Resonating with Robbie Case and continuing his legacy: Current approaches to optimizing ALL aspects of a child's development Adele Diamond Canada Research Chair Professor of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience University of British Columbia (UBC) [email protected]
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Resonating with Robbie Case and continuing his legacy: Current approaches …fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~hmcbride/2292 Adele Diamond EF.pdf · 2010-02-24 · Resonating with Robbie Case
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Resonating with Robbie Case and continuing his legacy:
Current approaches to optimizing ALL aspects of a child's development
Adele DiamondCanada Research Chair Professor of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Research shows that 5-year- olds today are behind in EFs
compared with 5-year-olds of a
couple of generations
ago.
(Smirnova, 1998;
Smirnova
&
Gudareva, 2004)
Kindergarten teachers report…
that over half their children lack
effective EF
skills, and
that that poor EF
is their single
most difficult challenge in teaching
(Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2000).
Kindergarten children at risk because of economic disadvantageare disproportionately behind in EF
relative to other cognitive skills and
relative to children from middle-income homes.
Executive Functions are also
important for school success.
Working memory and inhibitory
control each independently
predict both math and reading
competence throughout the
school years.
WORKING MEMORY INHIBITION
VERY EARLY GRADES
Language SkillsAdams & Gathercole, 1995;
Blair & Razza, 2007Blair & Razza, 2007;
McClelland et al., 2007
Math SkillsBlair & Razza, 2007; Espy et al., 2004; Passolunghi
et al., 2007
Blair & Razza, 2007; Espy
et al., 2004; McClelland
et al., 2007
LATER GRADES
Language SkillsDe Beni et al., 1998;
Gathercole et al., 2004, 2005; Savage et al., 2006
De Beni et al., 1998; Fiebach
et al., 2007; Savage et al., 2006
Math Skills
Barrouillet
et al., 2005; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Gathercole
et al., 2004; Swanson & Kim, 2007
Bull & Scerif, 2001; Shallice
et al., 2002; Passolunghi
& Siegel, 2001
Traditional IQ tests only assess
executive functions to a very
minimal extent.
If I gave you a frontal lobotomy, you
would still score in the 80’s or the
90’s on a traditional IQ test (i.e.,
with the normal range).
IQ Scores (Stanford-Binet)
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
PKU children withhigher Phe levels
(6-10 mg/dl)
PKU children withless elevated Phe levels (2-6 mg/dl)
THE DAY-NIGHT TASK
“Day” “Night”
Semantically conflicting labels
(Gerstadt , Hong, & Diamond, 1994)
Requires holding 2 rules in mind, and inhibiting saying what the images really represent,
saying the opposite instead.
Day-Night Stroop-like Task
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Age in Years
Pe
rce
nt
Co
rre
ct
NormsMatched ControlsSiblingsLow PheHigh Phe
Diamond et al. (1997)
Monographs of the Society for
Research in Child Development
COMPLEX SPAN TASKS
Messy (require several executive function abilities) but excellent measures of the integrity of PFC functioning
Counting Span Task
(Robbie Case et al., 1982)
Count the number of blue dots (ignore the yellow dots), touching each blue dot as you count out loud.
Then announce the total for the current display, AND the totals for all previous displays in chronological order.
Count the number of blue dots. Touch each blue dot as you count out loud. The total is?
Count the number of blue dots. Touch each blue dot as you count out loud.The total is? What was the previous total?
Count the number of blue dots. Touch each blue dot as you count out loud. The total is? What were the previous totals, in order?
Count the number of blue dots. Touch each blue dot as you count out loud. The total is? What were the previous totals, in order?
This requires (a)
selective attention (inhibiting attention to the yellow dots),
(b)
holding information in mind while executing another mental operation (counting),
(c)
updating the information held in mind, and
(d)
temporal order memory (keeping track of the order of the totals computed across trials).
Spatial Span Task
(Robbie Case, 1992a; 1992b)
Note which cells are shaded.
After you see a filler pattern, you’ll be asked to point to all the cells that had been shaded.
Get ready
Point to the boxes that had been shaded on this trial.
Point to the boxes that had been shaded on this trial.
Point to the boxes that had been shaded on this trial.
Age in Years
Span
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Counting Span
Spatial Span
Westerberg et al., 2004
Educate the WHOLE child
to optimize academic outcomes
We are not just intellects,
we have emotions
we have social needs
& we have bodies
Our brains work better
when we are not in a
stressed emotional state.
Amy Arnsten1998, Science
Stress impairs Executive Function and can cause someone to look as if he or she has an EF
impairment.
Even mild stress increases DA release in PFC but not elsewhere in the brain
Stress and Prefrontal Cortex
(Roth et al., 1988)
This has obvious implications for the importance of minimizing the stress children experience
AND minimizing the stress their caregivers (their parents and teachers) experience
People often mistake the symptoms of unmanaged stress. Children may be reprimanded by teachers or parents for actions that are really stress reactions, rather than intentional misbehavior or poor cognitive ability.
PFC
Stress
PFC
Putting Feelings Into Words
Produces Therapeutic Effects
on the Brain
When you put feelings into words, you
increase activation in prefrontal cortex and
that produces a reduced response in the
amygdala.
Matt Lieberman et al., 2007
Amygdala activation went up in ALL conditions when an angry or fearful face was shown, but ONLY in the one Condition A, where subjects had to assign a verbal label to the emotion, did amygdala activation GO DOWN.
Inverse Relation between Activation in PFC
and the Amygdala in the Lieberman et al. study
(When activation in PFC
goes up, activation in the
amygdala goes down.)
If you can get people to talk or
write about their problems, their
psychological and physical health
improves.
---
James Pennebaker, Opening Up: The Healing Power of Expressing Emotions
Translating an emotional
experience into language, talking
or writing about, alters the way it is
represented and understood in our
mind and our brain
(gets prefrontal
cortex more involved).
Not just absence of stress,
but JOY / Flourishing
(Not just the absence of disease,
but the presence of well-being,
radiant health
“If you want others to be happy, practice compassion.
If you
want to be happy, practice compassion.”
--
Dalai Lama
Three Acts of Kindness EVERY day(Joy YOU
get when you bring a smile
to someone else’s face)saying thank you to someone -
perhaps the person who hands you your school lunch
holding the door for someone
complimenting someone: “great smile”; “I like your shirt”
offering your seat on the bus to an older person
letting someone else play with the toy you wanted
picking up litter [impersonal acts: no more than 1 in 6]
comforting someone who is upset
congratulating someone on good perf
--
as in a sports game;or “that was a great point you made”
helping to set the dinner table
giving your parent a neck rub
Carol Ryff
(Univ. of Wisc-Madison)
Making a Life Worth LivingUrry
et al. (2004)
Psychological Science
Positive Health: Connecting Well-being with Biology
Ryff
et al. (2004)Philos
Trans Royal Soc
Carol Ryff:
that which makes a life worth living encompasses personal growth, positive relations with others, and purpose in life
Beyond just feeling good….emphasizes feeling that what you do
matters, that you are helping to make the world a better place / helping to advance a goal that is larger than yourself
PRIDE“[My teachers]…demonstrated their respect for your humanity by holding you to standards…. [A] child needs to sense from his teachers that they respect him as a person. And the only way he can see that is through his accomplishments and through teachers providing the parameters for accomplishment. This is where the whole thing about pride comes in…..[C]hildren
know when they are
able to accomplish something and when they are failing... To set them apart and give their groups the names of birds or animals doesn't fool them a bit. I don't know a single child
who is so unintelligent as not to know when his school has given up on him."
--
Kenneth Clark
JOY is NOT the opposite of
SERIOUS
JOY
is the opposite of
UNHAPPINESS
Serious business (like learning) can
be JOYFUL
Passionate Enthusiasm (‘Ruach’)
To engage students’
interests,
imagination, intellect, & passion
Teachers can have a powerful effect on students.
If you are filled with enthusiasm you can absolutely
inspire your students.
“History is not only of cruelty, but also of compassion, sacrifice, courage, and kindness. What we choose to emphasize in this complex history will determine our lives. …If we remember those times and places --
and
there are so many --
where people have behaved
magnificently, this gives us the energy to act, and at least the possibility of sending this spinning top of a world in a different direction.
And if we do act, in however small a way, we don’t have to wait for some grand utopian future. The future is an infinite
succession of presents, and to live now as we
think human beings should live, in defiance
of all that is
bad around us, is itself a marvelous victory.”“I wanted students to leave my classes not just better
informed, but more prepared to relinquish the safety of silence, more prepared to speak up, to act against injustice wherever they saw it." --
Historian, H d Zi
We are not just intellects,
we have emotions
we have social needs
& we have bodies
Our brains work better when we are
not feeling lonely or socially
isolated.
Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection
2008a book by John Cacioppo
& William Patrick
Roy Baumeister
et al. (2002, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology)
- One group of subjects were told beforehand they’d have close relationships throughout their lives;
-
another group was told the opposite;
-
a third group was told unrelated bad news.
On simple memorization questions, the groups were comparable.
On sections involving logical reasoning (EF), subjects told they’d be lonely performed much worse.
A later study by a separate research group found that during math tests
there was
less activity in Prefrontal
Cortex among participants who felt isolated.
We are not just intellects,
we have emotions
we have social needs
& we have bodies
Our brains work better when our
bodies are physically fit.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
(January 2008) “Be Smart, Exercise Your Heart:
Exercise Effects on Brain and Cognition”Charles Hillman, Kirk Erickson & Art Kramer
“There is little doubt that leading a sedentary lifeis bad for our cognitive health.”
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
(January 2008) “Be Smart, Exercise Your Heart:
Exercise Effects on Brain and Cognition”Charles Hillman, Kirk Erickson & Art Kramer
The evidence shows that physical activity (especially aerobic exercise) robustly improves cognition and brain function. In particular, the frontal lobe and the executive functions that depend on it show the largest benefit from improved fitness.
The positive effects of aerobic physical activity on cognition and brain function are evident at the molecular, cellular, systems, and behavioral level.
The SAME or substantially overlapping brain systems subserve BOTH cognitive and motor function.
If you get them functioning better through motoric
exercise and challenge,
it stands to reason that they might
then function at a higher for other things as well.
The pre-Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) is important for sequential tasks,
whether they are sequential motor tasks or
sequential numerical, verbal, or spatial cognitive tasks.
Hanakawa
et al., 2002
Diamond, A.
(2009)
Child Development, vol
71, 44-56
Close Interrelation of Motor Development and Cognitive
Development and of the Cerebellum and Prefrontal
Cortex
The Tools of the Mind program is based on theories of Vygotsky and Luria
Elena Bodrova & Deborah Leong
Vygotsky: Engaging in social pretend play is critical for developing executive function skills in very young children. It is emphasized in Tools of the Mind.
•
flexibly adjust to twists and turns in the evolving plot (cognitive flexibility)
--
all three of the core executive functions thus get exercise.
•
During social pretend play, children must hold their own role and those of others in mind (working memory)
•
inhibit acting out of character (employ inhibitory control), and
Deb and Elena tried EF
activities as a module, added onto a curriculum.
They found that children improved on what they practiced in the module, but the benefits did not transfer to other contexts or other EF
skills.
They found that for benefits to generalize to other contexts and other EF
skills, supports for,
training in, and challenges to EF needed to be embedded in all
aspects of the school day.
Buddy Reading
vs. what teachers usually do:
-
avoid problem situations
-
provide external control
-
scold for lack of control
Both conditions involved…
•
new programs, instituted at the same time.
•
the same books, classroom set-up, toys, & materials.
•
the same amount of in-classroom coaching support, same # of professional development hours, and same teacher stipends for attending workshops.
•
the same curricular content and covered the same topics.
Teachers & assistants were randomly assigned to condi-
tion
by level of education (half of those w/ AA degrees &
half w/ BAs were randomly assigned to each condition).
All children came from the same neighborhood
and
were randomly assigned to Tools or district-
curriculum classrooms.
In evaluatingTools we specifically chose EF
measures completely
different from anything any of the children had ever done before.
To see a difference by condition, the children would have to TRANSFER their training in EF
to utterly new
situations.
Congruent
Push Left
Push Right Push Left
Push Right
Incongruent
HEARTS & FLOWERS
HEARTS –
CONGRUENT
Each time you see a HEART, press with the thumb or forefinger on the SAME side as the stimulus.
For example, if the heart appears on the left, press with your left hand.
Remember:
PRESS ON THE SAME SIDE AS THE HEART
FLOWERS -
INCONGRUENT
Now you’ll see a flower. Press on the side OPPOSITE the flower.
For example, if a flower appears on the left, press with your right hand.
(Here, you’ll need to inhibit on every trial the natural tendency to respond on the same side as the stimulus)
Remember:
PRESS ON THE SIDE OPPOSITE
THE FLOWER
60
70
80
90
100
4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 26
Perc
ent C
orre
ctHearts and Flowers Task: Accuracy
Stimuli presented for 2500 ms Stimuli presented for 750 ms
Age in Years
Davidson et al. (2006). Neuropsychologia, 44, 2037 -
2078
CongruentIncongruent
Mixed
Adults
60
70
80
90
100
4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 26
Perc
ent C
orre
ctDots Conditions: Accuracy
Stimuli presented for 2500 ms Stimuli presented for 750 ms
Age in Years
Davidson et al. (2006). Neuropsychologia, 44, 2037 -
2078
CongruentIncongruent
Mixed
60
70
80
90
100
4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 26
Perc
ent C
orre
ct
Stimuli presented for 2500 ms Stimuli presented for 750 ms
Age in Years
CongruentIncongruent
Mixed
At every age studied, children were slower & less accurate on the Flower block than on the Heart block.
That effect is completely absent in adults.
Hearts and Flowers Task: Accuracy
It is
not that children forget the rules.
Indeed, children often call out the correct higher-order rule on trials in the mixed condition (e.g., “same,”
“opposite,”
“opposite,”
“same”) even as they are making errors.
The problem seems to be in quickly translating the rule into the correct response.
Abstract Figures -
Center Presentation
Push Left
Push Right
Even very young children have
excellent memories.
The difference in their performance
when more INHIBITION is required
(the Flower block vs. the Heart block)
is
GREATER
than the difference when
they have to hold 6 vs. 2 rules in mind.
The opposite is true for us
adults:
Increasing MEMORY demands
is far more difficult for us than
increasing demands on
inhibition.
The costs associated with
increasing MEMORY DEMANDS
are greater for adults,
the costs associated with
manipulations of INHIBITION
are greater for young children.
Adults may not appreciate
how inordinately difficult
inhibition is for young children
because it is much less taxing
for us.
Mixed Block (Hearts & Flower Trials Intermixed)Percent of Children who Passed Criterion for Testing
Almost 2x as many in Tools passed practice
Pe
rce
nt
Pa
ssin
g
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Percentage of Correct Responses onReverse Flanker Trials
District Curriculum Tools of the Mind
Pe
rce
nt
Co
rre
ct
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Chance
~85%
Whether children were in
Tools of the Mind or not
accounted for more variance
in EF
than did age or gender.
November 30, 2007
(Executive Functions)
Superior academic performance in
children who have been through Tools has been replicated
in other Tools of the Mind programs with
other children and other teachers, in
other schools and states, and with
different comparison conditions.
EF
skills can be improved even in children as young as 4-5 years
without expensive, highly technical equipment
by regular teachersin regular classrooms
Take-home Message #1:
Very little is fixed or unchangeable.
90% of our genes are switched off. To a large extent, our experiences, and our reactions to them, determine which genes get turned on, and which stay on.
Experience sculpts the brain, and the brain changes throughout life (neuro-
plasticity).
9 yrs
13 yrs
17 yrs
back of the brain
front
Primary Motor Cortex
Primary Visual Cortex
Even at 17 years of age Prefrontal Cortex is not fully mature
Human Brain Development
Even those who believed that EF
can be improved, have doubted whether that could be done as early as
preschool since EF
depends on PFC, and PFC
isn’t fully mature until young adulthood.
(Analogy with leg length at 2 years and walking and even running at age 2.)
Just because PFC
isn’t fully functional, doesn’t mean that it isn’t functional at all.
Kovács
AM, Mehler
J. (2009)
Cognitive gains in
7-month-old bilingual infants.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
vol
106, p. 6556-6560
Schools are under pressure to cut back on time allowed for play to provide more time for academic instruction.
BUT, the children in Tools, who have more time to play, perform BETTER on academic outcome measures than the children who had more time in direct academic instruction.
Take-home Message #2:
PLAY does not take away time
from improving academic
outcomes; play helps improve
academic outcomes.
Though not all play is the same.
Importance of Action (Doing) for
Learning
Take-home Message #3:
a Chinese proverb:
I hear, and I forget.
I see, and I remember.
I do, and I understand.
If information is not relevant for action, we don’t pay attention in the same way (hence the difference in route memory for the driver, versus the passenger, of a car).
A key aspect of Tools of the Mind
is the minimal time devoted to
large group activities
and the
emphasis on children actively
engaging with one another and
with the material.
Feedback Loops
Take-home Message #4:
Children at-risk fall progressively
farther behind other children in
academic achievement over the
school years.
That widening achievement gap may
result from two opposing dynamisms
going in opposite directions.
Consider the negative feedback loop beginning with poor initial EFs:
Poor EFs lead to problems paying attention in class, completing assignments, and inhibiting impulsive behaviors.
School is less fun…the teacher is always getting annoyed with you& compliance w/ school demands is very hard.
Teachers come to expect poor self-regulation and poor work, and the children come see themselves as poor students.
On the other hand, children who have better EFs are likely to be
praised for good behavior, enjoy school more and want to spend more time at their lessons. Their teachers enjoy them and a self-
reinforcing positive feedback loop is created.
Powerful Role of
Expectations (by others AND yourself)
and Attitude
Pygmalion in the Classroom --
powerful
role of expectations Robert Rosenthal
Stereotype threat -
female performance on
math exams
Claude Steele
I hypothesize that benefits from early EF
training may INCREASE over time.
Improving
EF
skills
early
gets
children started
on a trajectory
for success.
Conversely, letting
children
start
school behind
on these
skills
is
letting
them
get
started
on a negative
trajectory
that
can be
hard and extremely
expensive
to
reverse.
Rates of Return to Human Capital Investment at Different Ages: Return to an Extra Dollar at Various Ages
Pre-school Programs
School
Job Training
ReturnPer $
Invested
R
2
4
6
8
0 Age
Pre-school School Post-school
Pedro Carneiro, James Heckman, Human Capital Policy, 2003
Policymakers should invest in young children, where the return on investment is strongest.
-- Nobel Laureate James Heckman
0-3 4-5
Improving
EF
skills
early
gets children
started
on a trajectory
for
success.Conversely, letting
children
start
school
behind
on these
skills
is letting
them
get
started
on a negative
trajectory
that
can
be
hard and extremely
expensive
to reverse.
I also predict (& we are now testing) that early EF
training,
might
reduce the incidence
or severity
of mental health disorders
of Executive Function, such as ADHD or addictions, because the children will have learned how to exercise self-regulation.
Many issues are not simply Education issues or Health issues. They are both.
“Interventions before a disorder manifests itself offer the best opportunity to protect young people….Making use of the evidence-based interventions already at hand could poten- tially save billions of dollars by preventing or mitigating dis- orders that would otherwise require expensive treatment….
Tools to equip young people…with the skills and habits they need to live healthy, happy, and productive lives are available. What is lacking are the will, social policies, and collaborative strategies to adequately support the healthy development of the nation’s young people.”
Tools of the Mind not only addresses EFs and not only addresses cognitive dev.
Take-home Message #5:
Reduced stress
in Tools classrooms.
Because children in Tools exercise better EFs, teachers need to discipline them less & “time-outs”
are not needed.
By helping children inhibit their impulsive behaviors & act appropriately, Tools reduces the stress experienced by both teachers & students.
Also, Tools teachers are taught procedures for implementing paired activities by the children that create a positive atmosphere of cooperation & friendship.
There’s more JOY
in a Tools of the Mind
classroom.
Tools intentionally helps children develop socially
as well as academically.
Vygotsky: cognitive development occurs in the context of social development; growth in each depends, in part, on growth in the other.
Children in Tools do a lot of activities with one or a small number of other children, & within each week, every week, every child is paired with every other in the class at least once.
An activity from Montessori schools, that is essentially a type of walking meditation.
Everyone (even the grown-ups) gets a bell and walks in a line or circle. The goal is for no one’s bell to make a sound.
Storytelling requires and invites
a child’s rapt attention for extended periods (sustained, focused attention), and,
working memory to hold in mind all that has happened thus far, different characters’
identities,
and to relate that to the new information being revealed.
Found that Tae Kwon Do training improved children’s executive functions (inhibition: discipline, emotion regulation; working memory: performance on a mental math task), and respectful treatment of peers.
Applied Developmental Psychology, 2004, vol 25, p 283-302
Social Development, 2006, 15: 501-519
2 times a week
Studies have demonstrated that
young people involved in
orchestras show better academic
performance and school success.
BUT there are no causal studies
that I know of.
Venezuela’s national system of Youth and Children's Orchestras, also known as El Sistema, the brainchild of Venezuelan economist, conductor, and composer, José
Antonio Abreu, who in 1975 envisioned classical music training as a social intervention that could transform the lives of poor children.
The National Dance Institute (NDI) was founded in 1976 by the remarkable Jacques d’Amboise, a former principal dancer for the American Ballet Theater
for
whom Ballanchine
choreographed dances, recipient of
the National Medal of Honor
-
to help troubled youth.
Jacques came from a poor family, dropped out of school, and was headed for trouble. His life was transformed by dance.
NDI
has met with great success
with some of the poorest, need-iest
children in New York City
slums, Native American reser-vations, and abroad, including Senegal, West Africa.
El Sistema
National Dance InstituteNacional
de las
Orquestas
NDI
Juveniles e Infantilesde Venezuela
since 1975, has reached
since 1976, has reachedalmost 400,000 children, often
over 1 million children, oftenin the poorest communities
in the poorest communities
serves ALL children –
incl. deaf, blind, or otherwise dis-
abled, & some as young as 2
free music classes & free instruments regardless of their ability to pay.
serves ALL children –
incl. those in wheelchairs –
beginning in primary grades
free –
offered to all children in a grade without regard to ability
EL SISTEMA
& NDI
(Nat’l Dance Inst)
HARD WORK, PERSISTENCE, DISCIPLINEpractice, practice, practice
HIGH STANDARDS
–
challenge the children
COGNITIVELY DEMANDING
–
challenge concentration,
sustained attention, working memory (remember complicated sequences) COGNITIVE
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, INTENSIVE MOVEMENT & VISUOMOTOR TRAINING PHYSICAL
SELF-CONFIDENCE, PRIDE
JOY, PASSION
–
engage & motivate EMOTION
SOCIAL SUPPORT, SOCIAL BELONGING
–
part of a group
(an ensemble of dancers or musicians) –
children help
one another, listen to one other, & respect one another. Each is an important part of the whole. SOCIAL
Young Musicians of the World (Jeunes
Musiciens
du Monde)
www.jeunesmusiciensdumonde.org/index3_e.php
a non-profit organization working with young people from needy neighborhoods in Québec (Québec City, Montréal, & Sherbrooke) & India.
It’s purpose is to operate high-quality, free
schools that teach the traditional music
of one’s own
country. In Québec, it initially included only Québec’s traditional music, but has since broadened since families from diverse cultural backgrounds wanted their musical heritage also represented, such as the Australian didgéridoo
& East European dances.
The mission of Young Musicians of the World
is to make it possible for young people to participate in activities that stimulate them, improve their self-
confidence &self-esteem. & that give them a chance to express their full creative potential.
The school in Québec City aims to be both a sanctuary & a tool for these future adults. They claim: Children’s concentration
at school improves,
critical thinking
develops, and they demonstrate a greater sense of autonomy
in their everyday life.
Young people in the program are also invited to take part in short workshops on relaxation exercises,
traditional singing, improvisation, storytelling.
VIDEO
My thanks to the NIH
(NIMH, NICHD, & NIDA), which has continuously funded our work since 1986, & to the Spencer Fdn