Resmeth1 1229538350976106-1

Research Methodology

PART 1

Introduction to Research & Research Methodology

M S SridharHead, Library & Documentation

ISRO Satellite CentreBangalore 560017

E-mail: [email protected] & [email protected]

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Preamble

• Why did you choose research methodology ?• Understanding the concepts is important• Study materials are often incomplete & lack

cohesiveness and integration• Suggested main reading : Kothari’s Research

Methodology (see references at the end)

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Synopsis

1. Introduction to Research & Research methodology2. Selection and formulation of research problem3. Research design and plan4. Experimental designs5. Sampling and sampling strategy or plan6. Measurement and scaling techniques7. Data collection methods and techniques8. Testing of hypotheses9. Statistical techniques for processing & analysis of

data10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences11. Report writing

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Background

Man coming to grips with his environment and to understand the nature through experience, reasoning and research

1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information)Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his environmentExperience of othersSources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources

EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific

Contd...

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Background Contd.

2. REASONINGDeductive (Aristotle) – From whole to partInductive (Francis Bacon) – From number of observationsCombined

3. RESEARCHSystematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena, I.e., Systematic & controlledEmpiricalSelf-correctingResearch is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences)

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Part I: Introduction to Research & Research Methodology

Synopsis1. Introduction to Research & Research

methodology2. Selection and formulation of

research problem3. Research design and plan4. Experimental designs5. Sampling and sampling strategy or

plan6. Measurement and scaling

techniques7. Data collection methods and

techniques8. Testing of hypotheses9. Statistical techniques for

processing & analysis of data10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing

inferences11. Report writing

• What is research ?• Why research ?• Terms used

Research MethodologyResearch MethodResearch Technique

• Research methodology• Scientific method• Benefits of research

methodology• Qualities of good research &

researcher• Research process• Types of research

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What is Research ?1. A voyage of discovery; A journey; An attitude; An experience; A

method of critical thinking; A careful critical enquiry in seeking facts for principles

2. An art of scientific investigation • Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific

topic• Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the

planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A movement from the

known to the unknown • Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic and

scientific method of finding solution to a problem• Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to answer the question• Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective

(purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some factors

4. An activity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain fresh insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledgeIn a broad sense, everyone does research, but don’t write it up; Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay

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Why research ?

1. To get a degree

2. To get respectability

3. To face a challenge

4. To solve a problem

5. To get intellectual joy

6. To serve society• by increasing standard of living in case of S&T, and

• by showing right path to society in case of Social and Behavioural Sciences

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Terms Used1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in research

operationsExamples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc.

2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data)Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc.Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are used in performing research operations, i.e..,

Collection of dataStatistical processing & analysis (tests)To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained

NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost interchangeably used

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Research Methodology

• A science of studying how research is done scientifically• A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically

adopting various steps• Methodology helps to understand not only the products of

scientific inquiry but the process itself• Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their

limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the ‘frontiers of knowledge’

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Benefits of Research Methodology

1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge2. ‘Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look

at things in life objectively3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or

a ‘bent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of misinformation)

4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides chance to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match

5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions

6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think cricallyContd...

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Benefits of Research Methodology Contd...

Additional benefits in case of librarianship: i. Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of

libraryii. Helps to learn how to use libraries & other

information resourcesiii. Enables critical evaluation of literatureiv. Develops special interests & skillsv. Helps to understand attitude of othersvi. Creates awareness of special needs of research

processvii. Facilitates reference and information service

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Benefits of Research Assignments to Students

1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated

2. Good assignments help students to learn about their audience

3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information

4. Good assignments provide interim readers5. As with any real project, good assignments give

students time and a schedule of interim deadlines

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Scientific Method• The method of all logically trained minds• The pursuit of truth as determined by logical

considerations• Classifies facts, sees their mutual relation through

experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates

• Tenets of scientific faith1. DETERMINISM: Events have causes that events are determined

by other circumstances (i.e.. Causal links can eventually be uncovered and understood)

2. EMPIRICISM: Verifiable by observation and ‘evidence’ (data)3. PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY: Phenomenon should be explained

in the most economical way possible4. GENERALITY: More problematic in social & behavioral science

than natural science

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Basic Postulates of Scientific Method

1. Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism)2. Utilizes relevant concepts3. Committed to only objective considerations 4. Presupposes ethical neutrality5. Results into probabilistic predictions6. Methodology is made known to all for critical scrutiny and

testing through replication7. Aims at formulating most general axioms or scientific theories8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated

by the demands of logic and objective procedure

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Qualities of Good ResearchTHE SCIENTIFIC METHOD EMPLOYED ENSURES:

1. Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common concepts2. Procedure enumerated to keep continuity3. Carefully planned design leading to objective results4. Complete frankness; flaws reported and their effect estimated5. Adequate analysis of data with appropriate methods of analysis 6. Carefully checked data for validity & reliability7. Conclusions confined to those justified by the data8. Confidence, competence/ reputation, experience, honesty &

integrity of researcherNote: 38% of papers in Nature and 25% of papers in BMJ contain one or

more statistical errors; 4% of errors caused non-significant findings to be misrepresented as significant (The Economist, 5 June ’04, p 70-71)

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Qualities of Good Research contd..

1. SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking

2. CONTROLLED – Variables are identified & controlled, wherever possible

3. LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical process of induction & deduction

4. EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation)

5. REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study6. SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to

public scrutiny by fellow professionalscontd..

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Research Process1. Selection & formulation of Research Problem 2. Literature survey3. Development of working hypotheses4. Research design5. Sampling strategy or sample design6. Pilot (quick & dirty) study 7. Data collection 8. Processing & analysis of data9. Testing hypotheses10. Interpretation & generalisation11. Preparation of the report NOTE: 1. Above steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive, but a

series of closely related, continuously overlapping and interdependent nonlinear steps/ actions2. What lies ahead is hard work as well as pleasure of the hunt; some frustration, but more of satisfaction; periods of confusion, butconfidence that, at the end, it will all come together

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Ethics of Research• As a profound social activity research connects us to those who will use

it, to those whose research we used, through them, to the research that our sources used; Hence beyond technique, we need to think aboutethics of civil communication

• In addition to construction of bonds within any community, ethics deal with a range of moral and immoral choices; Research challenges us to define individual moral principles; Academic researchers are less tempted to sacrifice principle for a gain than commercial researchersPlagiarism, claiming credit for results of others, misreport sources or invent results, data with questionable accuracy, concealing objections that cannot be rebutted, caricaturing or distorting opposing views, destroy or conceal sources and data important for those who follow

• Beyond simple moral Do not to what we should affirmatively do, i.e., concern for the integrity of the work of the community combined with narrow moral standards with the larger ethical dimension

• Research done in the best interests of others is also in your own

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Types of Research

1. DESCRIPTIVE/ SURVEY (EX-POST FACTO)

• Surveys & fact-finding enquiries

• State of affairs as it exists• No control over variables• Try to discover causes (I.e.,

ex- post facto)

2. APPLIED• Finding a solution for an

immediate problem & not rigorous / flexible in application of the conditions

ANALYTICAL• Uses facts or information already

available and analyze to make a critical evaluation

FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE)• Concerned with generalizations &

formulation of theory• Knowledge for knowledge’s sake

(I.e., pure or basic research)

contd….

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Types of Research contd…

3. QUANTITATIVE• Measured & expressed in terms of

quantity• Expression of a property or

quantity in numerical terms • Quantitative research helps:i. Precise measurementii. Knowing trends or changes

overtimeiii. Comparing trends or individual

libraries / units

4 CONCEPTUAL• Related to some abstract idea or

theory (for thinkers & philosophers)

• Relies on literature

QUALITATIVE• Involves quality or kind• Helps in having insight into

problems or cases

EMPIRICAL• Relies on experience or

observation alone, i.e.,data based research

• Capable of being verified by observation or experiment

• Experimenter has control over variables

contd…

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Types of Research contd…

5. OTHER TYPESi. One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/ Developmental &

Trend or prediction studies (the time domain)ii. Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research iii. Clinical vs diagnostic studiesiv. Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of formulation of the

problem) studiesv. Historical studies (Greater part of it is quantitative)vi. Content Analysis is one such quantitative method – a multipurpose

method developed specifically for investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the contents of communication serve as a basis of inference. Example: word usage rates, word counts, etc.

vii. Correlational researchviii. Conclusion oriented or decision oriented research

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Categorization of Research Design (Design Typology Criteria)

1. The degree of formulation of problema. Exploratory or Formulated

b. Descriptive, Diagnostic, Analytical 2. The topical scope

a. Historical study b. Survey, Delphi Study c. Case study (History, Material), Accounts, Episodes, Story of experience d. Statistical study

3. The search environment, I.e., the field or lab settinga. survey or lab experiment

4. The time dimensiona. Cross Sectional (One time) b. Longitudinal, Trend, Developmental (Follow up or Cohort Studies in UK & Panel Studies in USA)

5. The mode of data collectiona. Survey b. Observational

6. The manipulation of the variables under studya. Experimental (Hypothesis Testing ) b. Ex post facto

7. The nature of the relationship among variables a. Causal/ Prediction b.

Descriptive/ Relational (i) Association (ii) Correlation

8. a. Conceptual ( Fundamental, Basic, Pure) b. Empirical (Applied, Action)

9. a. Conclusion oriented b. Decision oriented

10. a. Qualitative b. Quantative

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1. Anderson, Janathan, et. al. Thesis and assignment writing. New Delhi: Wiley, 1970.

2. Best, Joel. Damned lies and statistics. California: University of California Press, 2001.

3. Best, Joel. More damned lies and statistics; how numbers confuse public issues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004

4. Body, Harper W Jr. et.al. Marketing research: text and cases. Delhi: All India Traveler Bookseller, 1985.

5. Booth, Wayne C, et. al. The craft of research. 2 ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003.

6. Chicago guide to preparing electronic manuscripts: For authors and publishers. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.

7. Cohen, Louis and Manion, Lawrence. Research methods in education. London: Routledge, 1980.

8. Goode, William J and Hatt, Paul K. Methods on social research.London; Mc Graw Hill, 1981.

9. Gopal, M.H. An introduction to research procedures in social sciences.Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1970.

10. Koosis, Donald J. Business statistics. New York: John Wiley,1972.11. Kothari, C.R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2 ed.,

New Delhi: Vishwaprakashan, 1990.

ReferencesReferences

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12. Miller, Jane E. The Chicago guide to writing about numbers. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press, 2004.

13. Rodger, Leslie W. Statistics for marketing. London: Mc-Graw Hill, 1984.

14. Salvatoe, Dominick. Theory and problems of statistics and econometrics (Schaum’s outline series). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.

15. Spiegel, Murray R. Schauim’s outline of theory and problems of statistics in SI units. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill , 1981.

16. Simpson, I. S. How to interpret statistical data: a guide for librarians and information scientists. London: Library Association, 1990.

17. Slater, Margaret ed. Research method in library and information studies. London: Library Association, 1990.

18. Turabian, Kate L. A manual for writers of term papers, theses, and dissertations. 6 ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1996.

19. Young, Pauline V. Scientific social surveys and research. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Ltd., 1984.

20. Walizer, Michael H and Wienir, Paul L. Research methods and analysis: searching for relationships. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.

21. Williams, Joseph M. Style: towards clarity and grace. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995.

References References contd.contd.

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About the Author

Dr. M. S. Sridhar is a post graduate in Mathematics and Business Management and a Doctorate in Library and Information Science. He is in the profession for last 36 years. Since 1978, he is heading the Library and Documentation Division of ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore. Earlier he has worked in the libraries of National Aeronautical Laboratory (Bangalore), Indian Institute of Management (Bangalore) and University of Mysore. Dr. Sridhar has published 4 books, 81 research articles, 22 conferences papers, written 19 course materials for BLIS and MLIS, made over 25 seminar presentations and contributed 5 chapters to books. E-mail:[email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ; Phone: 91-80-25084451; Fax: 91-80-25084476.