UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (http://dare.uva.nl) UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Review of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Central Africa: Cameroon Ingram, V.; Schure, J. Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Ingram, V., & Schure, J. (2010). Review of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Central Africa: Cameroon. Yaounde: CIFOR/FORENET Project. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. Download date: 22 May 2020
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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (http://dare.uva.nl)
UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)
Review of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Central Africa: Cameroon
Ingram, V.; Schure, J.
Link to publication
Citation for published version (APA):Ingram, V., & Schure, J. (2010). Review of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Central Africa: Cameroon.Yaounde: CIFOR/FORENET Project.
General rightsIt is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s),other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons).
Disclaimer/Complaints regulationsIf you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, statingyour reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Askthe Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam,The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible.
This study was financed as part of the ACP-FORENET 9 ACP RPR 91#1 Regional NTFP study. The draft report was presented at the ATELIER SOUS-REGIONAL SUR«L’HARMONISATION DES REVUES NATIONALES SUR LES PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX (PFNL) EN AFRIQUE CENTRALE», 17-18 MAI 2010, DOUALA, CAMEROUN, organized by the ACP-FORENET Project / RFPO AFRIQUE CENTRALE , with funding from the European Union.
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
CIFOR advances human wellbeing, environmental conservation and equity by conducting
research to inform policies and practices that affect forests in developing countries.
CIFOR is one of 15 centres within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR). CIFOR’s headquarters are in Bogor, Indonesia. It also has offices in Asia,
Carpolobia lutea, Carpolobia albea 5,911 Humid & montane zone 3
Aframomum melegueta, Aframomum
daniellii, Aframomum citratum
- Humid lowlands 3
Alstonia boonei - Humid lowlands 3
Coula edulis - Humid lowlands 3
Garcinia mannii - Humid lowlands 3
Guibourtia tessmannii - Humid lowlands 3
Harungana madagascariensis - Humid lowlands 3
Khaya ivorensis - Humid lowlands 3
Lophira alata - Humid lowlands 3
Lovoa trichilioides - Humid lowlands 3
Megaphrynium macrostachyum - Humid lowlands 3
Milicia excelsa - Humid lowlands 3
Monodora myristica - Humid lowlands 3
Morinda lucida - Humid lowlands 3
Nauclea diderrichii - Humid lowlands 3
Poga oleosa - Humid lowlands 3
Scorodophleus zenkeri - Humid lowlands 3
Terminalia superba - Humid lowlands 3
Trichoscypha arborea - Humid lowlands 3
Vitellaria paradoxa - Savannah 3
Apiculture beeswax
honey
244,420 Savannah, montane 3
61,105 3
Within the current, ongoing consultations to revise the 1994 Forestry and Wildlife Law, there is a particular
emphasis on the regulatory framework for NTFPs. This revision process provides an excellent opportunity
to update the policy and regulatory framework for NTFP value chains and products, and address problems
and challenges identified with the current system. This review feeds into the revision process by identifying
the priority NTFPs in Cameroon in terms of both trade and consumption. It is recommended that these
NTFPs should form the basis of the revised framework and list of species which require permits and
monitoring.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 iii
A monitoring network on both a national and regional level for bushmeat, the Central African Bushmeat
Monitoring System (SYVBAC) has been in development since 2008 by a group of stakeholders in the
bushmeat and wildlife sector and provides an excellent existing framework for animal NTFP based
monitoring. However, the criteria used for listing species for monitoring and protection need to be
reconsidered in the light of two aspects, the level of vulnerability (using the Red Data List) and the level of
off-take for sale and consumption. Taking these two criteria into account would mean that at least seven
animals currently unclassified in the 1994 Forestry and Wildlife Law’s two major protection categories
(Class A and B), would be need to be included as these species are classified as vulnerable according to the
Red Data List of Threatened species. The monitoring, regulatory and harmonisation frameworks already
proposed in detail for Cameroon (Walter and Mbala 2006; Betti 2007b; Bonannée, Zé et al. 2007) and for
Central Africana in general (Walter and Mbala 2006, Bonannée, Zé et al. 2007) and the emerging presence
of the Observatoire des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale (OFAC), provide an excellent opportunity for the regional
level coordination and monitoring among Central African states.
Recommendations for enhancing the NTFP sector in Cameroon and regionally include:
Plant NTFPs
1. Introduce a definition for NTFPs in the revision of the 1994 Forestry and Wildlife Law
2. Revise the list of Special Forestry Products, separating NTFPs and timber species, based on the lists
presented above, stating both scientific name, local names in English, French and local languages and
a description to avoid confusion during controls.
3. The COMCAM monitoring database should include all the revised list of Special Forestry Product
NTFPs
4. Revise the permit system and introduce quotas and inventories for the key products from the wild.
5. Distinguish the source of forest products: plantations, agroforestry or natural forests, and include in
permit system.
6. Distinguish between international and national trade in the permitting system.
7. Introduce harvesting guidelines and norms for the key NTFPs.
8. Improve the exchange of information from waybills (Lettre de Voitures), Control Posts and at the
major transborder customs posts, and ensure this data feeds into a national COMCAM system.
Animal NTFPs
1. Revision of the hunting permit system to increase availability of data and improve control, including
increasing the ease of obtaining Class C permits.
2. Coordination between regional and centralised MinFoF authorities on granting of permits, monitoring,
controls and data collection at decentralised and national level.
3. Increased control and monitoring of bushmeat trade and markets for Class A and B species.
4. Increase basic knowledge of the biology of harvestable forest animals and the consequences of
hunting, to would allow accurate estimations of production rates (the excess of growth over
replacement rate) and enable the estimation of hunting quotas, related permits and sustainability.
5. Revise the Protected Classes of animals in the 1994 Forestry and Wildlife Law to include Red data
listed species.
6. Assess if the ‘key’ non-protected but traded & consumed species are vulnerable, and if so, revise their
rating and classification
7. Review the level and methods of protection and control for the key Class A and B species, given that
they remain widely hunted.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 iv
Contents
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................... vii
Aims of the study ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Grey literature ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Peer reviewed literature ................................................................................................................................. 5
Market survey and Market Information Systems ........................................................................................... 6
Data analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 6
Estimating revenues and volumes .................................................................................................................. 8
Extrapolation to annual volumes and values ................................................................................................. 9
Study period.................................................................................................................................................... 9
Species scientific and local names .................................................................................................................. 9
ANNEX 1 Literature searches ........................................................................................................................... 74
Internet search ............................................................................................................................................. 74
Scientific literature search ........................................................................................................................... 74
Animal based NTFPs ..................................................................................................................................... 87
ANNEX 7 Protected animal species in Cameroon .......................................................................................... 149
Class A ........................................................................................................................................................ 149
Class B ......................................................................................................................................................... 152
ANNEX 8 Exchange rates and inflation indexes ............................................................................................. 157
ANNEX 9 Markets, Volumes and Prices 1995-2008 ....................................................................................... 158
ANNEX 10 Ranking of most hunted animal species ....................................................................................... 162
ANNEX 11 Description of priority NTFPs ........................................................................................................ 165
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 vi
Boxes, Tables and Figures
Box 1 A defintion of key NTFPs ........................................................................................................................ 16
Box 2 Capturing the value of multi-use species: Raphia .................................................................................. 24
Figure 1 Value scoring system............................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 2 Ecological maps of Cameroon ............................................................................................................ 12
Figure 3 Infrastructure map of Cameroon ....................................................................................................... 13
Figure 4 Special Forestry Products in Cameroon ............................................................................................ 19
Figure 5 Special Forestry Products: Species, Permitted quantities and Exported quantities .......................... 21
Figure 6 Cameroon official data on exports NTFPs 2003-2009 ....................................................................... 22
Figure 7 Exports of Prunus africana from Cameroon 2000-2008 .................................................................... 28
Figure 8 Proportion of 3 main NTFPs in the markets per region 1995-1997 ................................................... 29
Figure 9 Number of NTFPs sold in 18 Cameroon markets 1995-2008 ............................................................. 30
Figure 10 Annual average quantity of NTFPs traded in 18 markets 1995-2008 .............................................. 30
Figure 11 Annual average proportion % of NTFPs traded in 18 markets 1995-2008 ...................................... 31
Figure 12 Annual, average quantity of NTFPs traded in 18 markets 1995-2008 ............................................. 32
Figure 13 Key plant NTFPs by trade value ....................................................................................................... 33
ACP-FORENET Forestry Research Network for ACP countries CARPE Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBFP Congo Basin Forest Partnership CEFDHAC Conférence sur les Ecosystèmes des Forêts Denses et Humides d’Afrique Centrale CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species COMIFAC Commission on Central African Forests COMCAM Commercial Forestry Database of Cameroon FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FCFA Franc of the Central African Financial Community ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization MinEPIA Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries & Production MinFoF Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product NWFP Non-wood Forest Product OFAC Observatoire des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSFE Forest and Environment Sectoral Program SFP Special Forestry Products SYVBAC Système de suivi de la filière viande de brousse en Afrique Central SIGIF Système de Gestion de l’Information Forestière SFP Special Forestry Products TRAFFIC CITES Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (IUCN and WWF) WHO World Health Organization
Acknowledgements Many thanks to Ousseynou Ndoye and Julius Tieughong at the FAO, Cameroon for providing vital references, likewise to Nouhou Ndam of TRAFFIC and Cédric Vermeulen of the University of Gembleau. We are grateful especially to all the participants at the Atelier Sous Regional sur les Produits Forestieres Non- Ligneux en Afrique Centrale and particularly members of Parallel Session Group 1 at the FORENET session in Douala from 17 to 18 May 2010.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 1
1. Introduction
Definitions
The definitions used here are the same as those used in the COMIFAC Sub-Regional Directives for the
sustainable management of Non-wood forest products (NWFP) or Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) of
plant origin in Central Africa (FAO, GTZ et al. 2008), unless otherwise specified:
a. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) or Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP): Spontaneous forest
products of biological (vegetable and animal origin), other that timber, derived from forests, and other
wooded land and trees outside forests
b. Threatened NTFPs: NTFPs whose species are, or could be threatened with extinction at a national level,
in particular because of their nature, the frequency of their exploitation or an ecological factor.
c. NTFP value chains: indicates the entire set of processes and activities involved in getting a product from
harvest in the forests, including storage, transport, and transformation or processing and marketing to the
final consumer.
d. National competent authority: authority in charge of NTFPs in each State, according to its level of
devolution and/or decentralization.
e. Right to food: right to sufficient food, realised when each man, woman and child, alone or with others,
has physically and economically constant access to sufficient food, or to the means of obtaining food.
f. Food security: foods that provide a substantial contribution to human nutritional needs and intake,
annually or within a particular season.
g. Exploitation permit: an authorization to exploit, granted by the national competent authority
h. Sustainable management: the management of a space and its resources which guarantees development
that meets both present needs, without compromising the capacity of future generations to meet their
needs.
Context Within Central Africa, NTFPs are exploited for subsistence needs and also for sale (Trefon 1994; Clark and
Sunderland 1998; Sunderland 1998; Wilkie, Hakizumwami et al. 2001; Clark and Sunderland 2004), often
with no or very little coordination by competent authorities and thereafter are transformed and marketed,
both locally, nationally, and internationally. That there is a significant, often decades and even centuries
long regional trade in NTFPs amongst other Central African countries in several products such as Gnetum,
honey and Cola, is well known in popular consciousness. However for many NTFPs, the value and quantities
and trade circuits are not known precisely. There is also a known trade (again, not quantified) out of Africa,
which has been remarkably little studied except for Tabuna’s classic study now more than a decade ago
(Tabuna 1999). There is also little harmonisation or overview on a regional level, to ensure sustainable
management of this sector (See Wasseige and al. 2009 p. 163, 164; Betti 2007).
Data concerning the values and volumes of exploitation and the management of NTFPs on a national and
then regional level are patchy and inconsistent. Scientific data is largely not used to inform or support
decision making on the level of regulating and managing exploitation on a national or regional level for
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 2
either subsistence needs, or for trade. The recent exception on a national level is Prunus africana, for which
guidelines for its management have been developed based on inventories and market studies (Ingram,
Awono et al. 2009). There is also no, or insufficient coordination, between research, development and
conservation organisations to ensure that the competent public administrations use the wealth of data that
has been produced (REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON 2008).
These knowledge gaps are despite the wealth of literature on the use and trade of NTFPs in Central Africa.
As Dounias (2000) points out, within the Central African literature about the use of plants and particularly
forest products, Cameroon is over-represented. This may be due to Cameroon being seen as ‘‘Africa in
miniature’’ and a host of social, political and as well as logistical reasons which make the Republic a
crossroad of vast phytogeographic entities, but also at the cultural centre of Baka’a, Bantu, Adamaoua-
Oubangui and Chad speaking populations. Cameroon’s colonial legacy and largely stable political
environment also ensures easy access for both Anglophone and Francophone researchers and large body of
home-grown researchers and academics from national research institutes and universities, making its
forests and products some of the most studied among the Central African nations. This intensity on a
regional level is also paralleled on a national level, with four regions having been particularly well studied,
notably the Southwest, Central and Eastern rainforests and Northwest/Southwest montane forests.
On a Central African regional level, some of the earliest regional studies highlighted the importance of the
forest-rural-urban link for forest products (Trefon 1994; Ladipo 1998). Regional studies and compilations of
national level data were published in 1998, 1999, 2001 and 2004. These synthesized data on NTFPs, the
issues around the resource, harvest and trade, and the statistics available (Sunderland, Clark et al. 1998;
Tchatat 1999) (Walter 2001); Clark and al 2004). These regional overviews were complemented by studies
of exports from Central Africa on NTFPs in general to Europe (Tabuna 1998), on bushmeat (Wilkie and
Carpenter 1999b; LeBreton, Prosser et al. 2006), and on NTFPs used for food (Bikoue, Essomba et al. 2007).
By 2001 two good bibliographies of NTFP and their uses existed (Dounias, Rodrigues et al. 2000; Maille
2001).
By the beginning of the decade, the need for a regional level and transboundary approach for NTFPs was
recognised. This resulted in a series of studies and initiatives on the policy framework (Wilkie,
Hakizumwami et al. 2001) and its opportunities (Jetz, Rahbek et al. 2004), the link with indigenous
knowledge (Tchatat and Ndoye 2006; Eyong 2007) and indigenous rights (Eyong 2007), how to collect data
and monitor this on a national and regional level (Medicinal Plants Specialist Group 2007) and setting up an
appropriate legal and institutional framework (Betti 2007b).
By the middle of the new decade, attention turned increasingly to the need to harmonize the regulatory,
monitoring, tax and institutional framework on a both national and regional level (Betti 2007b; Betti
2007a; Ebamane 2008), largely within the context of COMIFAC related initiatives to improve and harmonize
the forest regimes across Central African states. The socioeconomic aspects of NTFPs were assessed again
in 2008 (Noubissie, Chupezi et al. 2008).
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 3
In Cameroon, at least 70 studies have been conduced about species, their uses and environments. These
can be classified into three main types:
1. Studies focussing on a single species, notably Gnetum spp., Prunus africana and Irvingia spp. Cola
spp. and Dacryodes edulis, have been subject of numerous studies in Cameroon (Ainge and Brown
2001; Tachie-Obeng and Brown 2001). These studies tended to focus on widely commercialized
and well known species. For a fuller listing and references, see ANNEX 3 Species specific NTFP
references.
2. Studies focussing on a specific geographic location. These have largely been associated with
major conservation projects in areas to be designated as protected areas, or seeking a different
level of protection, such as Dja, Takamanda, Campo-Maan, Korup, Mt Cameroon and the Bamenda
Highlands (Kilum-Ijum). Although a largely representative listing of NTFP species and their uses
from both the lowland humid forest zone and montane forest zone has been generated by these
projects, a complete geographical coverage of Cameroon is missing, with the northern savannah
zones especially largely unrecorded. These projects have also, by intention, focussed on areas of
high biodiversity and conservation value, which can give a misleading impression of the extent,
species and scale of NTFP use and availability across Cameroon. Particularly in zones where the
local population have not had a close and historically long relationship with forest, such as the Tikar
(Dounias 1996; Zapfack and Nkongo 1999), their use and knowledge of the same forest products is
significantly less than, for example, forest dwelling ethnic groups such the Baka pygmies or even
forest edge groups such as the Bantu in Dja or Campo-Maan. NTFPs are however also found in less
biodiverse and more degraded landscapes, is peri-urban areas, and are both maintained and used
in agroforestry zones. These zones are however poorly represented in the current literature and
studies. For a fuller listing and references in Cameroon, see ANNEX 5 Location specific NTFP
studies.
3. Several comprehensive studies have focussed on specific uses, such as fruits for food use (Vivien
and Faure 1996; Eyog Matig, Ndoye et al. 2006) medicinal uses (Vasisht and Kumar 2004; Jiofack,
Fokunang et al. 2008; Focho, Newu et al. 2009; Jiofack, Ayissi et al. 2009), tree use (Focho, Newu et
al. 2009) and socio-economic uses (Tchatat 1999; Tchoumboue, Tchouamo et al. 2001; Nlend V
2007). For a fuller listing and references, see ANNEX 4 General NTFP studies in Cameroon.
The first wide scale assessments of the value and volumes of NTFPs on a regional and/or national level in
Cameroon were made in the end of the 1990s (Ndoye, Pérez et al. 1997/98; CERUT-AIDEnvironment 1999;
Pérez, Ndoye et al. 1999; Pérez, Ndoye et al. 2000). Statistics for Cameroon were collated by the FAO for
the 1998 and 2001 Central Africa regional studies, largely a compilation and reiteration of existing statistics
(FAO 1999; Mbolo, Walter et al. 2002). These focused mainly on listing the species and their types of uses,
however little or no new, dedicated research was done.
The relevance and sustainability of wider regulatory framework for NTFPs in Cameroon started to be
questioned at the turn of the century, producing a number of valuable recommendations which built a
series of cases and proposals (Mbolo, Walter et al. 2002); (NGWASIRI, DJEUKAM et al. 2002 ; Djeukam
2007). The legal, policy and customary inconsistencies dealing with trade and auto-consumption by
harvesters have also been addressed (Ingram 2009; Laird, McLain, and Wynberg 2009). Recommendations
for monitoring by local communities (Mbile, PA’AH et al. 2005), the government (Ebamane 2008), and by
local actors (SNV 2010a) have also been made. A number of value chain and market baseline studies have
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 4
been produced recently, which provide detailed data on the values, volumes and other socio-economic and
environmental aspects (Anembom Consulting 2008b; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2008a; Matsop, Kamajou et
al. 2008; Nchinda and Che 2008; Tajoacha 2008; Ade 2009; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2009b; Ewane, Awono
et al. 2009; Niba Fon 2009; van der Goes and Ngueko 2009; Ingram 2010b; Ingram 2010a; Ingram,
Tieguhong et al. 2010; Ndumbe, Ingram et al. 2010; Wirsiy, Tanda et al. 2010)
Aims of the study Due to this lack of information about the importance of the NTFPs and their role in sustainable
management of forest resources, the Forestry Research Network for ACP countries (ACP-FORENET) is
coordinating a regional study on NTFPs in Central Africa. The ACP-FORENET aims to establish a scientific
network on forestry issues across ACP countries and is financed by the European Union (EU). It is leading
reviews of six Central African countries (Gabon, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Equatorial Guinea and the Republic of Central Africa) in collaboration with partners interested in the topic.
The overall aim is to review, revise and update information from the major regional studies of 1998 and
2004 (Clark and Al 1998; Clark and Al 2004). This new information will be to develop systems of statistical
data collection on NTFPs and making recommendations for the Member States of the COMIFAC (Betti
2007). This report feeds into this process by providing a review of the current state of NTFPs in Cameroon.
Despite the wealth of studies in Cameroon, large knowledge gaps however still remain (FAO, GTZ et al.
2008; FAO 2009a). This report therefore aims to fill the gap and provide comprehensive information that
can be used to develop statistical data collection systems data on NTFPs on a national level. A better base
knowledge can assist policy makers to estimate the risks and opportunities inherent in exploitation and
trade in the NTFP the sector, to monitor future changes and flag up species of concern for conservation
and/or livelihood reasons. It can serve to provide an early warning signal for when the level of trade
threatens species. A system for improved monitoring of NTFPs in Cameroon, harmonized with other
Central African countries in the framework of COMIFAC, is therefore proposed.
The review considers largely data and studies about NTFPs published from 2004 to March 2010, giving the
actual state of affairs since the last large scale regional studies about NTFPs (FAO 1999); Clark et al. 1998;
Clark et al. 2004). However, as information about consumption, trade, volumes and values that are
nationally representative is rare, some data prior to 2004 have been used.
The objectives of this national review are to:
Update and revise the existing information about the state of the use and commercialisation of
NTFPs
Identify the key NTFPs (both plants and animals), both most commonly used and commercialized
over the past 5 years.
Update a description of the key NTFPs.
Estimate the volumes, values and production associated with the commercialization of NTFPs.
Present methodologies for monitoring NTFPs in Cameroon within the context of COMIFAC.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 5
2. Methodology The main methodology for the review is an analysis of documents and literature. Additional information
was gathered, guided by semi-structured questionnaires in markets, and interviews with stakeholders
working with NTFPs. The specific approaches used to gather and analyse the different data are detailed
below.
Approaches
Grey literature
Because the review specifically looked for new data and case studies, a large range of ‘grey literature’
covering a range of disciplines (botany, forestry, environmental sciences, development, anthropology,
sociology, ethnology, ethnobotany, geography and agriculture) was reviewed for possible new information
about NTFPs. Finding this broader scale of documents was done by search of key words in a web search
tool (www.googlescholar.com, see Annex 1). In addition, the NTFP project1 led by FAO offered assistance
finding relevant information by listing all relevant documents from their past projects and library. Recipe
books available in Cameroon were included to provide an insight into the NTFPs commonly used for food.
After a quick scan of about 500 documents using selection criteria (see ANNEX 1 Literature searches), 92
documents were retained for more detailed review.
Peer reviewed literature
After a scan of about 600 peer-reviewed scientific journals and books, using key words as selection criteria
(see ANNEX 1 Literature searches), 242 documents were retained for more detailed review. These are
presented in detail in ANNEX 6 NTFPs in Cameroon, and by region, and species and classification in Annexes
3, 4 and 5 respectively.
Theses
Academic thesis of masters, DEA and doctoral level students provide a rich source of data which is often
not well disseminated or well known, particularly for master’s levels students who do not publish their
results in scientific journals or non-scientific literature. Libraries and university websites were visited, and
contacts were made with researchers at Universities in Cameroon (Dschang, Yaounde I, Ngaoundéré, Buea
and Bamenda), international Universities known to have connections with Cameroon (Universities of
Gottingen, Wageningen, Gembleau and Brussels) and research institutes (the Cameroonian Institute for
Agricultural Research (IRAD), the French Centre for International Agricultural Research and Development
(CIRAD), the French Institute for Research and Development (IRD), Tropenbos Cameroon and the World
Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), to obtain copies of relevant theses. While there are undoubtedly many more
theses on the topic, a selection that meets the study criteria has been included. These provide in-depth
details, often for a specific geographic site, on trade, values and volumes.
Government and international institutions trade data
To obtain information on national and export trade of NTFPs within and from Cameroon, government trade
and permit data was sourced and consulted. This consists of data held by the Ministry of Forestry and
Wildlife on the annual data quotas allocated and actual quantities exploited of the 13 ‘Special Forestry
1 GCP/RAF/408/EC, European Union funded ‘’Mobilisation et Renforcement des Capacités des Petites et Moyennes Entreprises
impliquées dans les Filières des Produits Forestiers Non Ligneux en Afrique Centrale’’ Project, FAO, SNV, ICRAF, CIFOR and the Governments of Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; 2007-2010
Products’. Also consulted were CITES databases of products listed under Annex II of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), and the annual reports from the Ministry of Forestry
and Wildlife to CITES, which are maintained in the United Nations World Conservation Monitoring Centre
database2. The Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife also maintains a Database of Commercialised Species in
Cameroon (‘COMCAM’ database) which details export quantities, importing countries and exporters of
forest products exports since 2004. The Système de Gestion de l’Information Forestière (SIGIF) appears to
be no longer used and does not appear to contain any data on NTFPs (see also Betti 2007).
Stakeholder interviews
Interviews and discussions and email correspondence with key stakeholders working in the sector included
the associations of NTFP exports and harvesters, the FAO, a number of University professors, the National
Herbarium of Cameroon, NGOs such as TRAFFIC, WWF and WCS, the Royal Botanic Garden Kew and CIFOR
colleagues, to obtain further data and clarify specific questions on species, values and volumes.
Market survey and Market Information Systems
The aim of the market survey was to meet with traders and market masters and verify the species and
volumes traded. Although the survey is limited in that it was restricted only to a small number (10) of towns
(Abong Mbang, Bafoussam, Bamenda, Dschang, Idenau, Kribi, Limbe, Lomie, Makenene and Yaounde) and
was a punctual, one-off survey, not able to capture the well documented seasonal variations in NTFPs, it
enabled a verification of all the traded NTFPs and especially the small quantities of condiments and barks
not captured by the other market surveys. To address these limitations, data and reports from the Market
Information Systems (MIS) set up by SNV from 2008 to 2010 were used (Mekongo and Ngueko 2008; SNV
2009c; SNV 2009b; SNV 2010b; SNV 2010a; SNV 2010c). These cover 8 months of data from the Centre,
South, East and North West regions and their markets (physical and virtual) and trade across Cameroon.
The NTFP Databases, also based on market surveys, also provide complementary information for the higher
quantity NTFPs traded.
Internet sites and sources were also used to provide export price data for species where this data was not
provided in the literature. Trade data was obtained from individual Cameroonian export and traders sites
which had been registered as having Special Forestry Permits, as well as Cameroonian traders sites found
during the internet search.
Data analysis The data on all species gathered from the different sources were entered into an excel sheet (ANNEX 4
General NTFP studies in Cameroon). Information on the species, names, values and volumes, parts, uses,
level of domestication and impact of harvest was included, with reference sources. Exotic NTFP species and
solely timber species were excluded from the review.
Trade volumes and values were taken from the literature and/or government data. Where several years of
data on values and volumes were available, these were averaged, to account for seasonal variations. Trade
values were calculated using annual exchange rates for the year(s) in question from CFA to $, if this
exchange rate was not quoted in the literature. An inflation-index linked US$ exchange rate was used to
calculate historical exchange rates into equivalent terms for 2010, to enable a comparison of values. Where
no recent (i.e. from 2004 or later) values or volumes were provided, the most recent data was used,
particularly where personal observations or literature sources indicate that this species remains consumed
2 http://www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade/
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 7
or traded. However these figures should be treated with caution and have been included as a guide only.
Values provided are either ‘‘Forest gate’’ i.e. the value to harvesters, or more often, retail market values in
Cameroon. Where no export prices were available, prices advertised on the internet for the species from
Cameroon were used. Total values and volumes were calculated, where available, by selecting the most
recent; longer term averaged value and volumes for a species. If several discrete geographical studies
provided information, all these were used when it was felt that there was no overlap of data.
The literature review, in the absence of obtainable government data on traded bushmeat, was used to
determine which species are most used and/or commercialised. Eight studies (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999a;
Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001; Ayeni, Tah et al. 2001; Fa, Seymour et al. 2006; Willcox and Nambu 2007;
Abugiche 2008; Tieguhong and Zwolinski 2009; Wright and Priston 2010), classified the most hunted and
marketed species (in numbers of animals and/or biomass) for their geographical zone of study. The
rankings provided by these studies were averaged to indicate key species nationally. As these eight studies
are broadly representative of different lowland humid forest zone of Cameroon, they are judged
representative for this zone. Similar data for bushmeat use in the Highland montane areas and Far North,
however were not found - which represents a significant data gap.
Where no details of values and volumes were found in the literature, this has a distorting effect on the
selection of ‘’key NTFPs’’ based purely on economic values. Particularly for some products such as Irvingia
gabonensis and in some cultures (such as Baka’a pygmy in the Centre and East regions and in the Anyang
and the Becheve in the Southwest region for example), exchange, gifts and non-cash trade can be
significant at between 11 to 30 % of the total quantity harvested ((Ingram 2009a). To compensate for this
distortion in selecting the ‘key NTFPs’, a simple scoring system was used to take account of own use,
consumption, barter and non-cash trade. This follows and elaborates on a similar logic used to value NTFPs
in previous studies (Zapfack and Ngobo 2001). Where studies had included an assessment or ranking of the
importance of the NTFPs to the local population, this was used to guide the score. Where little data was
provided on the importance and species did not have multiple uses, or only one reference, a ‘minor
consumption’ score was given. Species which had multiple uses, and from which multiple parts of were
used, were scored as being of a higher intrinsic value (Ticktin 2004; Akinleye, Olubanjo et al. 2008). The
value scoring system was based on criteria shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Value scoring system
Score Use
1 = Minor consumption (for cultural, medicinal, food, tools, construction use)
2 = Multiple use species (consumption)
Limited trade (Local trade or barter/exchange)
2.5 = Multiple use and local regional trade
3 = Wide scale trade (important revenue source for livelihoods, regional to national and
international trade)
Multiple use species (consumption and trade)
Major consumption (important cultural, medicinal, food, tools, construction use)
Species classified as protected or vulnerable
4 = Major consumption and wide scale trade nationally and/or internationally and/or
protected.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 8
Limitations
Estimating revenues and volumes
As has been widely noted, NTFPs often provide a highly variable flux of revenues for users and harvesters.
This has several causes;
The seasonality of production;
The relation with seasonal farming practices;
The need for cash at certain times of the year (cultural and religious holidays such as Christmas and
Id, the start of new school terms etc.);
The vulnerability of the product or possibility to transform the product to keep it longer and extend
market possibilities (Hoare 2007).
Trade barriers and ease of trade, particularly transport routes, are also a major variable affecting
revenues and profitability of actors.
Changing demand and markets; the history of Prunus africana trade in Cameroon demonstrates
how over the last 40 years a changing market, triggered by regulations, has affected the level of
trade. Suspension of trade in 2007 has completely altered the values and volumes currently being
traded compared to 2007 and to1995 when comprehensive, annual data collection started.
As a result of his variability, data on prices and volumes, which with the exception of the government and
CIFOR NTFP databases, has not been collected over significant time periods that allow an overview of the
fluctuations and interactions between demand and supply, seasonal variations and natural changes in
productivity.
Where no documentation on prices was available, several exporters were asked to provide data on prices.
They were however largely reluctant to provide data. In these cases, internet sources, where available,
were used to provide trade values. Internet sources however should be taken with caution as may be
higher than actual prices paid by export and should be seen as providing indicative values only.
Export data concerning volumes is very patchy, with export data on volumes for only a few species
collected officially. Volumes for those species not provided by government data are therefore not
necessarily accurate and may represent minimum trade volumes. There is also a variation between the
volumes indicated in annual Special Forestry Product Permits and actual volumes exported, according to
the government COMCAM database: for some years less is exported than the permits requested, for other
years more, with over 100% variances for some species. This means that averages over the period that data
exists, may give an unrealistic long term impression of trade. Internet sources also indicate that many more
NTFP species are traded and available from Cameroon, and in quantities vastly different to those recorded
in the government database annually. Many of the references used were compromised by such fluxes and
seasonality. The lack of long term studies of values and volumes means that it is extremely difficult to
establish averages or baselines and to extrapolate this over the longer term, or to other regions, and even
nationally for some products.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 9
Extrapolation to annual volumes and values
Where annual volumes were not given, but data was provided in terms of weeks or months, data was
extrapolated to a 12 month period for non seasonal products (e.g. Gnetum spp., Prunus africana). Where
only seasonal production data was available, this was used without extrapolation. When large seasonal
variations in prices or between markets were found, the average was used.
Study period
The market observations were only over a short period over 3 months and were intended only to provide
an indicative view of products traded at that period and the products usually offered in those markets.
Accurate recall by market traders was a problem as most do not record sales, values and volumes. This
limitation was complemented and compensated partially by CIFOR’s long term NTFP market databases and
SNV’s Market information Systems.
Species scientific and local names
Some forest products traded are not distinguished by their species name but are sold generically - meaning
that for some species it is difficult to obtain data on species level. For example eru (known as okok or koko)
is the common trade for two species: Gnetum bulchozium and Gnetum africanum, which are not
distinguished in trade. Similarly, bush mango, known locally as ndo’o or mangue sauvage, is the trade name
for two species (Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombulu). Whilst these species are distinguished in the
forest by harvesters and due to their different fruiting periods, they are often not differentiated in the
markets. Bushmeat, with monkeys, duikers and small rodents in particular, are also not sold according to
their species name. The species is also not always identifiable per species once it reaches markets if the
animals has been dried and/or smoked. Many caterpillars are often known only by their local names or by
the host tree. For some species, particularly caterpillars, insects and mushrooms, the scientific name has
not been yet been identified (van Dijk, Onguene et al. 2003). For many condiments sold in Cameroonian
local markets, even many traders also do not know their local names, but refer to the barks, herbs and
spices collectively by their main mode of use e.g. ’epice d’nkui’ and ’achu spices’.
3.
Photo 2 Cola acuminata, Garcina cola and Dacryodes edulis
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 10
3. Background This section briefly presents the Republic of Cameroon to set the context in which this study is framed.
Located in Central Africa the country covers a total land area of 466,326 km2. It has 4,591km of land
boundaries and 402km of coastline. It is bordered to the east by the Central African Republic, northeast by
Chad, west and northwest by Nigeria and south by the Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.
The country is located between latitudes 2o and 13o N (about 1200 km) and longitudes 8o30’ and 16o 10’ E.
Climate, vegetation and topography
Cameroon has a tropical climate along the coast, becoming semi-arid, hotter and drier in the north. The
country can be divided into four geographic regions on the basis of climate and topographic criteria. The
southern zone, roughly between 2° and 6° N has a four-season climate, rainfall over 1500 mm and two dry
months. The Congo-Guinean zone forest zone is a region of closed evergreen or semi-deciduous rainforest,
forming an almost unbroken blanket in the south and splitting into islands north of the fourth parallel; it
corresponds to the ‘humid’ and ‘low and medium-altitude sub-humid’ eco-floristic zones. The coastal zone
is a 200 km wide strip along the sea in which oceanic influences predominate. The single dry season is not
very marked, and rainfall decreases from 4,000 mm on the coast with a maximum of up to 10,000 mm at
Debunscha near Mt Cameroon, to 2,500 to 3,000 mm, some 50 km inland (Edea) and 2,000 mm along the
border of the humid lowland forest zone. It corresponds to the ‘low- medium altitude very humid’ eco-
floristic zone, with an evergreen forest whose vegetation differs from that of the evergreen forest further
inland. The coastal and southern zones make up Letouzey’s (1985) ‘Congo-Guinean’ floristic region. The
northern zone has a drier Sudano-Sahelian climate with annual rainfall between 500 mm and 1000 mm.
The mountainous Cameroon Highlands zone is found along the volcanic chain from Mt Cameroon though
the northwest to Adamaoua and includes unique Afromontane forests above 2000 m, and a rainfall of
between 1500 à 2600 mm varying with relief and altitude. The average temperature in the south is 250C,
210C on mountain ranges and plateau and 320C in the drier north (Jonker and Foahom, 2009). The northern
slope of the Adamaoua plateau is a clear boundary within the Soudanian zone.
Cameroons' terrain is diverse, with plains in the north and the southwest, the Adamawa plateau in the
centre and high mountains in the west. The highest point is Mt Cameroon (4, 095 m) in the Southwest
region and the lowest is sea level. For most part the country lies between 200 and 800 m above sea level.
Lake Chad is in the far north and straddles the border with Chad. Three major rivers flow into the Atlantic:
The Wouri, the Nyong and the Sanaga that is formed from the confluence of the Lom (which flows from the
northwest) and the Noun (which flows from the east). The Dja arises in the east and flows out of the
country into Congo in the east. The river Bénoué flows north to Nigeria through Lagdo reserve
Demography
The population of Cameroon is estimated at 19.4 million as of January 1, 2010, a projection derived from
the Population & Housing Census of November 2005. This is based on an estimated annual growth rate of
2.6%. A little over half (50.5%) of the population is female with 43.6% of the population is less than 15
years old (Government of Cameroon (2010). The urban population is increasing with 52% now living in
urban areas, up from 48.9% in 2000. The average population density is 35.2 inhabitants per km2 (UNDP
2008: FAO, 2007), but varies considerably per region, from less than 5 persons per km² in some savannah
and moist forest regions to 90-100 persons per km² in parts of the West. Three-quarters of the male
population and 52% of the female population over 15 years of age are literate. The male/female ratio for
the population is 1.01. The main ethnic groups are the Cameroon highlanders (31%) and the Equatorial
Bantu (19%), Kirdi (11%) Fulani (10%), the Northwestern Bantu (8%) and the Eastern Nigritic (7%) (Neba
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 11
1999; CIA 2009). There are more than 250 linguistic groups with strong cultural identities associated with
the ecological zones where they live. The Bantus are dominant farming populations in the humid forest
zone while marginalized indigenous groups include the pygmies (Aka, Baka, Baka'a, Bakola and others)
(Topa et al. 2009). About 25% of the population adheres to traditional religion (indigenous beliefs); about
22% is Muslim; the remaining majority is Christian (Jonker and Foahom, 2009). The official languages are
English and French, with the latter dominating while the former is confined to the former British colony in
the northwest and southwest regions.
Governance and administration
Following German, British and French colonial rule, French Cameroon became an independent nation in
1960, merging with the British Cameroons in 1961. In 1972, President Ahmadou Ahidjo unified the country
and created a republic with a constitution and a legal system based on French civil law, and divided
Cameroon into 10 administrative regions, ruled through an autocratic, highly centralized, one-party system.
Since 1982 the current president, Paul Biya, has continued a one-party state until 1990, when a multiparty
system was introduced and parliamentary elections took place in 1992, with presidential elections in 1997.
Cameroon’s government however is often described as authoritarian (Topa et al 2009). Throughout
Cameroon, political parties and associations have been superimposed on traditional structures. In the last
two decades administrative functions have been decentralized, devolving power but not always
corresponding financial budgets to local councils and communities(Oyono 2004).
Socio-economics
The GDP per capita is US$ 651 and real growth rate is 4.8% (FAO, 2007), however 40% of the population
lives under the poverty line. Agriculture accounts for 44% of GDP, industry for 16% and service industries
for the remaining 40% (CIA 2008) with seventy percent of the working population active in the agricultural
sector. Cameroon is classified as a medium-income country, with a Human Development index of 0.532 in
2008 (UN 2009) but many development challenges remain (see Table 3). Because of its relative political
stability, timber and oil resources and favourable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-
endowed, functioning primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa.
Table 3 Cameroon Human Development Indexes
Literacy rate 67.9% Life expectancy at birth 49.8 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita 2005 (purchasing power parity US$) 2.299 Human Development Index 1995-2005 Increase Population living below: - US$1/day 17.1% - US$2/day 50.6% - National poverty line 40.2% Births per women 6.3 Population undernourished 1990/92 33% Population undernourished 2002/04 26% HIV prevalence (15-49 age group) 2005 5.4% Cell phone subscribers (per 1000 people) 138 Net Official Development Assistance per capita (US$) 25.4 Net Official Development Assistance as % GDP 1990 4.0% Net Official Development Assistance as % GDP 2005 2.5% TI corruption perception index 2.4
Overall HDI rank (out of 177 countries) 144 (Sources UN Human Development Report 2007/2008, * United Nations World Prospects Report (2004 revision), ** World Bank
Doing Business 2009)
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 12
Figure 2 Ecological maps of Cameroon
Source: Letouzey 1985
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 13
Infrastructure
Cameroon has 34,300 km of roads of which 4,288 km are
paved. Plans to upgrade and connect Cameroon to the African
international highway system are ongoing, with routes to
Equatorial Guinea and Gabon in the south, and Central African
Republic to the East completed but not to Nigeria in the west.
There is 1,104 km of one-metre gauge railway with the main
line leading from Douala on the coast through the capital
Yaounde and up to Ngaoundéré. There are eleven airports with
paved runways but only 3 (Douala, Yaoundé and Maroua)
served with regular flights, and 39 with unpaved runways.
There are about 2,090 km of waterways, with the main ports of
Douala, Limbe and Kribi on the Atlantic coast and Garoua on
the river in the north, which handles exports to Nigeria.
Cameroon is dependent on hydropower for 97.5% of its power,
but faces regular power cuts in both rural and urban areas. The
fixed telephone system that was previously largely only
available to business and government has been transformed in
the last five years by mobile networks which cover the majority
of towns and cities in Cameroon.
Cameroon’s forestry sector
As shown in Table 4, the forest sector’s economic importance has made it a source of influence, political
capital and reward in Cameroon’s patronage system, and the motives and behaviour of various groups with
an interest in Cameroon’s forests are best understood light of these circumstances. Since 2004, forests
have been under the competences of the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (MinFoF), and nature protection
under the Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection, with the roles of both enshrined in the Sectoral
Program for Forests and Environment (Republic of Cameroon 2003). MinFoF is the gatekeeper to lucrative
logging rights in Cameroon, and the majority of its activities are focused on commercial timber. Given its
vital role in supporting the president, the Department of Forests enjoyed high-level access to the
presidential office and has operated under rather direct presidential control. The initiation of democratic
reforms in the 1990s has brought new complexity to forest management by involving a broader range of
actors with competing and overlapping interests and claims (Topa et al. 2009).
Over 47% of Cameroon’s national territory is forested (de Wasseige, 2009). The forest is mainly closed
tropical broad-leaved rainforest with three predominant types: lowland evergreen, lowland semi-
deciduous, and montane. The closed forests are concentrated in the south and along the coast. Cameroon’s
dense forested zone covers 19.6 million ha, about 40% of the national territory and is described as some of
the most biological diverse and most threatened forests (Topa et al. 2009; CBFP, 2006; GFW, 2000). Areas
of mangroves are found in the Gulf of Guinea and Acacia spp. savannah woodland occurs in the north.
Cameroon has a modest area of agro-industrial plantation forests, largely oil palm and rubber of around
100,00 ha (Monfort 2005). Whilst low by international standards, Cameroon has one of the highest central
African annual rates of deforestation in the humid zone is 0.14%, and an annual net degradation rate of
0.01% (de Wasseige, 2009). However when including the savannah zone, it is above the African average
with 1%. The Government of Cameroon adopted a new forestry law in 1994, highlighting its strategies for
making the forestry sector contribute to the socio-economic development of Cameroon by involving local
Figure 3 Infrastructure map of Cameroon
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 14
communities, NGOs, economic operators, as well as international communities. The forest zoning plan in
Cameroon now covers 14 million hectares with growing recognition of the customary rights and socio-
economic welfare contributions of forests at the local and national levels. The forest sector of Cameroon is
the largest employer outside the public sector, providing 13,000 formal and 150,000 informal jobs and is
the second largest source of export revenue after petroleum, 29% and 26% of nonpetroleum exports in
2001 and 2004 respectively (Topa et al. 2009; (Ingram 2009a). The value of forest products in Cameroon for
which some statistics exist is – export timber around US$ 870 million and domestic timber US$ 58 million,
with 15 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) estimated to have a market value of around US$ 54 million in
2007-2008 (Ingram 2009). However, the NTFP sector accounts for 58% of people employed, with the
domestic sector estimated 33% and the export sector at 9% of those employed in the forest sector (Ingram
2009a). In 1994, Cameroon introduced a number of forest policy reforms, both regulatory and market-
based, to support a more organized, transparent and sustainable system for accessing and using forest
resources (Topa et al. 2009). More policy and development focused attention is now increasingly been
directed towards the value chains of NTFPs in the last decade.
In Cameroon, the state defines forestry sector policies, forest management regulations and grants logging
rights. Cameroon’s forests are governed by the 1994 Forestry Law and its 1995 Decree of Application.
Another important legal regulation on forestry and wildlife was the implementation of the National Zoning
Plan and guidelines. The National Zoning Plan is an indicative framework for land use in the southern
forested area. It acts as tool for the planning, orientation and exploitation of natural resources within the
area (Jonkers and Foahom, 2004). Cameroon’s forest is divided into the permanent and non-permanent
forest domains. The permanent forests consist of protected areas and production forests, designated for
sustainable production of timber and other forest products. Non-permanent forests are forests that can be
converted to other uses, provided that they are kept as forest and harvested according to regulations for
production forestry.
Table 4 Cameroon forest key figures Aspect Figures Date Reference
Public forest ownership 86% 2005 MINFOF and FAO 2005
Industrial roundwood production 2.3 million m3 2006 MINFOF 2007a
Contribution forestry sector to GDP 6% 2004 CBFP 2006
Value of forest products exports 488 million $ 2006 INS 2006
(Sources: Fometé and Cerutti, 2008; World Bank, 2009; World Bank, 2009)
Photo 3 NW and Western highlands forests: Source of NTFPs such as honey, Voacanga africana and Prunus africana
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 15
4. Results
The forests of Central Africa and Cameroon are rich in non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which have long
been an important component in the livelihood strategies of forest-dwelling people, providing subsistence
needs, employment and cash income for them (Arnold and Ruiz-Perez, 1998). A number of ‘guesstimates’
(Calibre Consultants and SSC University of Reading 2000) propose that between one in four to one in six of
the world’s poor depend directly or indirectly on forests for their livelihoods (World Bank, 2002, FAO 2008).
Timber and other forests products provide 350 million people living in or around tropical forests with 50
percent or more of their household needs and also directly provide 10 percent of jobs in developing
countries (Ames, 1998). Given the high percentage of forest cover, some 62% of the rural population are
estimated to depend on access to forests to meet their daily needs in terms of subsistence, employment
and cash income (Tieguhong et al. 2009; Tieguhong and Ndoye, 2004, 2006; Arnold and Ruiz-Perez, 1998).
Most Cameroonians, particularly the rural inhabitants depend on NTFPs for their subsistence and provide
cash income. The value of forest products in Cameroon for which some statistics exist is – export timber
around US$ 870 million and domestic timber US$ 58 million, with 15 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
estimated to have a market value of around US$ 54 million in 2007-2008 (Ingram 2009). However, the NTFP
sector accounts for 58% of people employed, with the domestic sector estimated 33% and the export
sector at 9% of those employed in the forest sector (Ingram 2009a). At the household level, forests directly
provide about 8 million rural and poor Cameroonians with traditional medicines, food, domestic energy
and construction materials (Topa et al. 2009).
There has been increased interest in the collection and marketing of NTFPs as an instrument for sustainable
rural development in Cameroon (Tieguhong and Ndoye, 2004). One approach has been to work with rural
communities and participants involved in NTFP value chains to improve the income generation and
sustainability, particuarly for remote and marginalised communities and ethnic groups (SNV 2009a).
However, the ability of NTFPs to provide sustainable income and generating forest based enterprises has
been hampered by inadequate political, economic, technical and legal arrangements. This is aggravated by
the lack of statistics on the contribution of the various NTFPs to local, national and regional economies
(Sunderland and Clark 2004, Tieguhong and Ndoye, 2006). Many of the species recognised for their
economic contributions to livelihoods and large scale trade are not sufficiently domesticated to ensure that
supply is greater than market demand. This has lead to some wild species to be classified as vulnerable and
their international trade restricted to reduce the ecological pressures on wild populations. Examples are
Prunus africana and Pericopsis elata, which are the two Conventions on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) listed plant species in Cameroon.
Defining priority NTFPs To establish the key NTFPs in terms of trade and use/consumption, the historical literature was first
examined to provide an initial list. Ground breaking publications prior to 2005 (FAO 1999; Walter 2001;
Clark and Sunderland 2004) provide a listing and assessment of the trade and consumption of different
NTFPs in Cameroon (Ndoye, Pérez et al. 1997/98; Pérez, Ndoye et al. 1999; Pérez, Ndoye et al. 2000). These
sources formed the basis for the NTFPs listed in ANNEX 6 NTFPs in Cameroon.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 16
Defining what are ‘key’’ and ‘’priority’’ products is
necessarily subjective. However a consensus is
apparent between many studies, that priorities can
be defined in terms of ‘’uses’’ (FAO 1999; Betti
2007b).
Priority uses identified in the literature include:
1. Using parts of plants for food, particularly
fruits (e.g. Irvingia gabonensis), nuts (e.g. Cola
spp.), seeds (e.g. Ricinodendron heudelotii),
and animals (commonly known as
‘bushmeat’), is one of the most common uses
of NTFPs in Cameroon. For an excellent
overview of all NTFPs (plants and animals)
with importance for food security, see Bikoue
(2007).
2. Medicinal use, including those exported and
plants or plant parts used locally such as
Prunus africana (Simons et al., 2000b),
Pausinystalia johimbe (Ngo Mpeck et al.,
2003a; Tchoundjeu et al., 2004), and moabi
(Baillonella toxisperma). The listing of medical
NTFPs in the FAO report on NTFPs in
Cameroon (FAO 1999) illustrates over 358
plants used in local pharmacopeia. This list, one of the most comprehensive for Cameroon, is however
misleading in that a significant number (at least 30) non-forest plants (e.g. Bildens pilosa) and exotic,
cultivated plants such as Musa spp, banana), Psidium guajava (guava) and Citrus lemon (lemon)) are
included in the lists of medicinal plants.
3. Tools and construction use of plants such as 5 species of rattan (e.g. Laccosperma secundiflorum)
(Sunderland 2001), bamboo (Ingram, Tieguhong et al. 2010), and raphia (5 species) both of which are
used as poles and in construction of buildings and to produce over 60 types of construction materials,
utensils and handicrafts(Shiembo 1986; Ingram, Tieguhong et al. 2010) .
4. Energy and fuel use, most commonly of wood, but also other plants parts and biomass to produce
energy, is one of the major uses highlighted in just a handful of studies. Depending upon the location,
a wide range of species are used, particularly in the drier, savannah forests, whereas a more
discriminate selection of species for energy is made in the humid forests.
5. The use of plants and animals for cultural purposes, including ceremonies and religious events, was
highlighted by the FAO (1999) overview and in ethnobotanic literature. The species used and uses vary
widely depending upon with the ethnic group and geographic location. For an overview of cultural
uses, see ANNEX 5 Location specific NTFP studies.
Based on these usage types, six criteria for the priority or key NTFPs are proposed in Box 1, of which five
are seen as appropriate to assess the priority NTFPs in Cameroon given the study terms of reference. The
next section examines plants and animal species in the light of these five criteria.
Box 1 A defintion of priority NTFPs
‘Priorirty’ or ‘key’ NTFPs have been defined (Wilkie
1999; (Clark and Sunderland 2004) as those which have:
1. High value for domestic or market consumption (ie Livelihood value)
2. Demand for the product exceeding supply unsustainable exploitation (a function of In-situ conservation priority status and Domestication priority)
3. New markets potential: The validity of this last criteria outlined by Wilkie (1999) is however questioned, as this aspect deals with future supply rather than with current actual practice.
Adding to this list, other important criteria that emerge from the literature review are;
4. Species which have multiple (including conflicting) uses.
5. Species from which multiple parts are used. 6. Species which are classified as vulnerable or
protected (for example, on the Red Data list, CITES listed and/or protected by national laws).
Critera 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 are seen as the most relevant for
this study, given the terms of reference.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 17
Key plant NTFPs The literature review indicated that from an estimated 3000 plant species identified in Cameroon, some
181 plant products can be termed NTFPs and are regularly sold in the markets (Betti, 2007). Vivien and
Faure (1996) surveyed more than 300 edible fruits; (Fomete and Tchanou 1998) citing Fondou and Foteu
1995), found 205 species and Eyog Matig et al. (2006) described the use of 74 fruiting species. Over 200
plant foods were identified in southern Cameroon (van Dijk 1999). Adjanohoun et al. (1996) surveyed 839
plants used for 175 medicinal uses in Cameroun, and Betti (2004) found 102 medicinal plants used by the
Baka in Dja. To distinguish between all these different products it is useful to look into resource
characteristics, use, and value of the NTFPs. Betti (2007) divided the products into 13 different plant parts
that are commonly used and scores the amount of these plant parts sold at markets in Cameroon. Almost
half (47%) of all plant products sold are fruits and seeds, followed by bark (20%) and leaves (11%).
Subsequently the NTFPs were categorized in terms of use or purpose of the product, with a majority (44%)
of the products at the market sold for food consumption. The most often cited botanic families for food
purpose found by Betti (2007) are: Sapotaceae, Gnetaceae, Piperaceae, Irvingiaceae, Anacardiaceae,
Euphorbiaceae and Zingiberaceae. Medicinal use (29%) is the second most important group and frequently
Gnetum africanum and Gnetum buchholzianum (Eru) (Clark and Sunderland 2004)
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Ezezang/ Njansang)(Ngo Mpeck et al., 2003b),
Garcinia kola (Bitter Kola) (Leaky et al., 2005)
Cola acuminata and Cola nitida (Kola nut)
Dacryodes edulis (Safou) (Kengue, 2002; Okafor, 1983; Tchoundjeu et al., 2002a). NTFPs also contribute to the national economy and household income. The collection and sales of NTFPs
provide income for the rural poor living in forest rich environments. NTFPS provide less export revenue
than timber, but higher levels of employment. The timber sector provides an estimated 45,000 formal jobs
and the informal, domestic timber sector employs some 163,000 people, whereas NTFPs provide
employment for an estimated 283,000 people and generating a market value of US$ 54 million in the 2007-
2008 season, compared to US$ 870 million in the timber export sector and US58 million in the domestic
timber sector (Cerutti, Ingram et al. 2009; de Wasseige, Didider et al. 2009; Ingram 2009b). NTFPs noted in
the literature that provide significant revenues for harvesters, but also other actors in NTFP value chains
Irvingia gabonensis Nut kernel 5 - France, Belgium 1998
Ricinodendron heudelotii Seeds 4 - France, Belgium 1998
Dacryodes edulis Fruit 100 ++ France, Belgium 1998
Hua gabonii Leaves/seeds n/a -- France, Belgium 1998
Landolphia owariensis Leaves n/a -- France, Belgium 1998
Monodora tenuifolia Seed. bark, n/a -- France, Belgium 1998
Monodora myristica Seeds 1 -- France, Belgium 1998
Tetrapleura tetraptera Seeds 1 -- France, Belgium 1998
Xylopia aethiopica Seeds 1 -- France, Belgium 1998
Aframomum spp. Bulb n/a -- France, Belgium 1998
Aframomum giganteum Bulb n/a -- France, Belgium 1998
Afrostyrax lépidophyl bark n/a -- France, Belgium 1998
Volume: ++ High - Small -- Very small Source: (Tabuna 1999)
Government sources also provide information on the ‘’key’’ products. The 1994 Forestry Law3 identifies
thirteen products, which are termed ‘Special Forestry Products’4. Many of these, but not all, are NTFPs
although over half are also used for their timber, as shown in 5. This list indicates the plant-based NTFPs
seen as valuable and of ‘special interest’ by the government, inferred due to mainly to their high trade
value.
3 Law No. 94/01 of 20 January 1994 laying down Forest, Wildlife and Fishery regulations. Government of Cameroon, Yaoundé. This
has been followed to date by two decrees of application (No. 95/466-PM of 20 July 1995 on wildlife and No. 95/531-PM of 23 August 1995 on forestry) 4’Government of Cameroon (2006). Décision No 0336/D/MINFoF du 6 Juillet 2006, fixant la liste des produits forestiers spéciaux
présentant un intérêt particulier au Cameroun. 0336. d/MINFOF: 2.Setting the list of special forest products of particular interest to Cameroon’') 5 Scientific name has been added in italics where known, or speculated where it was not specified in the list.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 19
Table 6 Special Forestry Products in Cameroon
Product (as it appears on the list)
Species scientific name7 Local names NTFP Timber
Ebéne Diospyros crassiflora Ebene, ebony √
Eru Gnetum africanum, Gnetum buchholzianum Okok, koko √
Tooth stick Randia massularia (syn. Randia) acuminata, Garcinia mannii, Cola acuminata, Cola nitida
Chewing stick √
Candle stick Carpolobia alba and Carpolobia lutea or Canarium schweinfurthii
Cattle stick Candle nut
√ √
Charbon de bois At least 23 commonly used species identified in Cameroon: Albizia zygia, A. adianthifolia, Alstonia boonei, Bridelia micrantha, Dacryodes macrophylla, Entandrophragma utile, Ficus thonningii, Lannea welwistchii, Macaranga asas, Maesopsis, eminii, Mangifera indica, Milicia excelsa, Morinda lucida, Piptadeniastrum africanum, Phyllanthus discoideus, Presea maericana, Rauvolfia vomitoria, Theobroma cacao, Tetrapleura tetraptera, Voacanga africana, Xylopia aethiopica (FAO 1999)
Charcoal, fuelwood, bois de energie, bois de feu
√ √
Aniegré Aningeria robusta √ √
Poteaux d’Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus spp. especially Eucalyptus robusta, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus grandis
Eucalyptus √
Data on volumes and species of Special Forest Products permitted, exploited and exported over the last
twelve years is shown in Figure 4. Government data on NTFPs exported, sourced from the COMCAM
database of exported forest products, is shown in Figure 5. Comparing these two sets of figures highlights
several issues:
The data available per product varies depending on its status in that particular year and whether it has been listed in the annual Special Forestry Products list, and even when it is listed, data on the number of permits, exports and national trade is inconsistent across the time period for each product.
There are wide differences in the quantities allocated in permitted and actual exports.
Although some waybill data is collected by MinFoF on national levels of exploitation at some (but not all) customs and highway checkpoints, and the major border crossings and ports, this is not then centralised and compared with permitted quantities. This means that data on permits cannot be seen as an accurate guide to actual quantities sold or exported. Many exploiters and permit holders indicated in interviews that they try and reach the amount permitted, because they have already paid in advance the regeneration tax which is 10% of the total permit value.
Not all NTFPs actually exported are recorded by MinFoF – for example comparing these figures from the COMCAM database with Error! Reference source not found.Table 5 and with ANNEX 6 NTFPs in Cameroon and recent studies by CIFOR for Gnetum spp. and Irvingia spp., (Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2009b; Ewane, Awono et al. 2009; Ndumbe, Ingram et al. 2010) shows how for
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 20
products of which have high levels of regional and European trade, the data for these products is not fully captured by the government, despite their listing as Special Forestry Products.
Only statistics on a small proportion of exported NTFPs are collected centrally by MinFoF - this data is therefore not representative of exports of NTFPs from Cameroon.
The Special Forestry Products and COMCAM databases only include plant based products and animal products. There is no such comprehensive database of Permits for class A, B or C animals – whether for trophy hunting or for bushmeat.
Data on insect products, notably apiculture products from wild and domesticated bees, caterpillars, termites and snails which are both harvested from the wild and farmed, is neither kept by MinFoF or the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries & Production (MinEPIA).
Photo 4 Key Cameroonian NTFPs; High trade but scarce data
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 21
Figure 4 Special Forestry Products: Species, Permitted quantities and Exported quantities
*The species are as recorded in data source. Where possible, scinetific names are given to avoid confusion. For species in green, these are not NTFPs, for species in red the scientific name is not
known. For species in blue, only a generic name was given in the data source and not indivudal species.
Figure 5 Cameroon official data on exports NTFPs 2003-2009
Source COMCAM
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 23
There are a number of issues related to the list of Special Forest Products to be taken into consideration
when evaluating if these can be classified as ‘key’ products, using the definition in Box 1. These include:
The mix of French, English, local and scientific names given leaves ample room for confusion and
exacerbates identification and control problems. This is particularly critical where several species are
known locally under the same name or where species are only vaguely identified and thus the
intention of the government to control one or several species (e.g. Candle stick) is not clear. The
practical outcome of this is illustrated by personal communications from exporters and transporters:
Upon telling MinFoF controls that a truck is carrying ‘Gnetum’ rather than ‘eru’, they have been
exempted from control of waybills and permits.
The Special Forest Products actually exploited change annually according to the quotas allocated by
an inter-ministerial commission, chaired by the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife. Products in the last
four years for which permits have been issued include both timber and non timber species with high
local value, such as rattans and charcoal, and those with local and regional commercial interest, such
as bush mango (Irvingia spp.), despite it not being on the 2006 Special Forestry Products List.
The list includes products classified as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. One
example is Prunus africana, which also has restricted trade as it is regulated by the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species. However the other CITES listed plant species in
Cameroon, known as Afrormosia or Assamela (Pericopsis elata), which is a highly traded timber
species, is not listed as a Special Product. Other NTFP and timber species classed as vulnerable,
endangered or critical by the Red Data list are not included e.g. Garcina cola (vulnerable), Khaya
ivorensis and Khaya senegalensis (vulnerable), Lophira alata (vulnerable) and Vitellaria paradoxa , the
Shea or karite tree (vulnerable).
Exotic introduced species, such as quinine (Cinchona pubescens) – which now grows spontaneously
outside former plantations and Eucalyptus spp., common in both plantations and on farms, as well as
increasingly spontaneously in the West, Northwest and North, are both included on the Special
Forestry Products list.
Special products have annual quotas set by an inter-ministerial committee headed by MINFOF. The
quotas are not based on amounts available, surveys or inventories, but are entirely demand led,
dependent upon amounts solicited by exploiting companies. In practice the actual quotas allocated
are often way below annual market turnover. For example, in 2009 only one quota was allocated for
100 tons of Irvingia from the centre province of Cameroon6. However, in 2007, studies indicated that
over 533 tons was produced from just 5 districts in the Centre, South and Littoral regions (Awono and
Manirakiza 2008) and some 2.8 tons collected annually from the 676 km2 of the Takamanda
landscape (Tajoacha 2008). These figures indicate that only fraction of the quantity harvested is
actually covered under permits. Studies of the 280 million hectare humid forest zone of Cameroon
(Ndoye, Pérez et al. 1997/98; Ndoye and Kaimowitz 2000; Pérez, Ndoye et al. 2000) indicate that
Safou, or bush plum, (Dacryodes edulis) is one of the most highly traded and valuable NTFP from the
lowland zone, with the volume traded in Cameroon in 1997 estimated at 11,000 tons (Awono, Ndoye
et al. 2002; Tajoacha 2008). Safou is another good illustration of the enormous gap between data and
practice on exploitation, trade and conservation, because it is neither listed as a Special Forestry
6 Ministère des Forets et de la Faune Décision N
o 0020 /D/MINFOF/SG/DF/AFF/SAG du 06 Jan 2009 Portant octroi
des quotas d’exploitation des produits forestiers spéciaux
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 24
Product, nor is a permit needed, and there is no
differentiation made between wild harvest and
harvest from domesticated trees. The 1994 Law is
silent on other species of NTFPs, with no regulation,
quotas or controls specified for other species traded.
For these reasons, the list of Special Forestry Products is
considered to provide only an indication of some of the
key plant species, but only 84% of them can be classed as
NTFPs and only 50% are ‘’key’’ NTFPs according to the
definition adopted for this study.
‘’Major’’ plant NTFPs were also identified during a 1998 workshop (Wilkie 1999) and repeated verbatim in 2008 (Noubissie et al. (2008). The logic however behind the selection of the NTFPs identified as ‘’major’’ is unclear (see Table 4 and Annex 2 of Noubissie et al, and Table 1 and 2 in Wilkie 19997). Wilkie’s list of 19 ‘’major’’ species, despite setting out criteria for ‘key’ species, includes those with low volumes of trade, low use and small markets e.g. mushrooms and Strophanthus gratus. Despite this inconsistency, the species indicated as having both high use and high trade can be used as a guide to ‘key’ species for this study and so have been included in Annex 6. Noubissie’s Table 4 also shows high value species, but as the source is a very general study (FAO 2001), that again, is a summary of prior data. This example illustrates how many of the supposedly ‘key’ NTFPs of Cameroon, which have since become well embedded in the literature, and to an extent in popular Cameroonian development and forestry mindset, but are not based on either actual economic values or on specific and nationwide assessments of consumption values in terms of either volumes or importance). Market observations, supported by discussions with
stakeholders, confirmed the data exchanged in the
Market Information System and the CIFOR NTFP
Databases. The market observations highlighted the
discrepancy between literature which focuses on the high
value, wide scale often long distance trade in NTFPs such
as Gnetum spp., Irvingia spp. and Dacryodes edulis.
Observations indicated that for about 100 commonly
7 Incorrectly referenced as ‘’Wilkie, D. 1998. Le programme du CARPE sur les produits forestiers non ligneux. In Recherche
actuelle et perspective pour la conservation et le développement. UAS,CARPE, USAID, FAO’’ - but assumed to mean Wilkie D.
1999, Le Programme Du Carpe Sur Les Produits Forestiers Non Ligneux In Recherches Actuelles Et Perspectives Pour La
Conservation Et Le Développement, T.C.H. Sunderland, L.E. Clark and P. Vantomme Eds FAO , Rome 1999
Box 2 Capturing the value of multi-use species: Raphia
In the mid 1980s two studies showed the value and
diversity of products from Raphia palms, known as
raffia or ‘bamboo’, with over 30 different products
identified (Shiembo 1982; Shiembo 1986). An
estimated 95% are still produced today. All parts of
four species (Raphia montbuttorum, R. Hookerii, R.
Mambilensis and R. vinifera) are used, and these are
commonly sold separately different markets to
different consumers.
Stems: Sold as poles in or near domestic timber
markets. Retial prices from 500 to 1000 FCFA a pole
(Bamenda, Bafoussam).
Stems: transformed by artisinal craftspersons who
produce crafts, and furniture and artifacts locally.
Sold individually, at the roadside, in crafts stalls and
markets and crafts shops. Retial price varies from
500-1000 FCFA for local stools (Mbalmayo,
Bamenda).
Exudate: The sweet, liquid sap is made into palm
wine by local tappers and sold in specialised palm
wine markets, at some stalls in food makrets, on the
roadside, directly bars by indivdal tappers, and from
tappers homes. Retial price for 5 litre = 800 to 1000
FCFA (Bamenda).
Fruits: the cooked, bitter yellow fruit seed is sold in
some markets. A stick of 5 sells for 100 FCFA (Bafut,
Mbalmayo).
Seeds: Sold directly to craftsmen who transform into
rattiles and curtains, sold in craftsmarkets and stalls.
A 1 metre x 1 metre wide curtain costs about 2500
FCFA (Limbe).
Leaves/Stems: Woven into decorations and used as
archways to market locations of funerals and
traditional ceremeonies, and relgous events. These
are often harvested directly by users.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 25
traded and consumed NTFPs, there is no or scarce literature on the volumes and values of its use and
trade. An explanation for this phenomenon is that as many of these species have multiple products and
uses, the full trade, economic and social value of the multiple uses of several species has not been
captured by market surveys and Market Information Systems, as these have tended to focus on food use.
Raphia spp. provide an excellent illustration of this trend (See Box 2) (Shiembo 1982; Shiembo 1986;
University of Dschang 2007). This has also resulted in an almost complete absence of attention on
fuelwood. Literature on medical plants has also tended to focus on the efficacy and use of species for
traditional and Western style medical use, rather than values and volumes, with a few notable exceptions
(Olowokudejo, B et al. 2008).
The species observed, in approximate
order of value, are:
1. Fuelwood; a large number of
species, often undetermined and/or
unknown by the retailers. The actual
species differ markedly in each
market and are commonly sold in
specialised fuelwood markets, on
the roadside or adjacent to some
food markets.
2. Cola or Kola nut (Garcinia cola, Cola
nitida and Cola acuminata)
3. Raffia (Raphia spp.) for its multiple uses (see Box 2)
4. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) as both nuts, oil and palm wine
5. Insects (multiple species including palm grubs, caterpillars, termites and grasshoppers – when in
season)
6. Mushrooms (multiple species, mostly unidentified) e.g. Ebae from the Centre and East
Key animal NTFPs The hunting and slaughter of forest animals, collectively known as ‘bushmeat’ in Cameroon, is, as for
plant based NTFPs, regulated by the 1994 Forestry Law. The areas in which hunting may take place are
defined in terms of game reserves, hunting areas and game ranches belonging to the State ‘hunting
zones’ in Section 24:(1). Section 78 of the Forestry Law deals with the Protection of Wildlife and
Biodiversity, with section 78 (1) classifying all animal species in the national territory into three classes (A,
B and C), with conditions for their exploitation laid down by the Minister in charge of Forestry and
Wildlife. Class A species are totally protected and may not be killed (except as provided for in section 82
and 83 of this law). Their capture or captivity is subject to authorization by the service in charge of
wildlife. Class B species are protected and may be hunted, captured or killed subject to the grant of a
hunting permit. Class C species are ‘’partially protected’’ according to the law but in practice include all
animals not listed in A or B or by CITES. This classification was last amended in 20068. Any person found
at any time or any place, in possession of a whole or part of a live or dead class A or B protected animal,
as defined in section 76 of the law, is considered to have captured or killed the animal. For certain Class A
trophy animals, a certificate of origin is required to specify the characteristics of the animals and the
registration number of the trophies to enable the identification of the animal products. Export of wild
animals, their hides and skins or trophies, requires a certificate of origin and an export permit.
This legal classification provides a good basis on which to assess the ‘key’ animal species, by examining
databases and government data. The classification largely (but not completely) corresponds with the
level of threat to species, as indicated by the vulnerability assessment in the Red Data Threatened
Species database (IUCN 2010). The vulnerability classification is shown in ANNEX 6 NTFPs in Cameroon
and the Class A and B species which are listed in ANNEX 7 Protected animal species in Cameroon). Class
A includes 31 mammal, 60 bird, 15 reptile and 1 amphibian species and Class B contains 20 mammal, 92
bird and 44 reptile species. It is necessary to make the distinction between Class A ‘’trophy animals’’ and
‘’bushmeat’’. The commercial trophy trade cannot be seen as representative of local consumption or
commercial trade, as the permits for these animals are provided to specialist, large game ‘tourist’
hunters, who are mainly not Cameroonian9. Data on hunting permits allocated to Cameroonians for Class
A and B animals, or official statistics on off-take quantities related to permits either does not exist, or was
not found upon request to MinFoF at a national level in Yaounde and regionally to officials in the
Southwest and Northwest. Data was reported to exist in some regional delegations, but is incomplete
(Pers. comm. MinFoF Department of Wildlife 2010). However, as the majority of literature indicates that
most hunters do not possess a license, it is expected that these licenses would provide just a very partial
indication of species actually hunted, consumed and traded.
The literature review, in the absence of obtainable government data on traded bushmeat, has been used
to determine which species are most used and/or commercialised. Nine studies (Njiforti 1996; Wilkie and
Carpenter 1999a; Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001; Ayeni, Tah et al. 2001; Fa, Seymour et al. 2006; Willcox and
Nambu 2007; Abugiche 2008; Tieguhong and Zwolinski 2009; Wright and Priston 2010), were used to
indicate key species. All these studies ranked the most hunted and marketed species (in numbers of
animals and/or quantity of biomass) for their specific geographical areas studied. As the studies are
8 Order No. 0648/MINFOF of 18 December 2006 setting the list of animals of Classes A, B and C. 9 For example, trophy hunting prices range from 300$ for a red river hog to 4000$ for an elephant, plus 600$
concession fee, hunting licesnse from 500 to 1000$, 200$ for gun fees etc. http://www.ahuntingworld.com/hunts/Cameroon.htm and http://www.gamehuntersafrica.com/website_cameroon_hunting_rates_savannah
Notes: 1 Fa’s 2003 study is based on a 2001 literature review of hunting but not fieldwork 2 the total for Banyang Mbo includes only Aubighes data
1, to avoid duplication, as Aubighes data
is more recent and precise than Wilcox’s. Similarly Vermuelen’s study has been used in preference to Ngnegueu and Fotso (1996) as being more recent, but providing comparable values.
The key animal NTFP species shown in Table 10.are a combination of data from Table 7 on the protected and vulnerability status of highly ranked hunted
animals, and Table 6 which shows the high value animals NTFPs.
for example), and at national level to develop National Bushmeat Action Plans and strategies, legislation
and Forest Management Plans). The SYVBAC could also contribute to the development of the
Observatoire des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale (OFAC), which strives to provide for a jointly managed
overview of available knowledge and data on Central African forests in their economic, ecological and
social aspects and the joint knowledge-sharing undertaking of the “State of Forests” programme of
OFAC (OFAC, 2009).
Recommendations include:
A revision of the system of hunting permits would increase availability of data and enable
improved control.
Increase the ease of obtaining Class C permits
Coordination between regional and centralised MinFoF authorities on granting of permits,
monitoring, controls and data collection at decentralised and national level
Increased control and monitoring of bushmeat markets for Class A and B species
Increase basic knowledge of the biology of harvestable forest animals and the consequences
of hunting, to would allow accurate estimations production rates (the excess of growth over
replacement rate) and enable the estimation of hunting quotas, related permits and
sustainability.
Revise the Protected Classes of animals in the 1994 Forestry and Wildlife Law to include Red
data listed species.
Assess if the ‘key’ non-protected but traded & consumed species are vulnerable, and if so,
revise their rating and classification
Review the level and methods of protection and control for NTFPs, and specifically for key
Class A and B species, given that they remain widely hunted despite their protected status.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 52
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Phd: Vol. 1: Phytogeographie et paturages. - 86 p. + 1 microfiche ; Vol. 2: Flore. - 557 p
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 76
ANNEX 1 Literature searches
Internet search A search was performed using Google scholar www.googlescholar.com, with the following search terms:
The search: “Cameroon AND ("non timber forest products" OR NTFP) filetype: pdf for the period 2005-
2010 brought a total of 307 pdf. files.
The search: “Cameroon AND ("non timber forest products" OR NTFP) filetype: doc for the period 2005-
2010 brough a total of 6 doc.files.
The search: ”Cameroun AND ("produits forestiers non ligneux" OR pfnl) filetype: pdf for the period 2005-
2010 brought a total of 48 pdf.files.
The search: ”Cameroun AND ("produits forestiers non ligneux" OR pfnl) filetype:doc for the period 2—5-
2010 brought a total of 0 doc.files.
Scientific literature search Searches were performed using the following databases;
Google Scholar www.googlescholar.com (for scientific articles only)
ISI Web of Knowledge www.apps.isiknowledge.com
Online Access to Research in the Environment (OARE) www.oaresciences.org
Research4life http://www.research4life.org/
University of Amsterdam library portal http://cf.uba.uva.nl/uba2006/
University of Cambridge Journals online http://journals.cambridge.org/
Atypon Link http://www.atypon-link.com/?cookieSet=1
Cameroon Sectoral Forest & Environment Program monitoring Website http://data.cameroun-foret.com
Memoire online http://www.memoireonline.com/
With the following search terms:
(Cameroon AND NTFP) (Cameroun AND PFNL), (Cameroon AND non timber forest) (Cameroon AND
bushmeat, hunting), (Cameroon AND market forest), (Cameroon AND forest trade market), (Cameroun
Condiments: Small quantities (a bottle top to small tomato tin measure: 50g to 100g on average, retailing at around 100 FCFA) of: Aframomum melegueta Afromomum citratum Afromomum sulcatum Afrostyrax kamerunensis Baillonella toxisperma Cola edulis Cola nitida Garcina kola (bark and seeds) Garcina lucida Monodora myristica Piper guineensis Ricinodendron heudlotii Scorodophloeus zenkeri Tatracarpidium conophorum Tetrapleura tetraptera Xylopia aethiopica Xylopia parviflora and a number of unidentified barks (local names only were given & no translation found) Medicinal plants Where large quantities and numbers of species of medical plants and especially barks were found in markets, reference has been made to ethno botanical and medicinal literature for a full listing of species.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 80
ANNEX 3 Species specific NTFP references
Species References
Fauna Fish Brummett 2005;
Caterpillars (Balinga, Mapunzu et al. 2004; Bikoue, Essomba et al. 2007)
Honey & Apiculture Products
(API-CAM 1998; Kidd and Schrimpf 2000; Bonu 2001; Tchoumboue, Tchouamo et al. 2001; Forboseh 2002; Erasmus, Hamaljoulde et al. 2006; Fombad and Nuesiri 2006; Tata, Hamaljoulde et al. 2006; WHINCONET 2006; Niba and Ingram 2007; Soukontoua, Mfomou et al. 2007; Anembom Consulting 2008b; Anembom Consulting 2008a; Cohen 2008; Ingram and Fon 2008; Jiofack, Fokunang et al. 2008; Matsop, Kamajou et al. 2008; Njonga 2008; Ade 2009; Chikamai and Tchatat 2009; Chupezi, Ndoye et al. 2009; Focho, Newu et al. 2009; Ingram, Husselman et al. 2009; Niba Fon 2009; Wright 2009)
Bushmeat (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999b; Maisels, Keming et al. 2001a; Fa, Currie et al. 2003; Nkembi 2003; Solly 2004; Edderai and Dame 2006; Fa, Seymour et al. 2006; LeBreton, Prosser et al. 2006; Forboseh, Sunderland et al. 2007; Willcox and Nambu 2007; Abugiche 2008; Tieguhong and Zwolinski 2009; Vermeulen, Julve et al. 2009; Wright 2009; Wright and Priston 2010)Stewart 2009; (Fa, Seymour et al. 2006; LeBreton, Prosser et al. 2006; Willcox and Nambu 2007; Abugiche 2008; Tieguhong and Zwolinski 2009; Vermeulen, Julve et al. 2009; Ziegler 2010)
Flora Baillonella toxisperma
((Jochem 1995; Debroux and Delvingt 1998; Dkamela 2001; Louppe and Mallet 2009; Romain 2009; Veuthey and Gerbera 2009); Samndong, 2009; (Mundi 1978; Lauber 1990; Zon 1992; Nkwatoh 2005; Plenderleith and Brown 2006; Tabot Tabot 2006)
Bamboo (Ingram et al. 2010;(Rao and Rao 1998; Sunderland and Tchouto 1999; Sunderland 2001; Sunderland, Balinga et al. 2002; FAO 2003; Tabot Tabot 2006; Tajoacha 2008)
Carpolobia spp.
(Ngo Mpeck, Asaah et al. 2003; Schreckenberg, Awono et al. 2006; Tchoundjeu and Atangana 2006a; Tchoundjeu and Atangana 2006b; Manirakiza 2007; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2009d)
Cola spp. (FAO 1995; Tachie-Obeng and Brown 2001; Vermeulen and Fankap 2002; Facheux, Tchoundjeu et al. 2006; Niemenak, Onomo et al. 2008; Tita 2009)
Combretum mucronatum
(Betti and Lejoly 1998)
Dacryodes (Schrekenburg, Awono et al. 2006; Manirakiza 2007; Tchoundjeu and Atangana 2007; Ogunsina, Koya et al. 2008; SNV
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 81
Species References
edulis 2008; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2009c; Ewane, Awono et al. 2009; Sunderland, Asaha et al. 2009)
Ficus spp. (Gautier 1996)
Gacinina lucida (Marie 2000; Guedje and Fankap 2001; Guedje, Fankap et al. 2001; Ndoye, Ruiz-Perez et al. 2001; Vermeulen and Fankap 2002; Guedje, Lejoly et al. 2003; Guedje, Zuidema et al. 2007)
Gnetum spp. (Bokwe and Ngatoum 1994; Shiembo 1994; Shiembo, Newton et al. 1996; Fuashi 1997; Blackmore and Nkefor 1998; Nkefor, Ndam et al. 1998; Nkwatoh and F. 1998; Shiembo 1998; Isong, Adewusi et al. 1999; Nde-Shiembo 1999; Fondoun and Manga 2000; Ndam, Nkefor et al. 2001; Nkefor, E. et al. 2003; Tekwe, Ndam et al. 2003; Bell 2004; Clark and Sunderland 2004; Makoumsong 2004; Mbolo and Pouna 2005; Asaha, Balinga et al. 2006; Facheux, Tchoundjeu et al. 2006; Lingondo, Atanga W. et al. 2006; Mbolo, Ze et al. 2006; Tieguhong and Ndoye 2006; Eyong 2007; Kanmegne, Belinga et al. 2007; Nlend V 2007; Sewart 2007; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2008b; Betti 2008; CENDEP 2008; CIFOR 2008; Jiofack, Fokunang et al. 2008; Nchinda and Che 2008; Ntsama 2008; Tieguhong, Ndoye et al. 2008; UNEP-WCMC 2008; van Damme and Termote 2008; Awono, Ingram et al. 2009; Foaham, Dagobert et al. 2009; Ndoye and Awono 2009; Stewart 2009; Tanda 2009; van Vliet, Asaha et al. 2009; Ndumbe, Ingram et al. 2010; Ndumbe 2010; van Eijnatten 2010; Engineers without Borders Cameroon undated; Sumelong undated)
Acacia spp.
Gum arabic
(Mbolo and Pouna 2005; Molenaar, Boum et al. 2006; Njomaha 2008a; Yakeu Djiam and Tabuna 2009)
Irvingia spp. (Mbolo and Pouna 2005; Asseng Zé 2006; FAO 2006; Kanmegne, Belinga et al. 2007; Nlend V 2007; Anembom Consulting 2008b; CENDEP 2008; Tajoacha 2008; Vabi and Tchamou 2008; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2009a; Ndoye and Awono 2009; Ndumbe, Ingram et al. 2009; Republic of Cameroon 2009b; Tanda 2009)
Termites (Falconer 1990; Balinga, Mapunzu et al. 2004; Alaka 2009)
(Nkwatoh and F. 1998; Noumi and Yomi 2001; Nkembi 2003; Sunderland, Besong et al. 2003a; Tajoacha 2008)
Prunus africana
(Watt and Beyer-Brandwijk 1962; Parrott and H. 1989; Cunningham and Mbenkum 1993; Acworth 1997; Dibobe 1997; Ndibi and Kay 1997; Sunderland and Nkefor 1997; Acworth, Ewus et al. 1998; Ewusi 1998; Ndam 1998; Nkefor, Ndam et al.
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 82
Species References
1998; Tonye 1999; MCP 2000; Ndam and Ewusi 2000; Tonye, Ndam et al. 2000; Underwood and Burn 2000; Dawson, Were et al. 2001; Ewusi and Acworth 2001; Ondigui 2001; Stewart 2001; Cunningham, Ayuk et al. 2002; Page 2003; Peka 2003; Stewart 2003a; Stewart 2003c; Stewart 2003b; Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife 2004; Ndam and Marcelin 2004; Bellewang 2005a; Bellewang 2005b; Muchugi, Lengkeek et al. 2005; WHINCONET 2005; Cunningham 2006; Tieguhong and Ndoye 2006; Ingram and Nsawir 2007; Meuer 2007; MOCAP-CIG 2007; Stewart 2007a; Stewart 2007b; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2008a; Loden 2009; Nkeng 2009; Ingram 2010d; Ingram 2010c; Ingram and Nkeng 2010; Sumelong undated)
Raphia spp. (Shiembo 1982; Shiembo 1986; Gautier 1995; Guedje, Dijk et al. 1998; Mbolo, Walter et al. 2002; Vermeulen and Fankap 2002; Walter and Mbala 2006; University of Dschang 2007)
Rattans (Tshimala-Tshibangu, Ngeh et al. 1996; Sunderland, Clark et al. 1998; Sunderland and Tchouto 1999; Dione, Tamnjong et al. 2000; Sunderland 2001; Sunderland, Balinga et al. 2002; FAO 2003; Tabot Tabot 2006; Tajoacha 2008)
Ricinodendron heudelotii
(Ayuk, Duguma et al. 1999; Leakey 1999; Leakey and Tchoundjeu 1999; Leakey and Tchoundjeu 2001; Awono, Ndoye et al. 2002; Leakey, Atangana et al. 2002; Schrekenberg, A.Degrande et al. 2002; Tchoundjeu, Kanmenge et al. 2002; Leakey, Tchoundjeu et al. 2004; Eyog Matig, Ndoye et al. 2006; Plenderleith 2006; Tajoacha 2008; Awono, Ingram et al. 2009)
Vitellaria paradoxa
(Vermilye 2004)
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 83
ANNEX 4 General NTFP studies in Cameroon Topic/Product Key literature on Cameroon NTFPs
NTFP values (Belcher, Peréz et al. 2005; Betti 2007b; Ingram and Bongers 2009); (Ndoye, Pérez et al. 1997/98; Dorp, Niemeijer et al.
1998; Dione, Tamnjong et al. 2000; Mark van Dorp and Offermans 2001; Ambrose-Oji 2003; Lingondo, Atanga W. et al.
(Awono, Ngono et al. 2002; Betti 2004; CAFECO 2009; Philippart and Doucet 2009) Perez et al 1999 ; Perez et al .2000 ; (Jochem 1995; Ndoye, Pérez et al. 1997/98; Ayuk, Duguma et al. 1999; Pérez, Ndoye et al. 1999; Pérez, Ndoye et al. 2000; Mbolo and Pouna 2005; Oyono, Kouna et al. 2005; Degrande, Schreckenberg et al. 2006; Sonwa, Nkongmeneck et al. 2007; Romain 2009)
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 85
Region Location Reference
North West
(CERUT-AIDEnvironment 1999; Abott, Thomas et al. 2001; Maisels, Keming et al. 2001b; Forboseh 2002; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2008a; Cohen 2008; Ingram 2008b; Kwack 2009; Butchart, Walpole et al. 2010; Ingram, Asha et al. 2010; SNV 2010a)
Kimbi (Abott, Thomas et al. 2001)
Dom (Mzeka 2008)
Ndop, Babungo (Simbo 2010)
Bali Ngemba (Cheek, Harvey et al. 2010)
Kilum Ijum (Oku, Boyo, Fundong)
(Parrott and H. 1989; Ndam 1998; Maisels and Forboseh 1999; Cheek, Onana et al. 2000a; Cheek, Onana et al. 2000b; Abott, Thomas et al. 2001; Maisels, Keming et al. 2001b; Stewart 2001; Kew 2003; Stewart 2003a; Bruno 2004; WHINCONET 2005; Degrande, Schreckenberg et al. 2006; Anembom Consulting 2008b; Ingram and Fon 2008; Mekongo and Ngueko 2008; Mzeka 2008; Ade 2009; Foaham, Dagobert et al. 2009; Focho, Newu et al. 2009; Kwack 2009; Niba Fon 2009; Stewart 2009) (Knox and Beighle 2001; Ndifon 2007)
South
Van Dijk 2003(Guedje, Dijk et al. 1998; Dijk and Wiersum 1999; Lescuyer and Emerit A. 2001; Zapfack and Ngobo 2001; Schrekenberg, A.Degrande et al. 2002; Mekongo and Ngueko 2008; Awono, Manirakiza et al. 2009b; CAFECO 2009; SNV 2009a)
Campo Maan- Bipindi Akom
Van dijk 1999, (Guedje, Dijk et al. 1998; van Dijk and Wiersum 1999)
South West
(Limbe Botanical Gardens 2002; (CERUT-AIDEnvironment 1999; Knox and Beighle 2001; Ambrose-Oji 2003; GFA Consultantcy 2006; Forboseh, Sunderland et al. 2007; Ingram 2008b; Jiofack, Fokunang et al. 2008; Mbongaya 2008; Ewane, Awono et al. 2009; Ndumbe, Ingram et al. 2009; Sunderland, Asaha et al. 2009; Tanda 2009; van Vliet, Asaha et al. 2009)
Aguambu (Focho, Ndam et al. 2009)
Bambutos (Ngoufo 1992)
Banyang Mbo (Nkembi and Hoyle 2001; Nkembi 2003; Forboseh, Sunderland et al. 2007; Willcox and Nambu 2007; Abugiche 2008; Chapman 2008)
Kupe Muanengouba
(Cheek, Pollard et al. 2004; Foaham, Dagobert et al. 2009)
Mone (Tajoacha 2008; van Vliet, Asaha et al. 2009)
Korup (Laird, Awung et al. 2007) Fuashi 1997 ; (Malleson 1993; Sunderland, Clark et al. 1998; Malleson 2000; Jiofack, Fokunang et al. 2008), (ETUGE 1999 ), Tshiamala-Thisbangu 1997, Lingondo 2006
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 86
Region Location Reference
Lebialem
(Ekatie and Mambo 2006)Wright 2010(GFA Consultantcy 2006; Focho, Ndam et al. 2009)
Mt Cameroon
(Bokwe and Ngatoum 1994; Brocklesby and Ambrose-Oji 1997; Acworth, Ewus et al. 1998; Dijk and Wiersum 1999; Ambrose-Oji 2003; Mbile, Vabi et al. 2005; Abugiche 2008; Focho, Ndam et al. 2009)Proctor 2007; ETUGE 1999; (Ndenecho 2009) )
Takamanda (Ayeni et Mdaihli 2001, (Mdaihli, Schmidt-Soltau et al. 2002) ; Sunderland 2001 ;(Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001; Zapfack, Ayeni et al. 2001; Mdaihli, Schmidt-Soltau et al. 2002; Sunderland, Balinga et al. 2002; Sunderland, Besong et al. 2002; Sunderland, Besong et al. 2003b; Asaha, Balinga et al. 2006; Sunderland, Asaha et al. 2009; van Vliet, Asaha et al. 2009), Ojong Ayuk (2002), Zapfack 2001, Tajoacha 2008; (Comiskey, Sunderland et al. 2003; GFA Consultantcy 2006)
Montane zone (NW, SW, West, Adamaoua)
Highlands Tata et al 2006(Tchoumboue, Tchouamo et al. 2001; Bergl, Oates et al. 2007; Ingram, Asha et al. 2010)
North & Extreme North (Akseye 2000; Kaïgama 2000; Ladjan 2000; Nfi, Mbanya et al. 2001; Garine 2002; Njomaha 2008a; Yakeu Djiam and Tabuna 2009; Naï no date)
West Bafoussam (Gautier 1992; Gautier 1995; Gautier 1996; Tchoumboue, Tchouamo et al. 2001; Tata, Hamaljoulde et al. 2006; Ingram 2008a)
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 87
ANNEX 6 NTFPs in Cameroon A fuller verison of the database is available in excel. The database is separated in to plant and animals based NTFPs.
Abbreviations PRODUCT NAME: Species and or name of most common products from that species, in English, french and local dialects where available.
Species English French Local Value FCFA3 value $ 2010 $
value1
for gnetum - as 'leaves'
Gnetum africanum Gnetum bulchozium
1 287.62 46,737,600 97,490 102,365 Kanmenge 2007 4 villages in Lekie, centre region, Meyos, Minwoho, Nkolassa II and Nkolowandja. We also selected six major markets of Gnetum in the Lékié Division: Evodoula, Monatélé, Elig-Mfomo, Obala, Sa’a and Okola. 224 collectors in the 4 villages in total and 153
4
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 120
Resource Product name Market Annual
Volume
Economic value References Data
Status
Habit
at typ
plant
type
parts Uses Dom
estic
atio
n
Harv
est
imp
act
Value
Score
Species English French Local Value FCFA3 value $ 2010 $
value1
traders in total in the markets
Gnetum africanum Gnetum bulchozium
3,2 Peach brown 2008 2002-2004 in centre Lekie & Sa'a and East: Haut Nyong & Lomie
4
Review of NTFPs, Cameroon, June 2010 121
Resource Product name Market Annual
Volume
Economic value References Data
Status
Habit
at typ
plant
type
parts Uses Dom
estic
atio
n
Harv
est
imp
act
Value
Score
Species English French Local Value FCFA3 value $ 2010 $
value1
I 1,533.00 1,840,000 3,520 3,802 Asseng Ze (2006), FAO (2006
Donnees Idenau 2004, Donnees l’aéroport de Yaoundé-Nsimalen MINFOR.