ResearchMethodology_Research

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MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 1

RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY(Business Research Methods)


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What is Research? (1)

There are many accepted definitions for the termresearch, for example:

Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts,events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practicalapplications with the help of such facts, laws or theories.

The term research is also used to describe thecollection of information about a particular subject

(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)


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What is Research? (2)

Other insightful definitions of research are:

Systematic, intensive, patient study and investigation in some fieldof knowledge, usually employing the techniques of hypothesis and

experiment, whose purpose is to reveal new facts, theories, or principles

Means a systematic investigation, including research development,testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute togeneralizable knowledge

Systematic study directed toward more complete scientificknowledge or understanding of the subject studied


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Types and Scope of Research

TYPES OF RESEARCHBASIC APPLIED

Research is undertaken in numerous scientific disciplines, e.g.:

Natural / Physical Sciences

Social Sciences

Management Sciences

Humanities

Non-Specificity Specificity


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The Dimensions of Research

RESEARCH

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Hypotheses

Empiricism

DeductiveReasoning

InductiveReasoning

Scientific Method


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What is a Theory? (1)

Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as a coherent set of generalpropositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of theapparent relationships of certain observed phenomona

Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theorydevelopment. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about aclass of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that havebeen given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of the level of abstraction

Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation


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What is a Theory? (2)

A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationshipbetween concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logicallinkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They

are usually concerned with the relationships between variables

Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production


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The Abstraction Ladder

Observations of Objects,Events and Occurrences (Reality)

Concepts / Constructs

Propositions

Theory

Levels of Abstraction

Empirical Level

Abstract Level


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Qualities of a Good Theory (1)

A theory is a good theory if it satisfies tworequirements. It must accurately describe alarge class of observations on the basis of a

model that contains only a few arbitraryelements. And it must make definite predictionsabout the result of future observations

Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988


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Qualities of a Good Theory (2)

Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certainphenomena. One cannot really be 100% certain that agiven theory is correct because, no matter on how manyoccasions the results of experiments agree with thetheory, there may come an occasion when some do not

Theories must be:Objective

Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)Falsifiable / disprovable

Good theories must understand, explain and predict


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Example of a Theory: Voluntary Job Turnover Labour market conditions, number of

organizations, personal characteristics,And other partial determinants

of ease of movement

Perceived ease of movement (e.g.Expectation of finding alternatives,

unsolicited opportunities)

J o

b P e r f o r m a n c e

Perceived desirability of movement

(e.g. job satisfaction)

Equity of pay, job complexity, participationIn decision-making, and other partial

Determinants of desirability of movement

IntentionToQuit

VoluntaryJob

Turnover

Zikmund, pp. 44 - 45


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Inductive Reasoning

Observation

Pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

Using inductive reasoning, onestarts with a specific observationas the basis for which we develop

a general pattern and tentativehypothesis as the foundation

of a theory


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The Scientific Method

The scientific method is basically an overarchingperspective on how scientific investigations should beundertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as acomplete set of principles and methods that help

researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid resultsfor their research studies, and which includes theprovision of clear and universally accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating and communicating information in

the context of a research study

The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, tounderstand, explain and predict


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Elements of the Scientific Method

Empirical ApproachObservationQuestionsHypothesesExperimentsAnalysisConclusionReplication


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Elements of the Scientific Method(Empirical Approach)

Evidence-based approach. The guiding principlebehind all research conducted in accordance

with the scientific method

Data derived from direct, systematic and careful

observation and experimentation (as opposed tospeculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gutfeeling)


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Elements of the Scientific Method(Observation)

Awareness of the real / physical / social world in whichwe exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as thebasis for research studies or investigations

Operational Definitions Ensures consistency whenresearchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or replicating research on the same phenomenon.

Example: What is exercise?


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Elements of the Scientific Method(Questions)

Making an answerable question out of a research idea.The question must be answered using available andestablished scientific research techniques and

procedures. Scientific Analysis should not be attemptedon questions which cannot be answered

Example of an answerable question: Can regular

exercising reduce an individuals cholesterol level?

Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is timetravel possible?


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(Hypotheses)Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesisis a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks toexplain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be

falsifiable

Typical hypotheses structures:

Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result

Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related withchanges in the value of Variable A

Causal The value of Variable determines the value of Variable


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(Experiments)

Experiments are basically about measuring phenomenaand collecting accurate and reliable data which are usedfor analysis and evaluation

Accuracy Correctness of the Measurement

Reliability Consistency of the Measurement


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(Analysis)Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitativetools and techniques to process data

Quantitative tools and techniques are considered moredesirable (objective) than qualitative tools andtechniques

Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitativelyanalyze data acquired in research studies


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(Conclusions)Based on the results of the analysis conducted, andused to support or refute a hypothesis

When undertaking research, conclusions should only bebased on the available data and not broadened toinclude statements which are not supported by the data

Example: If the research analysis shows that twovariables are correlated (related), do not assert also thata causal relationship exists between them


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(Replication)The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the sameresearch study is conducted with different participants(i.e. researchers, research subjects), then the same

results are achieved

Replication establishes the reliability of a researchstudys conclusions

Conclusions are often based on the results of oneresearch study (aberration effect) which may not beaccurate

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