible than private ones.
- They are big scale projects.
- They are spread out in the whole territory of UK covering different local climatic conditions and soil
properties.
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- They cover all of the possible categories of RE/chalk wall elements:
- Load bearing RE wall (straight and curved)
- Non load bearing RE wall (straight)
- Load bearing rammed chalk wall (curved)
- Non load bearing rammed chalk wall (curved)
3.3 Methods
The presentation and analysis of the case studies synthesises information and qualitative data that have
been collected through the existing literature review, but mainly through interviews. Useful information
and visual material has also been extracted from the website of Ram Cast-CIC, as an interview with
Rowland Keable (involved in various ways in all the examined buildings) was not possible to be scheduled.
For each one of the five case study buildings one person was interviewed. The interviwees were in charge
for the whole process of the building starting from the conception of its idea upon the completion of its
construction. Architects, contractors and engineers usually do not come back to the buildings after they
complete their tasks. However, the people interviewed are frequent or daily users of the buildings and
interact with external visitors and users. Thus they had the critical ability to provide valuable information and
feedback regarding:
- The perception of the building from the users’ point of view and their attitude towards the examined
buildings.
- The life of the building after its construction and possible practical issues that come up on a daily basis
during the operation of the building, related directly to the earth elements but also from a holistic
perspective.
Case Study Building Name Status
WISE Lecture Theatre at CAT Pat Borer Architect
HHW Venue Centre Nigel Lowthrop Business Founder/Director
Pines Calyx Conference Centre Alistair Gould Chairman of Bay Trust
Rivergreen Centre Peter Candler Project Manager
Educational Centre at MPEP Tim Stirrup Business Founder/Director
Fig. 3.1 List of Interviewees
The interviews were semi structured, that is to say the interviewees were not asked to strictly answer
certain questions rather to talk about specific topics. It was a deliberate decision to take interviews in that
way instead of asking them to fill out questionnaires, in order to give them the opportunity to tackle and
analyse unexpected themes that came up during the discussions with them. Besides, in that way they were
inspired to add useful information according to their judgement and also discuss the arising matters inside
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the building while they were showing me around. It is worth mentioning that the knowledge gained from the
interviews would not have been the same if they had not taken place during the field visits. All the interviews
were recorded and transcribed into text form in order to allow for a thematic analysis to be done.
The topics that were asked to be analysed from the interviewees included three different categories of
data:
- Objective
- Subjective
- Empirical
Objective Data
1. Design and construction process followed
2. Quality Control – Soil testing procedures followed for assessing suitability
for use
3. Special difficulties or limitations faced through the construction -
Ways of facing or adapting to them
4. Planning permission requirement
5. Special architectural details required in connection with other materials
used - Maintenance and repair issues
6. RE building team – Experience and training required
7. Overall energy performance – Monitoring results
8. Financial aspects of the project
Subjective Data
1. Motivation/Inspiration for deciding to include RE/chalk in
the design
2. Awareness of precedent RE/chalk projects
3. Project as a challenge or not
4. Comparison between Initial perceived design and final outcome- Pleased
or dissatisfied by this
5. Actions that would have been done differently after its
completion – Decisions that would have been taken differently –Lessons
Learned
Empirical Data
1. Energy performance as perceived by users
2. Feedback for users’/visitors’ experience from the interaction with them
3. At which extend users/visitors consider it
pleasant/motivational/attractive/stimulant environment compared to a
conventional environment
4. Suitable building technique for private or housing projects
5. Interest from the users-/visitors to adopt it
Fig. 3.2 List of Data Intended to be collected from interviews
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The collected information and data have been thematically analysed and the results of this analysis are
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Lax, C. (2010) Life Cycle Assessment of Rammed Earth. Dissertation for MEng Civil and Architectural Engineering, Dept. of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath. McHenry, P. (1984) Adobe and Rammed Earth Buildings. Design and Construction. New York: Wiley
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NMAC (2006) NMAC: 14.7.4: Housing and Construction: Building Codes General: New Mexico Earthen
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NZS 4297: 1998 (1998) New Zealand Standard. Engineering design of earth buildings. Wellington: Standards
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Rael, R. (2009) Earth architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural; Enfield: Publishers Group UK
distributor.
Reddy, V. and Kumar, P. (2010) Cement stabilised rammed earth. Part A: compaction characteristics and
physical properties of compacted cement stabilised soils. Materials and Structures 44: pp.681-693.
Reddy, V. and Kumar, P. (2010) Cement stabilised rammed earth. Part B: compressive strength and stress-
strain characteristics. Materials and Structures 44: pp.695-707.
Reddy, V. and Kumar, P. (2010) Embodied energy in cement stabilised rammed earth walls. Energy and
Buildings 42: pp. 380-385.
Rui, S., Daniel, O., Tiago, M., Carolina, E. and Numo, C. (2012) Rammed earth. Feasibility of a global concept
applied locally Sociedade Portuguesa de Geotecnia.
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Earth Structures. Harare: Standards Association of Zimbabwe.
Silva, R., Oliveira, D., Miranda, T., Cristelo, N., Escobar, M. and Soares, E. (2013) Rammed earth construction
with granitic residual soils. The case study of northern Portugal. Construction and Building Materials 47:
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Taylor, P. and Luther, M.B. (2004) Evaluating rammed earth walls: a case study. Solar Energy 76: pp.79-84.
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Walker, P., Keable, P., Marton, J. and Maniatidis, V. (2005) Rammed earth: Design and Construction
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Walker, P. and Maniatidis, V. (2003) A Review of Rammed Earth Constructions. For DTi Partners in
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8. Useful Internet Addresses and Links
http://www.ktponline.org.uk/ (accessed on 11/08/2013)
http://www.rammed-earth.info/ (accessed on 11/08/2013)
http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php (accessed on 11/08/2013)
http://www.culture-terra-
incognita.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13&Itemid=14&lang=en (accessed on
11/08/2013)
http://www.cat.org.uk/index.html (accessed on 11/08/2013)