Resistant Starch Health Benifits and Food Application

RESISTANT STARCH: BENEFIT AND APPLICATION IN FOOD

PREPARATION.

-SUMAN DHITAL, MS FOOD SCIENCE

Email: [email protected]

KASETSART UNIVERSITY, BANGKOK, THAILAND

INTRODUCTION

Starch

Starch is main source of energy in the human diet and animal feed. It is the most

abundant and universally distributed forms of storage polysaccharide in plants, and

occurs as granules in the chloroplast of green leaves and amyloplast of seeds, pulses and

tubers (Tester, Karkalas, and Qi, 2004). Starch granule organization is very complicated

and depends strongly on the botanical origin. Starch exists naturally in the form of

discrete granules within plant cells. The starch granule is mainly composed of a mixture

of two polymers: an essential linear polysaccharide called amylose and highly branched

polysaccharide called amylopectin.

Amylose portion of starch contains the linear glucose chain joining each other by

∞(1-4) glycosidic linkage, and some branch chain also present, once in every 180-320

units, or 0.3-0.5% of the linkages. The average molecular weight of amylose molecule is

about 106 g/mol and degree of polymerization (DP) of 6000. The chains can easily form

single or double helices. (Whistler and BeMiller, 1997). Amylopectin portion is highly

branched has an average molecular weight range from 107 to 5X10

8 g/mol and DP of 2X

106. This makes it one of the largest polymers in nature. It consists of thousands of short

linear chain of (1-4) linked ∞ D-glucopyranosyl units, linked to each other by ∞-(1-6)

linkages. The branch point linkages constitute 4-5% of the total linkages (Whistler and

BeMiller, 1997).

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Nutritional classification of starch based on the extent of digestibility on this basis

starch can be classified as follows: (Englyst and Hudson, 1996; Englyst and Hudson,

1997).

Rapidly digestible starch

Rapidly digestible starch (RDS) consists mainly of amorphous and dispersed

starch. It is digested quickly in the small intestine. In vitro testing, it is hydrolyzed to the

constituent glucose molecules in 20 min. RDS is best exemplified by freshly cooked

starchy foods, such as mashed potatoes. In this case, starch granules have been

gelatinized and are more accessible to enzymatic digestion.

Slowly digestible starch

Slowly digestible starch (SDS) likes RDS, it is expected to be completely

digestion in the small intestine but it is digested more slowly than RDS. During in vitro

hydrolysis, SDS is converted to glucose between 20 and 100 min. This category consists

of physically inaccessible amorphous starch and raw starch with a type A and type C

crystalline structure, such as cereals.

Resistant starch

Resistant starch (RS) is a small fraction of starch that was not hydrolyzed after

120 min of in vitro hydrolysis by ∞-amylase and pullulanase treatment. RS is now

defined as that fraction of dietary starch, which escapes digestion in the small intestine. It

passes into the large intestine and more or less fermented by gut microflora.

Definition and classification of resistant starch

RS is defined as the sum of starch and products of starch degradation not

absorbed in the small intestine of healthy individuals (Eliasson, A.C., 2004). Most foods

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are heat processed prior to consumption. Although heat processing increases the

availability of starch to enzyme, a fraction of starch remains resistant to amylase

hydrolysis in the human gastrointestinal tract. This fraction is called resistant starch (RS).

The resistant starch can be produced by repeated cycles of autoclaving and cooling.

Amylose content, processing temperature and water content are factors known to

influence the yields of resistant starch. Resistant starches have been obtained in high

yields from high-amylose maize starch (23–48%) and from debranched potato and waxy

maize amylopectins (47% and 34%, respectively). Without debranching, waxy maize and

potato amylopectin produce very little resistant starch (0.2% and 4.2%, respectively

(Jane,2009). It is subdivided into 4 categories regarding the mechanism that prevents its

enzymatic digestion (Englyst,et al., 1992) as follows:

Resistant starch type I

Resistant starch type I (RS1) represents starch that is resistant because it is

physically inaccessible to digestion by entrapment in a non-digestible matrix such as

partly milled grains and seeds and in some very dense types of processed starchy food

such as intact cells in legumes. RS1 is heat stable in most normal cooking operation and

enables its use as an ingredient in wide variety of conventional foods.

Resistant starch type II

Resistant starch type II (RS2) represents starch that is a certain granular form and

resistant to enzyme digestion. In starch granules, starch is tightly packed in a radical

pattern and is relatively dehydrated. This compact structure limits the accessibility of

digestive enzymes and accounts for the resistant nature of RS2 such as un-gelatinized

starch, crystalline regions of native starch granules and retrograded amylopectin.

Examples of native RS2 are found in green bananas, uncooked potatoes, and peas. A RS2

starch derived from high amylose cornstarch (NOVELOSE 240, National Starch and

Chemical Company) has been commercially developed.

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Resistant starch type III

Resistant starch type III (RS3) represents the most resistant starch fraction and is

mainly retrograded starch formed during cooling of gelatinized starch such as cooked and

cooled baked potatoes, breakfast cereals, retrograded amylose. NOVELOSE 330,

National Starch and Chemical Company, is commercially developed RS3 starch derived

from high amylose corn starch.

Resistant starch type IV

Resistant starch type IV (RS4) represents the chemically modified starch such as

hydroxypropyl starch, cross linking starch and distarch phosphate starch. This starch has

not been authorized in Europe however Japan authorized its usages. (Starch in food,

Amm charlet).

Resistant starch as a component of Dietary fibre

Dietary fibre (DF) can be defined from different points of views, including legal,

technological, chemical, nutritional and functional. Hipsley defined fibre in 1953

(Buttriss & Stokes, 2008) but, dietary fibre is not an entity, but a collective term for a

complex mixture of substances with different chemical and physical properties, which

exert different types of physiological effects. Dietary fibre was first defined as non-

digestible components of plants that make up the plant cell wall: cellulose,

hemicelluloses (both non-starch polysaccharides) and lignin.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission‟s Committee on Nutrition and Foods for

Special Dietary Uses, adopted a new definition of dietary fibre for inclusion in the

Guidelines on Nutrition and Health Claims. The committee defined dietary fibre as

„„carbohydrate polymers with 10 or more monomeric units, which are not hydrolyzed by

the endogenous enzymes in the small intestine of humans”. The committee also allowed

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local authorities to decide whether to include or exclude polymers with 3–9 monomeric

units (Mermelstein, 2009).

The Commission of The European Communities (2008) defines „fibre‟ as

carbohydrate polymers with three or more monomeric units, which are neither digested

nor absorbed in the small intestine. In 2001, the Institute of Medicine‟s Panel on the

Definition of Dietary Fibre provided an updated definition of dietary fibre and defined

total fibre as the sum of dietary fibre and functional fibre. They defined dietary fibre as

„„non-digestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants”, where

non-digestible means not digested or absorbed in the human small intestine, and

functional fibre as „„isolated, non-digestible carbohydrates that have beneficial

physiological effects in humans” (Mermelstein,2009).

Food having greater nutritional properties getting popularities these days due to

the higher consumer awareness, considerable importance is given to functional foods,

which, in principle, apart from their basic nutritional functions, provide physiological

benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Functional foods either contain (or

add) a component with a positive health effect or eliminate a component with a negative

one. One of the added components could be resistant starch (RS) (Mikulíková, Masár, &

Kraic, 2008), which is widely used as a functional ingredient, especially in foods

containing high dietary fibre levels. So resistant starch (RS) has gained importance as a

new source of dietary fibre (Sanz et al., 2008). The general behavior of RS is

physiologically similar to that of soluble, fermentable fibre, like guar gum. The most

common results include increased fecal bulk and lower colonic pH (Slavin, Stewart,

Timm, & Hospattankar, 2009). Additional observations suggest that resistant starch, such

as soluble fibre, has a positive impact on colonic health by increasing the crypt cell

production rate, or decreasing colonic epithelial atrophy in comparison with non-fibre

diets. There are indications that resistant starch, like guar, a soluble fibre, influences

tumorigenesis, and reduces serum cholesterol and triglycerides. Overall, since resistant

starch behaves physiologically as a fibre, it should be retained in the total dietary fibre

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assay (Haralampu, 2000). The recent increased interest in RS is related to its effects in

the gastrointestinal tract, which in many ways are similar to these of dietary fibre. Like

soluble fibre, RS is a substrate for the colonic microbiota, forming metabolites including

short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), i.e. mainly acetic, propionic and butyric acid. Butyric

acid is largely metabolised by the colonocyte, and is the most import energy source for

the cell (Elmstahl, 2002). RS consumption has also been related to reduce postprandial

glycemic and insulinemic responses, which may have beneficial implications in the

management of diabetes (Tharanathan & Mahadevamma, 2003). Therefore, there is wide

justification for assuming that RS behaves physiologically like fibre (Sajilata et al.,

2006).

RS is not a cell wall component but is nutritionally more similar to non starch

polysaccharides than to digestible starch. Of late, RS has been considered a new

ingredient for creating fibre-rich foods, although one of the problems of including RS is

that it does not have all the properties of soluble and insoluble fibre together (Sharma et

al., 2008).

Food source of resistant starch

Starch is the major dietary source of carbohydrates, and is most abundant storage

polysaccharide in plants, and occurs as granules in the chloroplast of green leaves and the

amyloplast of seeds, pulses, and tubers (Sajilata et al., 2006). Resistant starch is naturally

found in cereal grains, seeds and in heated starch or starch-containing foods

(Charalampopoulos et al., 2002). Physical form of grains or seeds in which starch is

located, size and type of starch granules, cooking and food processing, especially cooking

and cooling (Slavin, 2004) are the factors which determine the digestibility of starch.The

digestibility of starch in rice and wheat is increased by milling to flour (Sajilata et al.,

2006).

Unripe banana is considered the RS-richest non-processed food. Several studies

have suggested that consumption of unripe bananas confers beneficial effects for human

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health, a fact often associated with its high resistant starch (RS) content, which ranges

between 47% and 57%. Recently, the preparation of unripe banana flour was described,

with 73.4% total starch content, 17.5% RS content and a dietary fibre level of 14.5%.

Although banana represents an alternative source of indigestible carbohydrates, mainly

RS and dietary fibre, its native RS is rendered digestible when it cooked. (Rodríguez, et

al. 2008).

On the basis of percentage of total starch, potato starch has the highest RS

concentration and corn starch has the lowest. Raw potato starch contain 75% RS as a

percentage of Total Starch (TS). Starches from tubers such as potatoes tend to exhibit B-

type crystallinity patterns that are highly resistant to digestion. Amylomaize contains

mostly amylose, which has been shown to lower not only digestibility but also blood

insulin and glucose values in humans (Bednar et al., 2001). Whole grains are rich sources

of fermentable carbohydrates including dietary fibre, resistant starch and oligosaccharides

(Slavin, 2004). Fibre provided by the whole grain includes a substantial resistant starch

component, as well as varying amounts of soluble and fermentable fibres, depending on

the whole grain source (Lunn & Buttriss, 2007). The RS concentrations are five times

higher in the cereal grains than in the flours (Bednar et al., 2001).But the flour contain

higher RDS and SDS than grain.

Legumes are known for their high content of both soluble and insoluble dietary

fibre. Pulse grains are high in RS and retain their functionality even after cooking

(Rochfort & Panozzo, 2007). Legumes has high TDF and RS concentrations (mean

36.5% and 24.7%,respectively). RS concentrations generally constituted the highest

proportion of the starch fractions of legumes. Leguminous starches display a C-type

pattern of crystallinity. This type of starch is more resistant to hydrolysis than that with

an A-type crystallinity pattern and helps explain why legumes have high amounts of RS.

Another possible reason for the higher RS concentrations in legumes could be the

relationship between starch and protein. When red kidney beans are preincubated with

pepsin, there is an increase in their susceptibility to amylolytic attack (Bednar et al.,

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2001). Cooked legumes are prone to retrograde more quickly, thereby lowering the

process of digestion. Processed legumes contain significant amount of RS3. The

digestibility of legume starch is much lower than that of cereal starch. The higher content

of amylose in legumes, which probably leads to a higher RS content, may account for

their low digestibility. High-amylose cereal starch has been shown to be digested at a

significantly lower rate (Tharanathan & Mahadevamma, 2003). There is a very high

diversity of the content of resistant starch in seeds of leguminous plants (from 80% to

only a few percent).

Health Benefit of Resistant Starch

Resistant starch, RS has received much attention for both its health benefits and

functional properties (Sajilata et al., 2006). Resistant starch is one of the most abundant

dietary sources of non-digestible carbohydrates (Nugent, 2005) and could be as important

as non-starch polysaccharides, NSP in promoting large bowel health and preventing

bowel inflammatory diseases (IBD) and colorectal cancer (CRC) (Topping, Anthony, &

Bird, 2003).

Prevention of colonic cancer

RS escapes digestion in the small intestine. It is slowly fermented by the intestine

microflora in the large intestine producing a wide range of short-chain fatty acids

(SCFA), primarily acetate, propionate and butyrate. SCFA production had a positive

impact on bowel health, including epithelial proliferation and lowers colonic pH. The

butyrate is a main energy substrate for large intestinal epithelial cells and inhibits the

malignant transformation of such cells in vitro. These effects may lead to the decreased

incidence of colon cancer, atherosclerosis, and obesity- related complications in human

(Haralampu, 2000).RS supplementation in diet may enhance fermentation of starch in the

large intestine is a decrease in faecal pH and a reduction in the concentrations of

products of protein fermentation in the faeces, i.e. decreased levels of ammonia and

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phenol and an increased excretion of nitrogen. Dramatically changes in faecal pH and

bulking as well as greater production of SCFA in the colon of rats fed with RS

preparations were reported (Ferguson,et. al., 2000). This suggested that RS resembled the

effects of soluble dietary fiber. However, when RS was combined with an insoluble

dietary fiber such as wheat bran, much higher SCFA, in particular butyrate was observed

in the feces.In conlusion it can be said that RS can improve certain markers of colonic

function in humans e.g. increase faecal output, faecal bulk and transit time and decrease

pH and ammonia levels, increase SCFA and decrease bile salts in faecal water. (Nugent ,

2005)

Hypoglycemic effects

The glycemic index (GI) is a physiological concept used to classify carbohydrate

containing foods. It is closely tied in with the term „glycemic response‟. Both refer to the

ability of a particular food to elevate postprandial blood glucose concentrations. GI is

measured as the incremental area under the blood glucose curve after consumption of 50

gm of available carbohydrate from a test food, divided by the area under the curve after

eating a similar amount of available carbohydrate in a control food (generally white bread

or glucose) (Ludwig & Eckel 2002). Foods with high GI value release glucose rapidly

into the blood stream (i.e. elicit a rapid glycemic response), while foods with a low GI

value release glucose more slowly into the bloodstream and result in improved glycemic

and insulinaemic responses.

The glycemic index of starchy foods depends upon various factors such as the

amylose/amylopectin ratio, gelatinization of starch, water content and baking temperature

of the processed foods, this shows the factors affecting the GI values of starch are in

accordance with those of RS formation. GI values range from about 10 for starch from

legumes to close to 100 in certain potato or rice products and breakfast cereals (Sharma et

al., 2008).

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Insulin is a hormone that enables glucose uptake by muscle and adipose cells,

thereby lowering blood glucose levels. It also inhibits the use of stored body fat and

together with an array of other physiological signals can modulate appetite and satiety

signals. RS-rich foods release glucose slowly and therefore one would expect this to

result in a lowered insulin response, greater access to and use of stored fat and,

potentially, a muted generation of hunger signals. These conditions help not only in the

management of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance, but also in the treatment of

obesity and in weight management. (Nugent ,2005)

Foods containing RS moderate the rate of digestion. The slow digestion of RS has

implications for its use in controlled glucose release applications. Numerous studies

measured glycemic response in food containing RS, in healthy non-diabetic, non-insulin-

dependent diabetes mellitus and hyperinsulinemic subjects. These studies showed a

consistent trend whereby RS had an impact on the glycaemic response, including lower

maximum blood-glucose response, lower maximum blood-insulin response, reduced area

under the blood-glucose response curve and the blood-insulin response curve. The RS3-

containing bar decreased postprandial blood glucose and might play a role in providing

an improved metabolic control in type II diabetes (noninsulin dependent) (Higgins et al.,

2004).

Behall & Hallfrisch 2002; Brown et al. 2003; Higgins 2004, researchers found

that RS consumption may confer a small decrease in postprandial glycaemia, but is

associated with more physiologically significant reductions in postprandial insulinaemia

and also found that RS must contribute at least 14% of total starch intake in order to

confer any benefits to glycaemic or insulinaemic

Prebiotic potential

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by

selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or more bacteria (probiotics) in

the gastrointestinal tract and thereby exert a health-promoting effect (Scholz-Ahrens et

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al., 2007; Roberfroid, 2000). Various experimental studies on pigs and humans have

revealed a time-dependent shift in fecal and large bowel SCFA profiles, suggesting the

possible interaction of RS with the ingested bacteria (Topping et al., 2003).

RS has been suggested for use in probiotic compositions to promote the growth

of beneficial microorganisms such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli (David, 1999). Since

RS almost entirely passes the small intestine, it can behave as a substrate for growth of

the probiotic microorganisms.

Hypocholesterolaemic effects

Hypocholesterolemic effects of RS have been proved by several studies. A study

in rats shows, RS diets (25% raw potato) markedly raised the cecal size and the cecal

pool of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), as well as SCFA absorption and lowered plasma

cholesterol and triglycerides. Furthermore, there was a lower concentration of cholesterol

in all lipoprotein fractions, especially the high-density lipoprotein (HDL1) and a

decreased concentration of triglycerides in the triglyceride-rich lipoprotein fraction

(Ranhotra,et al., 1997; Kim et al., 2003). There are two mechanisms involved. The first

one is resistant starch binding bile acids and leading to an increased fecal bile acid

excretion. Which result the less bile acid recycled. In order to compensate for the

excreted bile acid, the liver synthesizes new bile acids from cholesterol and thereby

reducing serum cholesterol level. Second mechanism for lowering serum cholesterol

level has been proposed. In this mechanism RS is believed to aid in shifting bile acid

pools away from cholic acid to chenodeoxycholic acid. Chenodeoxycholic acid appears

to be an inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase, a regulatory

enzyme necessary for cholesterol biosynthesis (Groff and Gropper, 1999). As HMG CoA

reductase activity lowers, the production of cholesterol subsequently decreases therefore

resulting in lower serum cholesterol.

According to several studies, RS ingestion may decrease the serum cholesterol

level in rats fed a cholesterol-free diet (De-Deckere, Kloots, & Van-Amelsvoort, 1993;

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Hashimoto et al., 2006).Some earlier studies in humans reported the beneficial effect of

RS on fasting plasma triglyceride and cholesterol levels. However, some other studies

indicate that RS consumption does not affect the measures of total cholesterol in humans.

Therefore it is evident that more research is needed to help us better understand the

effects of RS on lipid metabolism in humans (Nugent, 2005).

Inhibition of fat accumulation

It is proposed that eating a diet rich in RS may increase the mobilization and use

of stored fat as a result of a reduction in insulin secretion (Tapsell, 2004). Studies in

humans indicate that diets rich in RS do not affect total energy expenditure, carbohydrate

oxidation or fat oxidation (Ranganathan et al., 1994; Tagliabue et al., 1995). In another

study on human volunteers, breads rich in RS imparted greater satiety than white breads

between 70 and 120 min after eating (De Roos, Heijnen, & De Graff, 1995). Higgins et

al. (2004) examined the relationship between the RS content of a meal and postprandial

fat oxidation, finding that replacing 5.4% of total dietary carbohydrates with RS could

significantly increase postprandial lipid oxidation and probably reduce fat accumulation

in the long term. The use of resistant starch in the diet as a bioactive functional food

component is a natural, endogenous way to increase gut hormones that are effective in

reducing energy intake, so may be an effective natural approach to the treatment of

obesity (Keenan et al., 2006).

Mineral absorption

Resistant starch enhances the ileal absorption of a number of minerals in rats and

humans. Lopez et al. (2001) and Younes et al. (1995) reported an increased absorption of

calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper in rats fed RS-rich diets. In humans, these

effects appear to be limited to calcium (Trinidad et al. 1996; Coudray et al. 1997). RS

may therefore improve the ileal absorption of a number of dietary minerals but any effect

in humans is likely to be small. Meal containing 16.4% RS resulted in a greater apparent

absorption of calcium and iron as compared with a completely digestible starch (Morais,

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et a1., 1996). Which shows RS could have a positive effect on intestinal calcium and iron

absorption.

Reduction of gall stone formation

Digestible starch contributes to gall stone formation through a greater secretion of

insulin, and insulin in turn leads to the stimulation of cholesterol synthesis, so RS reduces

the incidence of gallstones. Gallstones are less frequent where whole grains are

consumed rather than flour. The dietary intake of RS is 2- to 4-fold lower in the United

States, Europe, and Australia, compared with populations consuming high-starch diets,

such as in India and China, which may be reflected in the difference in the number of

gallstone cases in the latter countries (Sajilata et al., 2006).

Resistant Starch and Cholera Treatment

Cholera is a bacterial infection characterized by severe diarrhoea, vomiting, and

dehydration. Resistant starch has health promoting effects on the colonic microflora.

Bacteria in the colon ferment these carbohydrates producing short chain fatty acids that

boost fluid absorption, helping to prevent dehydration. (Shetty, 1996) Accelerated

recovery from infectious diarrhoea has been shown in humans as well as in animals.

Ramakrishna et al.( Ramkrishna,2000) randomly assigned 48 adolescents and adults with

cholera into three treatment groups, (a) receiving standard rehydration solution (SRS), (b)

SRS + 50g of rice flour per liter of SRS and (c) SRS + 50 g of maize starch per liter of

SRS (that resist digestion), respectively. Results showed that fecal weight were

significantly lower and the duration of diarrhoea was significantly shorter for patients

given the amylase resistant maize starch. Both RS (as green bananas) and NSP have been

found to facilitate recovery from other forms of infectious diarrhoea in children,

(Rabbani,2001). Feeding with cooked rice, an established source of RS (Marsono 1993)

lowers the severity and incidence of diarrhoeal disease in pigs ( Hampson, 2000). This

benefit of RS in lowering the severity of diarrohoea seems to be due to increased fluid

absorption along with cations (Na+, K+, and Ca2+) by SCFA helping to reverse

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dehydration(Shetty, 1986) and modulation of muscular activity of the large bowel. The

cholera microorganisms in the gut may also adhere to starch granules in same way as

bifidobacteria limiting their viability and thus removing them from site of infection.(

Topping,2003) While these findings suggest that RS appears to limit dehydration, it may

not apply to diarrhoea that is not due to cholera. “A better oral rehydration solution

should be effective for treating all types of diarrhoea, and it should be easy to prepare,

store and administer,”(Rabbani, 2001).

APPLICATION IN FOOD

Application of RS in food preparation is important due to these two reasons:

Fiber fortification and potential physiological benefits of resistant starch, which

may similar to fiber.

Unique functional properties, yielding high quality products not attainable

otherwise with traditional insoluble fibers ( Yue and Waring,1998).

RS, having functionality of dietary fiber, provide desirable properties of low

water holding capacity, small particle size, and bland flavor. Studies have shown that

granular resistant starch provides better appearance, texture, and mouthfeel than do

conventional fiber sources and improves expansion and crispness in certain food

applications. This greatly increases the likelihood that consumers will accept these foods

and hence increase their dietary fibre intake (Buttriss and Stokes, 2008). RS has desirable

physicochemical properties such as swelling, viscosity increase, gel formation and water

holding capacity making it useful in a variety of foods.( Roberfroid,1993) These

properties make it possible to use RS to replace flour without significantly affecting

dough rheology, taste and flavor along with fortifying fiber in the food. Otherwise it is

not attainable in high fiber foods(Heitman et al.,1992). Resistant starch are mainly used

in moderate and low-moisture products. Many baked goods and cereals are known to

provide a source of fiber. Some, like high-fiber bread, bran muffins, and breakfast

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cereals, are abundant in the marketplace. Others, such as butter-flavored cookies, cake-

like muffins, and brownies, are considered desserts and do not normally come to mind in

relation to healthy eating patterns or fiber fortification. However, such products can be

prepared when using resistant starch as a source of fiber.

Historically, fibre-containing foods have been coarser, denser and sometimes less

palatable than refined, processed foods. The use of resistant starches as food ingredients

typically does not change the taste or significantly change the texture, but may improve

sensory properties compared with many of the traditionally used fibers, such as bran and

gums (Sajilata et al., 2006).

The amount of RS used to replace flour depends on the starch being used, the

application, the desired fiber level, and in some cases, the desired structure-function

claims (Brown, 2004). Therefore, appropriate inclusion levels can vary, but are easily

determined for each end use. From a quality standpoint, some applications are more

sensitive to flour replacement than others. For example, in bread and rolls, which

generally have a bland flavor, are low in fat and require a minimum amount of gluten for

structure, the maximum flour replacement is typically 10–20% without noticeably

changing the texture. Vital wheat gluten would then be added to bring the gluten back to

its original value. However, for chemically leavened products, flour replacement levels

can be much higher and no additional vital wheat gluten is required. Sweet products in

particular lend themselves to high RS levels because they tend to be high in fat and sugar,

which helps compensate for changes in flavor and mouthfeel. In these applications, flour

replacement can be as high as 75 %.( Brown, 2004).

The incorporation of RS in baked products, pasta products and beverages imparts

improved textural properties and health benefits (Premavalli,et al., 2006). A panel rated

40% TDF RS loaf cakes as best for flavor, grittiness moisture perception, and tenderness

24 hour after baking. Similar result has been obtained on sensory evaluation by a trained

panel of toasted waffles for initial crispness, crispness after 3 min, moistness and overall

texture, RS waffle showed greater crispness than control or traditional fibre. RS can

improve expansion in extruded cereals and snacks. RS may also be used in thickened,

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opaque health beverages in which insoluble fibre is desired. Insoluble fibers generally

require suspension and add opacity to beverages. Compared with insoluble fibres, RS

imparts a less gritty mouth feel and masks flavors less (Sajilata et al., 2006). Bread

containing 40% TDF RS had greater loaf volume and better cell structure compared with

traditional fibers tested (Baghurst,et al, 1996).

Resistant starch successfully replaced most or all of the fat in imitation cheese

without adversely affecting meltability or hardness and presenting the well-established

benefit of resistant starch as a functional fibre. In addition, low-fat, starch-containing

imitation cheese has been demonstrated to have the potential to expand during microwave

heating. Since this type of imitation cheese expands on microwave heating, it can be

presented as a stand-alone snack, Pre-expanded or as a home expansion product.

(Arimi,et al,. 2008)

RS were incorporated in a variety of baked goods, many of which include batter

systems, such as in cakes, cake-like muffins, or brownies. In general, application tests

showed that RS acts as texture modifier, imparting a favorable tenderness to the crumb. A

low-fat, loaf cake was formulated with RS and various fibers to obtain approximately 3%

TDF or 2.5 g of fiber per 80 g serving. These included a 40% TDF RS (Novelose 240

starch), oat fiber, a blend of oat fiber with Novelose 240 starch in a 50/50 ratio based on

TDF contribution, and a 23% TDF RS (Hylon VII starch). The baked cakes made with

RS were similar to that containing oat fiber and the control in the amount of moisture loss

after baking, height, specific volume, and density. A panel rated the 40% TDF RS loaf

cakes as the best for flavor, grittiness, moisture perception, and tenderness 24 h after

baking. (Sajilata et al., 2006).

RS can be used as an ingredient that improves crispness in foods where high heat

is applied to a product‟s surface during processing. French toast and waffles, especially

frozen reheated types, represent foods in which surface crispness is desired (Sajilata et

al., 2006).

Along with textural enhancement, RS can improve expansion in extruded cereals

and snacks. Various cereals were formulated to contain 40% TDF RS (Novelose 240

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starch) alone and in combination with oat fiber in ratios of 50/50 and 25/75 based on

weight. The cereal with RS and no oat fiber had greater volumetric expansion than the

control. In blends with oat fiber, the cereal containing 75% of RS had better expansion

than the one containing only 50%. Dried pasta products containing up to 15% RS can be

made with little or no effect on dough rheology during extrusion. Although the resultant

pasta was lighter in color, a firm “al dente” texture was obtained in the same cooking

time as a control that had no added fiber. RS may also be used in thickened, opaque

health beverages in which insoluble fiber is desired. Insoluble fibers generally require

suspension and add opacity to beverages. Compared with insoluble fibers, RS imparts a

less gritty mouthfeel and masks flavors less. (Sajilata et al., 2006).

References

Arimi, J. M., Duggan, E., O‟Riordan, E. D., O‟Sullivan, M., and Lyng, J. G. 2008.

Microwave expansion of imitation cheese containing resistant starch.

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