14 REVIEW OF LITERATURE A lot of analytical work has been carried out on natural water bodies, both fresh water and marine water, throughout the globe and as such a voluminous literature is available on the subject. In view of the objective of the present research, a critical survey of literature was carried out to gather information on various relevant aspects such as physicochemical features, heavy metals concentrations and their bioaccumulation. At International Level Physico-chemical Features Seasonal variations in water temperature of various aquatic bodies have been recorded by Welch (1952), Hannan and Young (1974) and Harshey et al. (1982). Jolly and Chapman (1966) made a preliminary study on effects of pollution on Farmers Creeks and Cox’s river with respect to temperature. pH variations in water are widely studied worldwide. Impact of addition of sewage and industrial effluents on pH levels has been observed by Oswald (1960) while Hannan and Young (1974) and Chapman and Kimstach (1992) recorded effects of industrial discharges on the pH level of water. Wanganeo (1984), Khalique and Afser (1995), Islam and Islam (1996) and Sithik et al. (2009) recorded changes in pH values with addition of sewage and agricultural effluents. Dissolved oxygen which is a parameter of primary importance in the aquatic ecosystem by virtue of its role in both chemical as well as biological reactions, has been recorded in various water bodies throughout the world by Hutichinson (1957), Reid (1961), Ray et al. (1966) and Kara et al. (2004). The changes in dissolved oxygen levels in water with addition of domestic sewage, various industrial wastes and agricultural run off have been investigated in different water bodies by Gonzalves
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14
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A lot of analytical work has been carried out on natural water bodies, both fresh
water and marine water, throughout the globe and as such a voluminous literature is
available on the subject. In view of the objective of the present research, a critical
survey of literature was carried out to gather information on various relevant aspects
such as physicochemical features, heavy metals concentrations and their
bioaccumulation.
At International Level
Physico-chemical Features
Seasonal variations in water temperature of various aquatic bodies have been
recorded by Welch (1952), Hannan and Young (1974) and Harshey et al. (1982). Jolly
and Chapman (1966) made a preliminary study on effects of pollution on Farmers
Creeks and Cox’s river with respect to temperature.
pH variations in water are widely studied worldwide. Impact of addition of
sewage and industrial effluents on pH levels has been observed by Oswald (1960)
while Hannan and Young (1974) and Chapman and Kimstach (1992) recorded effects
of industrial discharges on the pH level of water. Wanganeo (1984), Khalique and
Afser (1995), Islam and Islam (1996) and Sithik et al. (2009) recorded changes in pH
values with addition of sewage and agricultural effluents.
Dissolved oxygen which is a parameter of primary importance in the aquatic
ecosystem by virtue of its role in both chemical as well as biological reactions, has
been recorded in various water bodies throughout the world by Hutichinson (1957),
Reid (1961), Ray et al. (1966) and Kara et al. (2004). The changes in dissolved
oxygen levels in water with addition of domestic sewage, various industrial wastes
and agricultural run off have been investigated in different water bodies by Gonzalves
15
and Joshi (1946), George et al. (1966), Jolly and Chapman (1966), De Smet and
Evens (1972), Cairns et al. (1975), King (1981), Woodword (1984), Meybeck et al.
(1992), Jameson and Rana (1996) and Jameel (1998) and Otieno (2008).
Mairs (1966) suggested total hardness to be a complex mixture of cations and
anions while Cole (1975) recorded calcium and magnesium to account for most of the
hardness. Thomson (1952), Chapman and Kimstach (1992) and Meybeck et. al.
(1992), investigated the impact of sewage and industrial effluents on the hardness
values of water.
Physicochemical features of water influence the uptake of heavy metals by fish.
Experimental studies were conducted by Merlini and Pozzi (1977) to investigate the
accumulation of lead by an edible freshwater fish at different pH conditions. An
experimental study on heavy metal toxicity to fish and the influence of water hardness
was undertaken by Pascoe et al. (1986). Cadmium was found to be acutely toxic to
rainbow trout in both soft and hard water. The effects were however, delayed in hard
water. A laboratory study to evaluate the effects of temperature on the acute toxicity
of some heavy metals to the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard) was
conducted by Del-Ramo et al. (1987).
Metals in Water
Trace metals are considered to be major toxicant in contaminated water
worldwide (Chi-Man and Jiu, 2006; Katsoyiannis and Katsoyiannis, 2006; Asonye et
al., 2007 and Yasuhiro et al., 2007). Several studies have been attempted assessing
heavy metal pollution according to the distribution of particle size and to relationship
of its organic content (Hiraizumi et al., 1978; Kristensen, 1982 and Simokawa et al.,
1984).
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Heavy metal levels in many natural water bodies across the world have been
investigated. Cooper et al. (1978) analyzed water quality of the river Tean Staff and
found increase in cadmium levels with addition of sewage. Polprasert (1982) analyzed
heavy metal levels in water of the Chao Phraya river estuary, Thailand and discussed
their long term impact on the aquatic environment. Mart and Nurnberg (1984)
determined trace metal levels in the eastern Arctic ocean while Abaychi and Douabul
(1985) determined trace metals in Shatt Al-Arab river, Iraq and indicated metal levels
to be within the recommended limits. Maroof et al. (1986) analyzed cadmium and
zinc concentrations in drinking water supplies of Dhaka city, Bangladesh and
highlighted the impact of addition of bleaching powder and pumping on zinc
concentration. Jing and Wei-Wen (1988) analyzed concentrations of trace metals in
the Qiantang-Jiang river and its estuary Southern China and Found higher levels of
metals with addition of industrial wastes. Pelig-Ba et al. (1991) analyzed trace metals
concentrations in Borehole waters from the upper regions and the Accra plains of
Ghana. Vazquez et al. (1998) analyzed dissolved metals in Alvarado lagoon, Maxico
and examined the seasonal variations in the levels of cadmium, copper and lead.
Ozmen et al. (2004) conducted a preliminary study on heavy metal (Zn, Mn, Ni, Cu,
Cr, Co and Pb) concentrations in surface water of Hazar lake and discussed the heavy
metal pollution status of the lake. Emoyan et al. (2005) evaluated heavy metals
loading of river Ijana, Nigeria and results indicated higher metal contents in winter
season. Thari et al. (2005), in a multivariate analysis of heavy metal concentration in
soil, sediment and water in the region of Meknes (Central Morocco), compared the
metal contents in water and sediment to suggest correlations between them. Abulude
et al. (2006) analyzed Fe, Cr, Cd, As, Ni, Co and Zn in drinking water samples in
Akure, Nigeria. Adefemi et al. (2008) determined heavy metal (Zn, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu,
17
Co, Cr, Cd and Ni) contents in water from Ureje dam in south-western Nigeria to
determine the water quality.
Impact of heavy metal inputs from various industries has been investigated in
several studies. Huynh-Ngoc et al. (1988) determined cadmium levels in the Rhone
river polluted by industrial wastes. Peerzada et al. (1990) studied distribution of heavy
metals in Gove harbour, northern territoty, Australia to find the impact of a bauxite
treatment plant on the heavy metal status of water. Vazquez et al. (1993) investigated
heavy metals to study effects of industrial lead inputs into the San Andres lagoon,
Tamaulipas, Maxico. They carried out a comparative study of several metals (Cd, Co,
Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn). Sah et al. (2000) conducted a study on assessment of heavy
metal pollution of water in the Narayani river, Nepal contaminated by paper industry
effluents. Sanayei et al. (2009) analyzed heavy metal levels in Zayandeh Rood river,
Isfahan-Iran at seven sites to observe the influence of the industrial activities and
dump of municipal waste on heavy metal concentrations in this region.
Metals in Sediment
Many studies indicated that levels of metals were higher in sediment than in
water. Krauskopf (1955) suggested the heavy metal concentration increases in the
sediment due to the adsorption of cations by organic matter present in the sediment
layers. Similarly Curits (1966) and Singer (1977) suggested that metals interact with
organic matter in aqueous phase and settle down resulting in high concentrations in
sediments. The role of sediments in adsorption of cations has been demonstrated in a
study on rivers by Moriarty and Hanson (1988).
Many studies conducted on metal accumulation in sediment showed increase in
metal levels in sediment with addition of sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural
18
wastes (Vivian and Massie, 1977; Nolte, 1988; Fernandez et al., 1994; Barlas, 1999;
Thari et al., 2005; Pradit et al., 2009; Uluturhan, 2009 and Wang et al., 2009).
Ellis and Revitt (1982) examined surface sediments of roads within N. W. London
for heavy metal concentrations in various types of roads. Nasralla (1984) analysed
concentrations of lead in urban street and playgrounds, and discussed the effects of
lead contaminated dust on children. Mudre and Ney (1986) made a comparative study
on accumulation pattern of heavy metals in the sediments of various roadsides.
Maxfield et al. (1974), in a study of Coeur D’ Alene river delta, found bottom of
the lake to be covered with metal polluted sediments. Similarly Pilotte et al. (1978)
analyzed estuarine sediments in Florida for heavy metal deposits. Wingor and
Andreasen (1985) analyzed heavy metal residues in the sediments of lakes in the
Atchafalaya river basin (Louisiana). Moriarty and Hanson (1988) analyzed heavy
metal accumulation in sediments of river Ecclesbourne, Derbyshire while Marcus et
al. (1988) analyzed heavy metal concentrations in sediments of coastal South Carolina
Marinas and discussed seasonal variations in metal accumulation.
Verta (1989) discussed the history of heavy metal pollution in Finland as
recorded by lake sediments. Lietz and Galling (1989) examined sediments of the Oker
river in the Federal Republic of Germany for contamination with Cd, Zn and Pb while
Pardo et al. (1990) recorded contents of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni and Co in sediments of
Pisuerga river and discussed inter-relationships. Gibbs (1994) compared the
distribution of metals in bottom and suspended sediments of the Hudson river estuary.
An exploratory study of the trace metals Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in sediments of lake
Valencia (Venezuela) was undertaken by Garcia-Miragaya and Sosa (1994). Muller et
al. (1994) determined heavy metal contents in river sediments of Carinthia (Austria).
Klavins et al. (1995) observed Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn and Mn in sediments collected from
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49 lakes throughout Latvia. A case study to analyze heavy metal soil contamination
after the flooding of the river Meuse during the winter of 1993-1994 was conducted
by Albering et al. (1999). Balkis and Cagatay (2001) observed the distributions of Fe,
Mn, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, Zn and Hg in the surface sediment of the Erdek bay, sea of
Marmara in Turkey while Murray et al. (2004) analyzed metals in an urban watershed
in Southeastern Michigan.
The accumulation pattern of chromium in water, suspended particles, sediments
and biota of the Iraja river estuary in Guanabara bay has been studied by Pfeiffer et al.
(1982). Bonnevie et al. (1992) determined concentrations of lead in sediments
collected from 18 locations of the Newark bay, New Jersey estuary and discussed
their effects on aquatic biota. Heiny and Tate (1997) analyzed the concentrations and
distribution pattern of twelve elements in bed sediment and fish of the South Platte
river basin, USA. Giusti (2001) recorded heavy metal contamination of brown
seaweed and sediments collected from the UK coastline between the Wear river and
the Tees river and discussed their adverse biological effects. Topcuoglu et al. (2004)
determined heavy metal levels in biota and sediment in the Northern coast of the
Marmara sea.
Ramessur and Ramjeawon (2002) analyzed sediments from an urbanized river in
Mauritius for lead, chromium and zinc to study the effects of industrial wastes. Ali
and Abdal-Satar (2005) analyzed some heavy metals in two fish species Mugil sp. and
Tilapia sp. in some fish farms in El-Fayoum province .Yang and Rose (2005)
examined trace element pollution in sediments from six states of UK lake and
discussed history, regional differences and influence of pollution sources. Balkis et al.
(2009) determined heavy metal concentration in water, sediment from Gokova bay,
Turkey. Latif et al. (2009) determined concentrations of trace elements (As, Cr and
20
Fe) in foodstuff, soil and sediment from various areas in Bangladesh and found an
excessive amount of chromium in the sediment from the tannery area of Bangladesh.
Metals in Fish
Mathis and Cummings (1973) analyzed metal accumulation in ten freshwater
fish from the Illinois river and found higher metal accumulation in omnivorous fish
than carnivorous fish. Cross et al. (1973) and Eustace (974) studied metal
accumulation in different fish species and reported that accumulation of metals based
on fish feeding habits. Giesy et al. (1977) determined trace metal concentrations in
five freshwater fishes and carried out one-way analysis of variance of species effects
on the whole body concentration for five metals. Babji at el. (1979) determined
concentrations of zinc, lead, cadmium and mercury in fishes caught from the coastal
waters of West Malaysia and provided baseline data and information on the contents
of cadmium, lead, zinc, and mercury in small coastal water fishes in West Peninsular
Malaysia. Cowx (1982) carried out a study on accumulation metals in five tissues of
brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Salvelinus alpinus L. collected from two oligotrophic
lakes in North Wales and discussed distribution pattern of metals in various tissues of
the fishes. Pfeiffer et al. (1982), in a study to determine levels of chromium in water,
suspended particles, sediment and biota in the Iraja river estuary in Guanabara bay,
discussed the ability of the fish Poecilia reticulate to accumulate chromium from the
environment and then to return it in the form of detritus as a source of particulate
matter. Polprasert (1982) recorded the range of heavy metals in the fish from Chao
Phraya river estuary, Thailand. Voutsinou-Taliadouri (1982) determined heavy metals
in marine organisms and recorded seasonal variations. A survey of trace elements
residues in fish from the Savannah river near Savannah river nuclear plant was
undertaken by Koli and Whitmore (1983). Fifteen trace elements were determined in
21
the muscle tissue of the fifteen fish samples and their distribution pattern in various
fish species was examined. Levels of As, Se, Mg, Hg, Ca, Zn and Fe were relatively
higher than those of Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, Cr and Mn in all fish species.
Uysal and Tuncer (1983) examined heavy metal levels in commercial fish
species in the Bay of Izmir (Turkey) and discussed heavy metal accumulation in
relation to age, habitat and feeding behavior of the fish. Norris and Lake (1984)
carried out a preliminary examination of trace metals in five fish species from the
South Esk river, Northeastern Tasmania, Australia, recorded variations in metal
concentration in relation to fish size and discussed comparative uptake of cadmium,
zinc and copper in different tissues. Winger and Andreasen (1985) analyzed metal
residues in fish and sediments from lakes in the Atchafalaya river basin (Louisiana)
and found fish from these lakes to be relatively uncontaminated by metals. Diaz-
Mayans et al. (1986) investigated cadmium accumulation in various tissues of the red
crayfish, Procambarus clarkii (Girard) from lake Albufera.
In Bangladesh, fish is one of the main sources of protein and provides a
significant contribution to the diet of the general population. Five marine fish species
collected from the Bay of Bengal were analyzed by Khan et al. (1987) to assess the
level of trace and minor elements. Sharif et al. (1991) analyzed trace metals in
tropical marine fish from the Bay of Bengal. Six species of marine fish caught from
the Bay of Bengal were analyzed in order to assess the level of trace and minor
elements in this essential food item consumed by the population of the coastal region
of Bangladesh in particular. The levels of all metals in all six species were found to be
well below the accepted limits for human consumption.
Ashraf and Jaffar (1988) analyzed trace metal concentrations in six species of
fish. Saiki (1988) assessed trace element residues in bluegills and common carp from
22
the lower San Joaquin river, California and its tributaries and applied two-way
ANOVA to observe location and species effects for various trace elements. Barak and
Mason (1990) analyzed the concentration of mercury, cadmium and lead in five
freshwater fish species from Eastern England and discussed the variations in heavy
metal concentrations in various species collected from different sites. Kilgour (1991)
studied cadmium uptake from cadmium-spiked sediments by four freshwater
invertebrates and indicated that animals which have close relationship with sediment,
show relatively high body concentration of cadmium. Al-Mohanna (1994) determined
heavy metals in various fish tissues collected from Red Sea coast, Jizan, Saudi Arabia.
Campbell (1994) analyzed heavy metal concentrations in fish living in water
treatment pond. Ismail and Abu-Hilal (2008) analyzed heavy metals in three coral reef
fish species from the Jordan Gulf of Aqaba, Red sea.
Mears and Eisler (1977) analyzed trace metals in blue fish Tautog and Tilefish.
Thomas et al. (1985) analyzed accumulation of cadmium by Salmo gairdneri. Eisler
(1981), Roch and McCarter (1984), Heath (1987) and Schreier et al. (1987) analyzed
heavy metals in various tissues of fish. Studies on similar lines have been carried out
by (Legorburu et al., 1988; Carpene and Vasak, 1989; Thompson, 1990; Kargin and
Erdem, 1991; Hogstrand and Haux, 1991 and Ikem et al., 2003).
Many other studies indicated that liver accumulate the highest level of metal
concentrations as compared to other fish organs (Amundsen et al., 1997; Chen and
Chen, 1999; Krishnamurti and Nair, 1999; Romeo et al., 1999; Alam, et al., 2002;
Nsikak et al., 2007 and Al-Kahtani, 2009). Dallinger and Kautzky (1985) studied
heavy metal levels in fish Salmo gairdneri and indicated that muscle is not considered
as a metal accumulating tissue and as also reported by Legorburu et al. (1988). Allen
23
(1995) and Nicula et al. (2009) reported minimum metal levels in fish brain while
Gomma et al. (1995) found maximum metal accumulation in fish brain.
In Turkey, several studies have been carried out on accumulation of metals
in fishes. Unlu and Gumgum (1993) determined concentrations of metals in various
tissues of fish Capoeta capoeta umbla and sediments collected from Tigris river in
Turkey. Gumgum et al. (1994) analyzed some heavy metals in water, sediments and
some fish species from the Tigris river in Turkey and found concentrations of metals
to be directly related with the extent of contamination of the river. Unlu et al. (1996)
analyzed heavy metal levels in muscle, liver, gonads, gill and intestine of mullet Liza
abu collected from the Tigris river in Turkey to study the impact of contamination of
the river by a copper plant on heavy metal concentrations. The site contaminated by
hospital effluents showed particularly high metal concentration. Kargin (1998)
examined seasonal variations in the levels of various metals in tissues and
comparative accumulation in liver, gill and muscle tissues of edible freshwater fish
Capoeta barroisi collected from Seyhan river, Turkey. Barlas (1999) analyzed heavy
metal concentrations in fishes from the upper Sakarya river basin, Turkey and found
the river basin to be contaminated with metals. Kalay et al. (1999) reported heavy
metal concentrations in tissues of three fish species having different ecological needs,
Mullus barbatus, Caranx crysos and Mugil cephalus caught from three stations of the
Northeast Mediterranean sea in turkey. Karadede and Unlu (2000) determined the
concentrations of some heavy metals in water, sediment and fish collected from the
Ataturk dam lake, Turkey. Canli and Atli (2003) studied heavy metal levels in six
Mediterranean fish species and indicated relation between metal accumulation and
fish habitat. Karadede et al. (2004) determined heavy metals in mullet, Liza abu and
catfish, Silurus triostegus collected from the Ataturk Dam Lake located on Euphrates
24
(Turkey) and metals were analyzed in liver, gill and muscle tissues of fish. Topcuoglu
et al. (2004) reported heavy metals levels in biota and sediments in the northern coast
of the Marmara sea. This study suggested that heavy metal concentrations in fish
samples were not higher in the northern coast of Marmara sea. Altindag and Yigit
(2005) analyzed heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Hg and Cr) in water, sediment, plankton and
fish collected from lake Beysehir in Turkey. Yilmaz (2005) studied metal levels in
two fish species and found that maximum metal accumulation in liver. Demirak et al.
(2006) recorded concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn) in water,
bottom sediment and tissues of Leuciscus cephalus caught from the Dipsiz stream in
the Yatagan basin of southwestern Turkey. Yilmaz (2006) examined the
bioaccumulation of heavy metals in water, sediment, aquatic plants and tissues of
Cyprinus carpio collected from Kizilirmak in Turkey and suggested some guidelines
for safe consumption of fish. Yilmaz et al. (2007) recorded heavy metal levels in two
fish species Leuciscus cephalus and Lepomis gibbosus. The concentrations of metals
were determined in muscle, gill and liver of these fishes caught from Saricay, South-
West Anatolia. Turkmen and Ciminli (2007) determined metals in fish and mussel
species. Tepe et al. (2008) studied heavy metals in two commercial fish species of
four Turkish seas. Turkmen et al. (2008 and 2009) evaluated metals in tissues of fish
species from Black, Marmara and Aegean Seas and Yelkoma lagoon, Northeastern
Mediterranean Turkey. Oymak et al. (2009) determined concentration of Co, Cr, Cu,
Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in kidney, liver, gill and muscle of Tor grypus captured from
Ataturk Dam Lake, Euphrates river, Turkey. Ozturk et al. (2009) analyzed heavy
metal contents in tissues of Cyprinus carpio from Avsar dam lake in Turkey and
found metals in fish to have reached to hazardous levels for the health of human.
Turan et al. (2009) studied the levels of heavy metals in some commercial fish species
25
captured from the Black sea and Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Yildirim et al.
(2009) evaluated heavy metal levels in some fish species sold at retail in Kayseri,
Turkey. Akbulut and Akbulut (2010) studied heavy metal accumulation in water,
sediment and fish tissue in Kizilirmak river basin in Turkey and found no particular
pattern for metal accumulation.
Berninger and Pennanen (1995) determined Hg concentrations in muscle and
Cd, Pb, Al, Zn and Fe concentrations in muscle, liver and kidney of perch (Perca
fluviatilis ) caught from acidified lakes in the Salpausselka Esker area in Finland.
Study indicated the highest concentrations of Cd, Pb and Zn in kidney and those of Al
and Fe in liver. Saiki et al. (1995) analyzed copper, cadmium and zinc in aquatic food
chains from the upper Sacramento river (California) and selected tributaries and
compared whole body concentration of Cu, Cd and Zn in fishes from the Sacramento
river and reference tributaries. Kock et al. (1995 & 1996) observed seasonal patterns
of metal accumulation in Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) collected from an
oligotrophic Alpine lake and illustrated the ability of Arctic char to eliminate
considerable amounts of accumulated metals. Madany et al. (1996) studied the trace
metal concentrations in fish and shellfish samples collected from the coastal areas of
Bahrain in the Arabian Gulf. Amundsen et al. (1997) reported metal accumulation in
fish tissues is depend on their feeding nature. Heiny and Tate (1997) analyzed
concentrations of twelve elements in bed sediment and fish tissues in the South Platte
river basin, USA and discussed the distribution pattern and comparative accumulation
in tissues. Farag et al. (1998) carried out an analysis of metals in fish caught from
Coeur d’ Alene river basin, Idaho. Sun and Jeng (1998) carried out a comparative
study to find out concentrations of metals in various tissues of 24 aquatic organisms
including common carp and several freshwater fishes. Ekpo and Ibok (1999) carried
26
out an investigation on the abundance and distribution of trace metals in water and
nine species of fish caught from Calabar river, S.E. Nigeria.
Romeo et al. (1999) studied heavy metal distribution in different fish species
from the Mauritania coast. Zyadah (1999) determined the accumulation of heavy
metals, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead in flesh, gill, liver and gonads of Tilapia zillii
caught from lake Manzalah in Egypt and derived correlations between metal
concentrations and gonado-somatic index (GSI). Khalil (2000) observed the
accumulation levels of heavy metals in tissues of fish from lake Mariut , Egypt.
Mansour and Sidky (2002) analyzed the heavy metals in fish from Fayoum
Governorate (Egypt) and discussed accumulation pattern in various fish organs,
seasonal pattern of accumulation and relative accumulation of total heavy metals in