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Akbari et al 1
The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total Cholesterol
and High Density Lipoprotein of Middle Age Females
Giti, Z1; Hosseini, S.A1; Nourizadeh, R1; Edalat Manesh, M.A;
Noura, M1; Robati, R2 1 Department of Physical Education, Fars
Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran 2
Department of Physiology, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic
Azad University, Fars, Iran 3 Department of Microbiology, Fars
Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars,
Iran
Abstract Aim: aim of present study was to review the effect of
eight weeks aerobic training on visfatin total cholesterol and high
density lipoprotein of middle age females. Materials and methods:
For these purpose 30 females (mean age 48/739/44 y, height
156/035/6 cm and weight 68/3710/57 kg) who attend in odd days
morning sport class of hejab gymnasium of shiraz city after fill
health and informed consent questioners randomly selected as
statistical sample. At first after measure the height and weight,
subjects base on their body mass index, divided in two equal
groups. Aerobic trainings were included eight weeks aerobic
training with intensity of 55-65 percent of maximum heart rate and
three sessions per week. Fasting blood samples were taken 24 hours
before start training period and after finishing last training
session. For statistical analysis of findings used dependent and
independent t test ( 0/05). Results: results showed that eight
weeks aerobic training has no significant effect on increase in
visfatin (p=0/08), reduction in total cholesterol (p=0/38) and
increase Hosseini, S.A ( ) [email protected]
in high density lipoprotein (p=0/38). Conclusion: base on
results of present study eight weeks aerobic training has no
significant effect on increase in visfatin, reduction in total
cholesterol (p=0/38) and increase in high density lipoprotein
reduction in total cholesterol and increase in high density
lipoprotein. So it suggests to middle age and untrained people for
control the effective factors on obesity use high duration aerobic
exercises. Key words: aerobic training, visfatin, total
cholesterol, high density lipoprotein Introduction Today obesity is
one of important factors of mortality and chronic and fatal
diseases. Obesity is defined as excessive accumulation of fat in
the body. Fat tissue in addition to the storage and release of
triglycerides can secrets many proteins which these proteins have
role in cholesterol metabolism, immune system actions, regulation
of energy cost, insulin action and nutrition (Dominik., 2006). Also
fat tissue in addition to storage of fat has important role in
homeostasis of whole body as an active tissue by secretion of
various hormones that called Adipocytokin. Adipokines have role in
the physiological and pathophysiological
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Researcher in Sport Science Quarterly 2011, 2 (3): 1- 7
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2 The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total
Cholesterol
routes by several mechanisms and in practice they could have
protective or predisposing role in getting people to chronic
diseases (Kowalska., 2007 & Mastorakos., 2007). Visfatin is one
of the Adipokines that mostly secreted by visceral fat tissue and
its gene expression and plasmatic levels reduces in obese humans.
Metabolic effects of visfatin occur primarily by binding and
activating the insulin receptor (Bermejo., 2006, Berndt., 2005
& Claudio., 2006). Studies represent that increase in visfatin
induces increase in insulin sensitivity and correspondingly
reducing insulin resistance. Results of past studies have shown
that plasmatic concentrations of visfatin reduced in human who have
abdominal obesity or diabetic people. In the other hand it has been
reported that glucose concentration affects serum concentration of
visfatin and this impressibility changes by some medications
(Moschen., 2007). Indeed serum levels of visfation have reverse
relationship with body fat percentage. There are many factors
affecting reduction of body fat percentage and cardiovascular risk
factors that these factors include the nutrition, environment,
socio-economic status and exercise. Beneficial effects of exercise
in preventing and reducing cardio- vascular diseases has shown in
various researches, but its mechanisms are not well understood.
When fat tissue accumulates around body is susceptible to many
diseases. Epidemiological data show that the prevalence of obesity
significantly increased over the past 20 years. Studies have shown
that low density lipoprotein (LDL), very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL) and total cholesterol increase in obese subjects also high
density lipoprotein (HDL) reduces. Regards to the role of
inflammation in the pathogenesis of cardio- vascular disease,
reduction of inflammatory markers through exercise maybe one of
mechanisms of reduction in cardio- vascular disease. In the area of
exercise science pparticularly in exercise
physiology and sports medicine researches has been done (Nikkil
., 1980, Ring- Dimitriou et al., 2007 & Vuorimaa et al., 2005).
Although the effect of exercise on these parameters studied in the
various populations in the past decade, the results of these
studies based on their type and nature are along with
inconsistencies in change of visfatin concentration in response to
exercise. Thus, with respect to the noticed matters above in
connection with the exercise necessary to improve the complications
of inactivity and its induced obesity and also improve in blood and
tissue factors that influence obesity and insulin resistance,
present study seeks to answer this question that do aerobic
training has a significant effect on visfatin, total cholesterol
and high density lipoprotein? Methods Subjects Present study in a
quasi-experimental study. Statistical population of present study
included 90 women over 35 years who attend in odd days morning
sport class of hejab gymnasium of shiraz city. 30 women who had no
history of special diseases such as diabetes, blood pressure,
cardio- vascular and respiratory disease after fill health and
informed consent questioners randomly selected as statistical
sample. Demographic characteristics of the subjects are presented
in Table 1. Training protocols First, for homogeneity of the
experimental and control groups, out of 30 volunteers measured
parameters such as height, weight and body mass index. Then regards
to the significant positive correlation between body mass index
with concentration of visfatin, total cholesterol and high density
lipoprotein, subjects were divided into two groups based on body
mass index. The health, general information and informed consent
questionnaires were completed by all subjects. Fasting blood
samples collected
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Giti et al 3
in lab 24 hours before start of training. Training protocol
consisted eight weeks aerobic training and three sessions per week.
Training program consisted 30 min warm up, include walk around the
gym, stretching and kinetic movements and eight minutes running
with intensity of 55-65 percent of maximum heart rate in first
session that per two sessions one minute was added to running time.
After eight weeks running time was 20 min and final 10 minutes was
for cooling. At the end of each training session 10 minutes of
cool- down include stretching and walking was done. 24 hours after
the last training session, all subjects of experimental and control
groups according to pretest were present in the laboratory and
seven ml of blood was taken from them again. Also for control the
short- term effects of diet on mentioned indicators, subjects were
asked to have same diet for 24 hours before the pre-test and
post-test. To determine the intensity of exercise (55- 65 percent
of maximum heart rate) maximum heart rate formula was used.
Exercise Heart Rate= 55- 65 % (220-Age) Blood sampling All subjects
in the study period were not taking any medication. Blood samples
were collected to determine the rest concentration of visfatin,
total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein in pre- test (before
start training program) and post- test (after the training
program). Blood sampling at 8-9 AM was done by trained technicians
and subjects were fast. 7 ml venous blood was taken from anterior
vein
of the left elbow of subjects. For measure visfatin used ELISA
kit of ALPCO Diagnostics, Salem, NH also cholesterol and
high-density lipoprotein were measured using diagnostic kit of
cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein by photometric method.
Statistical analysis Due to the random distribution of subjects in
the experimental and control groups and confidence of normality of
data by (kolmogorov- smirnov test) for compare the visfatin,
cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein between experimental and
control groups and also within these groups used independent and
dependent t test respectively. All information is reported based on
the mean and standard deviation. The level of significance was
considered 0/05 for all stages of calculation. Findings
Concentrations of Visfatin, cholesterol and high-density
lipoprotein in both groups are shown in Table 2. Independent t-test
results showed that there is no significant difference in visfatin
(p=0/11), cholesterol (p=0/78) and high density lipoprotein
(p=0/20) changes following eight weeks aerobic exercise training in
experimental and control groups. also dependent t-test results
showed that eight weeks aerobic exercise training has no
significant effect on increase visfatin (p=0/08), cholesterol
(p=0/38) and high density lipoprotein (p=0/38) (table 3).
Table 1. demographic characteristics of subjects (M SD)
Control (N= 15) Experimental (N= 15) Subjects Variable
53 2.1 44.46 2.29 Age (year) 154.66 1.16 157.40 1.64 Height (cm)
70.24 2.02 66.50 3.29 Weight (kg) 29.33 0.69 27.01 1.49 Body Mass
Index (kg/m2)
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4 The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total
Cholesterol
Table 2. statistical analysis of visfatin, cholesterol and high
density lipoprotein in experimental and control groups
control group
experimental group time of test variable
8.17 1.72 6.637 1.83 Pre Test Visfatin (Ng/ml) 8.06 1.88 7.29
0.77 Post Test 206 35.19 232.13 44.62 Pre Test Cholesterol (mg/dL)
199.66 36.38 222.73 34.79 Post Test 59.06 11.2 56.73 14.66 Pre Test
High Density
Lipoprotein (mg/dL) 57.6 12.21 58.8 12.62 Post Test
Table 3. results of independent and dependent t tests for
compare the visfatin, cholesterol and high density lipoprotein in
research groups
Variable p df dependent t test
Group Independent t test
df P
Visfatin 0.08 14 -1.87 Experimental 1.62 28 0.11 0.79 14 0.26
Control
Total cholesterol
0.38 14 0.89 experimental -0.28 28 0.78 0.03 14 2.39 control
High density lipoprotein
0.38 14 -.089 experimental 1.29 28 0.20 0.15 14 1.51 control
*05/0p Discussion Results of present study showed that two
months aerobic training has no significant effect on increase of
visfatin. About the effect of exercise on visfatin can point to
Frydeland-larsen study (2006). The result of Frydeland-larsen study
is contradicted with present study. These researchers showed that
exercise induces increase in expression of visfatin mRNA in
subcutaneous fat tissue of healthy males (Frydeland-Larson., 2006).
Perhaps one of the reasons of inconsistent results in
Frydeland-larsen et al study with present study maybe due to
different types of subjects. Because in Frydeland- larsen et al
study used young male subjects. These subjects because of their
youth were able to perform higher intensity exercise than present
study subjects. Indeed Visfatin has diabetogenic and
immunomodulator effects that has role on physiology of insulin
resistance in obese and type 2
diabetic humans and Changes in fetal development (Dahi., 2007
& Song., 2008). It appears that visfatin is involved in
biosynthesis of mono-and di- nucleotide, but its role as Adipokine
is insulin- like effect that Induces glucose uptake by muscle and
fat cells and reduction in release of glucose from liver with a
different mechanism from insulin and by binding to insulin
receptors in different position from insulin position (Fernandez.,
2007). Visfatin activates the insulin receptor and makes a major
insulin-like effect in vitro and in vivo (Karalisch., 2005). Hence,
given that physical activity has an insulin-like effect, In fact,
exercise can increase translocase of glucose transporters (GLUTS)
to the cell surface, Visfatin also has the same effect with this
mechanism; more likely exercise should lead to increase in visfatin
concentration. However, long duration exercises can induce increase
in visfatin concentration
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Giti et al 5
by reduce body weight and body fat percentage (Trayhurn &
Wood., 2004). Results of Dominik (2006) study are consistent with
results of present study. These researchers showed that exercise
has no significant effect on visfatin of type 1 diabetic patients
(Dominik., 2006). The reason of same results can be due to equal
intensity prescribed for those patients and subjects of present
study. Results of present study showed that two months aerobic
training has no significant effect on reduction of total
cholesterol. Findings of some researchers (for example Kraus et al
2002 and Altena et al 2006) are inconsistence with present study
(Kraus et al., 2002 & Altena et al., 2006). Low-density
lipoprotein is the main carrier of cholesterol in plasma.
Cholesterol by full endocytosis of low-density lipoprotein
delivered the cells. This kind of endocytosis is most abundant than
endocytosis of other lipoproteins. Low-density lipoproteins
normally carry 60 to 80 percent of plasmatic cholesterol and have a
high tendency to stick to the walls of the arteries (Vuorimaa et
al., 2005). Cholesterol sediment in the artery wall caused the
growth of smooth muscle cells of the artery wall under sediment
location and absorption of fibroblasts (they accelerate the blood
clots in the that region) and If this action operated in coronary
vessels supplier blood to heart tissue, it may prevents adequate
oxygen reaching the heart tissue, which may lead to myocardial
infarction or necrosis in the region of the heart (Song., 2008).
Short-term response of plasma cholesterol to exercise seems to be
different between males and females. High- density lipoprotein
cholesterol in men typically increases, while the total cholesterol
reduces in women. 1200 to 2200 kcal of energy expenditure per week
creates favorable changes in high- density lipoprotein cholesterol
(Vasankari et al., 1998). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol
increases when intensity resistance training is moderate and
number
of repetitions is high, in compared with the high intensity and
low repetition. Plasmatic concentration of fat in people who train
aerobic exercises is low so that they are less exposed to the risk
of atherosclerosis than other. In sum, they have healthy lipid
profile (Vasankari et al., 1998). Results of present study showed
that high density lipoprotein had no significant change after two
months aerobic training. Vasankari et al (1998) in review the
effects of 10 months aerobic exercise training program on the
oxidation of low- density lipoprotein cholesterol and other risk
factors of blood fats (Vasankari et al., 1998). Results of some
researches such as Kraus et al (2002) in review the effect of
intensity and duration of training on plasmatic lipoprotein (Kraus
et al., 2002), Varma (2007) in review the effect of acute Long-
duration exercise on oxidation of low-density lipoprotein of
healthy men (Varma., 2007) and Altena et al (2006) in review the
changes of low-density lipoprotein, high density lipoprotein and
other related risk factors after four weeks of exercise with
intensity of 70 % maximum heart rate (Altena et al., 2006) are in
contrast with results of present study. The difference in results
of studies could be due to different factors such as exercise
intensity, exercise duration, gender and total calories consumed
per session exercise or total training period. One reason for the
conflicting results of the present study with study of Kraus et al
could be due to training duration so that in present study training
duration was two months but in study of Kraus et al training
duration was eight months, Thus likely higher exercise duration is
more likely to increase the high density lipoprotein. Conclusion
Given that the major contribution to the treatment and control of
diseases is upon to people of society and many factors such as
proper exercise can affect diseases, learn how to correctly perform
the exercise
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6 The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total
Cholesterol
is a necessity. But value of an education is depends on its
influence and change or creation of health behavior; and changing
behavior is not a goal that is easily attainable. Recently, aerobic
exercise and resistance training have been considered as effective
and safe therapeutic tool in the treatment of many diseases.
According to the reports, these experimental interventions are
effective like drugs and dietary supplements in daily energy
consumption, increased insulin sensitivity, self-sufficiency and
quality of life (Trayhurn & Wood., 2004). Also exercises have
potential to increase muscle strength, fat free mass, bone mineral
density, and reduce joint symptoms that can have relatively rapid
improvement in functional status. The person will get the reward
for his/her effort and his confidence increased. Because usually in
per training session several exercises can be done, some consider
it more varied and less boring. Base on results of present study
eight weeks aerobic training with intensity of 55- 65 percentage of
maximum heart rate has no significant effect on increase of
visfatin, reduction of cholesterol and increase of high density
lipoprotein. So it is recommended for non-athletes and middle-aged
people that use aerobic exercise with higher duration for control
factors affecting cardiovascular health. References Altena T.S,
Michaelson J.L, Ball S.D,
Guilford B.L, & Thomas T.R. (2006). Lipoprotein Subfraction
Changes after Continuous or Intermittent Exercise Training. Med Sci
Sports Exerc, 38 (2): 367- 372.
Bermejo M. (2006). Serum Visfatin Increases With Progressive
B-Cell Deterioration. Diabets, 55: 2871- 2875.
Berndt J. (2005). Plasma Visfatin Concentrations and Fat Depot-
Specific mRNA Expression in humans. Diabetes, 54: 2911- 2916.
Claudio P. (2006). Reduced Plasma Visfatin/pre-B Cell Colony
Enhancing Factor in Obesity is not Related Insulin Resistance in
Humans. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 9
(8): 3165- 3170.
Dahi T. (2007). Increased Expression of Visfatin in Macrophages
of Human Unstable Carotid and Coronery Atherosclerosis Possible
Role in Inflammation and Destabilization. Circulation, 115: 972-
980.
Dominik G. (2006). Exercise Training Lowers Plasma Visfatin
Concentrations in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes. The Journal of
Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 91 (11): 4702- 4704.
Dominik G.H. (2006). Free Fatty Acids Normalize a Rosiglitazone-
Induced Vsfatin Release. A M J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 291: 885-
890.
Fernandez Real J. (2007). Circulating Visfatin is Associated
With Parameteers of Iron Metabolism In Subjects With Altered
Glucose Tolerance. Diabetes Care, 30: 616- 621.
Frydeland-Larson L. (2006). Visfatin mRNA Expression in Human
Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue is Regulated by Exercise. AM J Physiol
Endocrinol Metab, 292: 24- 31.
Karalisch S. (2005). Hormonal Regulation of the Novel
Adipocytokine Visfatin in 3t3- l1 Adipocytes. Journal of
Endocrinology, 185: 1- 8.
Kowalska I. (2007). Serum Visfatin in Relation to Insulin
Resistance and Markers of Hyperandrogenism in Lean and Obese Women
With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Humman Reproduction, 22 (7): 1824-
1829.
Kraus W.E, Houmard J.A, Duscha B.D, Knetzger K.J, Wharton M.B,
McCartney J.S, Bales C.W, Henes S, Samsa G.P, Otvos J.D, Kulkarni
K.R, & Slentz C.A. (2002). Effects of the Amount and Intensity
of Exercise on Plasma Lipoproteins. N Engl J Med, 347 (19): 1483-
1492.
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Mastorakos G. (2007). The Role of Dipocytokines in Insulin
Resistance in Normal Pregnancy Visfatin Concentvatians in Early
Pregnancy Predict Insulin Sensitivity. Endocrinology and
Metabolism. Clinical Chemistry, 55: 1477- 1483.
Moschen A. (2007). Visfatin An Adipocytokine with
Proinflammatory and Immunomodulating Propertis. The Journal of
Immunology, 178: 1748- 1758.
Nikkil E.A, Kuusi T, & Myllynen P. (1980). High Density
Lipoprotein and Apolipoprotein A During Physical Inactivity.
Demonstration at Low Levels in Patients with Spine Fracture.
Atherosclerosis, 37 (3): 457- 462.
Ring- Dimitriou S, Von Duvillard S.P, Paulweber B, Stadlmann M,
Lemura L.M, Peak K, & Mueller E. (2007). Nine Months Aerobic
Fitness Induced Changes on Blood Lipids and Lipoproteins in
Untrained Subjects Versus Controls. Eur J Appl Physiol, 99 (3):
291- 299.
Song H. (2008). Visfatin: A New Player in Mesangial Cell
Physiology and Diabetic Nephropaty. AM J Physiolo Renal Physiol,
295: 1485- 1494.
Trayhurn P, & Wood I.S. (2004). Adipokines: Inflammation and
the Pleiotropic Role of White Adipose Tissue. British Journal of
Nutrition, 92: 347- 355.
Varma V. (2007). Human Visfatin Expression: Relation to Insulin
Sensitivity, Intramyocellular Lipids and Inflammation. Jclin
Endocrinol Metab, 92: 666- 672.
Vasankari T.J, Kujala U.M, Vasankari T.M, & Ahotupa M.
(1998). Reduced Oxidized LDL Levels after A 10- Month Exercise
Program. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30 (10): 1496- 1501.
Vuorimaa T, Ahotupa M, Irjala K, & Vasankari T. (2005).
Acute Prolonged Exercise Reduces Moderately Oxidized LDL in Healthy
Men. Int J Sports Med, 26 (6): 420- 425.
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Nikbakht et al 16
Effects of Resistance Training on Some of Systemic Inflammatory
Markers in Overweight Men
Nikbakht, H;1 Gaini, A;2 Mohamadzadeh Salamat, KH1 1Department
of Exercise Physiology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Tehran, Iran 2Department of Exercise Physiology, Tehran
University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract Physical fitness has an inverse correlation with
systemic inflammation. This essence show that anti inflammatory
effects of physical activity my explain some of its beneficial
influences on body systems. Then, regarding to the effects of
physical training on biochemical and physiological aspects in
human, this present study attempted to investigate the effect of
resistance training on some of systemic inflammatory markers in
overweight men. Accordingly, twenty one healthy overweight
(BMI=28.56 2.67) yang (22.312.42) students were volunteered to
participate and randomly divided into two groups: Resistance
training group (n=11) and non-exercising control group (n=10). The
training group performed a progressive 8-week resistance training
3session/wk at about 50 to 80 % of one repeated maximum (1RM).
Prior to and after the training program, a blood sample was
collected from the subjects in order to measure Interlukine-1 beta
(IL-1 ) and C reactive protein (CRP). Results of two-way ANOVA for
repeated measures showed that following 8-week resistance training,
a significant difference was found in CRP (P= 0/001), but not in
case of IL-1 (p>0.05). In term of between group comparison
significant difference was found only in CRP (P= 0/014). Generally,
it can be conclude that exercise training decreases some of
systemic inflammatory markers in overweight men. Mohamadzadeh
Salamat, KH ( ) Kh.mohamadzadeh@ iausdj.ac.ir
Key words: inflammation, exercise training, overweight
Introduction Over the past two decades, the response of the
inflammatory markers to exercise and sport has evolved into a topic
of significant interest to both health and sport professionals.
Monocytes, endothelial cells, brain, muscle cells, adipocytes and
many of the other body tissues can be the source of systemic
inflammatory markers (Widlansky et al., 2003). Systemic
inflammation can be the symptom of overflowing local
preinflammatory factors such as preinflammatory cytokines, adhesion
molecules and acute phase proteins. These factors can influence
physiological and biochemical activities of body tissues and organs
(Bruunsgaard., 2005). However, increased inflammation has also been
associated with increased adipose tissue deposits and insulin
resistance (Arner., 2005). Both systemic and local inflammation has
been suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis and
progression of the disease (Feldman et al., 2000). In the other
hand, physical activity has a protective and preventive role for
various diseases. Its likely that reducing of systemic inflammatory
markers to be partly of the effects of physical training in
protecting
ORGINAL ARTICLE
Researcher in Sport Science Quarterly 2011, 2 (3): 16- 21
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Nikhbakht et al 17
body against precious occurrence of many diseases such as,
cardiovascular events, cancer, type 2 diabetes mellitus, pulmonary
chronic disease and Alzheimer (Bruunsgaard., 2005). Studies had
showed that systemic inflammatory responses to exercise dependence
on intensity, duration and exercising muscle mass (Pedersen &
Fischer., 2007). Its seems that chronically performing physical
activity cause to decrease IL-1 and IL-6 and this is independent of
gender, age, smoking, body mass index, total cholesterol, blood
glucose and hypertension (Panagiotakoset al., 2005). Probable
therapeutic role of physical activity has been evaluated in many
control trails (Nicklas et al., 2008; Okita et al., 2004).
Accordingly, its possible that CRP can be influenced by long term
physical training. Furthermore, there is lack of clarity in term of
effects of exercise training on preinflammatory cytokines, insofar
as; some studies reported a decrease in IL-1 and CRP (Balducci et
al., 2009; Donges et al., 2010; Kadoglou et al., 2007; Kasapis
& Thompson., 2005), while other studies couldnt achieve to such
results (Andersson et al., 2010; Gray et al., 2009; Huffman et al.,
2008). However, in
overweight people specially the effect of exercise training on
inflammatory markers to be determined. This study was designed to
establish to the effect of moderate circuit resistance training on
some of systemic inflammatory markers (IL-1 , CRP) in untrained
overweight men.
Methods Participants Twenty one overweight (BMI= 28.56 2.67
kg/m2) student were volunteered to participate in present study.
They became fully aware from the study objectives, procedures and
possible risks. Participants had not any regular training one year
before study commence. They were randomly divided to a resistance
training group (n=11) and a non-exercising control group (n=10).
Then, the Participants were homogeneous according to body mass
index (BMI), maximum oxygen consumption and age (Table 1).
Moreover, according to the nutrition and calorie intake influences
on systemic inflammatory markers, subjects daily nutrition data
were documented and analyzed via reminiscent questionnaire.
Recommend have been gave to the subjects in case of remarkable
differences in calorie intake.
Physiological measurements Firstly, Participants characteristics
measured in a week prior to training program commence. In the
following day, their maximum oxygen consumption was
measured using treadmill (TechnoGym, Italy) modified Bruce
protocol. Body fat percent was indirectly measured using caliper
(Laffayette, 01127 mod, USA) and Jackson-Pollock 3-point (abdomen,
super
Table1. Characteristics of participants before training.
variable Resistance
training Control t p
Age year 21.76 2.73 22.872.12 0.686 0.56 Height cm 179.333.74
176.224.34 1.321 0.21 Weight kg 2.8670.73 3.0674.95 2.47 0.29 Body
fat % 27.353.35 28.854.82 0.34 0.85 BMI kg/m2 29.281.92 27.883.42
1.34 0.18 VO2max ml.kg-1.min-1
35.373.59 36.413.29 0.79 0.62
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18 Effects of Resistance Training on Some of Systemic
Inflammatory
iliac and triceps) method. Participants one repeated maximum was
measured for nine movements including bench press, biceps and
triceps barbell curl, seated cable row, squat, leg press, leg
extension, lying leg curl and decline crunch via the Brzycky method
(Heyward., 2002). It should be noted that all the measurement was
performed at 9 to 12 am.
Training Program The experimental group accomplished an 8-week
resistive weight training 3sessions/wk. Control group only
participated in daily activities. Briefly, the resistance training
group performed a 5-minute jogging as warm-up and finished daily
training with range of motion (ROM) in order to cooling down. The
training program was including mentioned nine circuit resistance
exercises which started with 50% of each subjects 1RM at the first
week. Resistance training group performed 3set/sission in which
8-12 rep/set in first three weeks, 10 rep/set in fourth and fifth
weeks and 6-8 rep/set in last two weeks. 1-2min and 3-5min resting
period was applied between exercises and sets, respectively. Weekly
training intensity increased 5% of participants 1RM in order to
applying overload. For considering the probable strength
improvement, participants new 1RM record measured for all nine
exercises in the fourth week and training protocol continued with
these new percents of 1RM. Participants trained with 85% of their
1RM in the last training session. The resistance training sessions
was performed on Sundays and Tuesdays, and Wednesdays at 5 pm.
Biochemical Measurements Two days prior to the training program,
the subjects attended hematology lab in Kurdistan University of
medical sciences for a blood sampling. Lap technicians sampled 10ml
from left hand antecubital vein in fasting state. Blood samples
were collected into pre-chilled tubes, containing
either EDTA and centrifuged at 2500-2700 rpm g at 4C for 10 min
order to plasma, serum and cell severance. After blood sampling and
severance, serum and plasma samples were kept at -80 until
analysis. The same procedure was followed 72h after last training
session. Besides, ELISA kits (Bender MedSystems, Norway) were used
to measure interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 ) and ELISA kits (Monobined,
USA) were used to measure high sensitive C-reactive protein
(hs-CRP) according manufacturer instructions. ELISA reader
(Awaneness, Technology co, USA) was used to read ELISA kits. For
the measurement of IL-
, the within-assay CVs were 4.8% and 5.6 for CRP. Data Analysis
The data are presented as mean SD. Descriptive statistics was used
to calculate mean and standard deviation of descriptive variables.
Normality of distribution was tested with Kolmogorov-smirnov test.
Levens test was applied to survey the homogeneous variances of
variables distribution. Data were analyzed for main effects using a
two-way ANOVA for repeated measures. All data analysis was done via
SPSS16 for windows and Microsoft excel 2003. Results Results of
two-way ANOVA for repeated measures showed eight weeks of
resistance training induced significant decreases in the
concentrations of CRP, whereas no changes were found for IL-1
levels. Also between group analyses indicate that there is a
significant deference in CRP but not in case of IL-1 (table2).
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Nikbakht et al 19
Table2. Variables meanSD in baseline and after resistance
training.
variable group Pretest(Mean SD) posttest(Mean SD)
IL-1 (pg/ml) resistance
training 2.340.51 2.320.41
control 2.340.54 2.440.45
CRP (microg/ml) resistance
training 1.890.54 1.110.32
control 1.960.49 1.950.39 IL-1 , Interlukine-1 beta; CRP, C
reactive protein.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Endurance training ControlGroup
Figure 1. Pre- and posttraining values in comparison of two
groups in case of CRP. *Discernible differences at
p < 0.05.
CRP
(mic
rog/
ml)
pre-test post-test
*
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Endurance training ControlGroup
Figure 2. Pre- and posttraining values in comparison of two
groups in case of IL-1 .
IL-1
(pg/
ml)
pre-test post-test
Discussion Results of this study didnt showed remarkable
deference in IL-1 in case of between and within subjects
comparisons ( F(1,20)=0.173, P=0.682, 2= 0.009). Eta square ( 2) is
expresser of training effect sizes on variables. Result was showed
that resistance training describe only %0.9 of IL-1 variations.
According to Cohen (1988) scale this effect size is inconsiderable
(Cohen., 1988). Various studies exerted that there is a close
relationship between exercise and cytokine concentration (Helge.,
2003; Hiscock et al., 2004; Kimura et al., 2001; Moldoveanu et al.,
2000). Similar to our study results, Ferriera et al (2009)
comperhended that 10 week circuet resistance training couldnt
significantly change IL-1 values (Ferreira et al., 2009).
Many of cytokines such as IL-1 TNF- and IFN- can induce
inflammatory status and increase allergic components such as
prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) (Ostrowski et al., 2000). C reactive
protein (CRP) is the most form of acute phase protein that release
in response of surgery, tissue damage, inflammation and exercise.
The half life of CRP is about 19h and its release from hepatocytes
primarily is under control of IL-6, IL-1, alpha tumor necrosis
factor (TNF- ) and other cytokines. In present study there was a
significant difference between the resistance training group and
control (F(1,20)=18.445, P=0.001 & 2= 0.493). Herein, Eta
esquire showed that resistance training describe about %49 of CRP
variations. According to Cohen (1988) scale this effect size is a
big one (Cohen.,
-
20 Effects of Resistance Training on Some of Systemic
Inflammatory
1988). Also resistance training group showed significant
decrease in CRP after training in compared to baseline
(F(1,20)=7.266, P=0/014). Generally, physical activity and exercise
has short time inflammatory responses, while long time exercise
training has a long time anti-inflammatory effects on human body
(Kasapis & Thompson., 2005). Ten week resistance or aerobic
training induced a significant decrease in CRP but not in case of
IL-6 (Donges et al., 2010). In the other study resistance training
couldnt decrease CRP concentration (Levinger et al., 2009). Some
studies belief that decrease of adipocyte is the mechanism of CRP
decrement. Herein, decrease in body fat may causes to decrease of
IL-6 in adipocytes as one of the main source of cytokines. Herein,
regarding to the stimulatory effect of IL-6 on CRP release on
hepatocytes, IL-6 decrement could be inducing decrease in liver CRP
release. In conclusion, regarding to this study results we can
exert that resistance training will be able to improve systemic
inflammatory environment via declining CRP until cytokines.
According to the role of CRP in expectancy future cardiovascular
disease, this result can be important.
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Nilsson TK., Hallmans G., Boman K. (2010). Effects of heavy
endurance physical exercise on inflammatory markers in
non-athletes. Atherosclerosis. 209(2):601-605.
Arner P. (2005). Insulin resistance in type-2 diabetes role of
the adipokines. Curr Mol Med. 5(3):333-339.
Balducci S., Zanuso S., Nicolucci A., Fernando F. (2009).
Anti-inflammatory effect of exercise training in subjects with type
2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome is dependent on exercise
modalities and independent of weight
loss. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 20(8):608-617.
Bruunsgaard H. (2005). Physical activity and modulation of
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Cohen J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral
sciences (2nd ed.)Academic Press, New York.
Donges CW., Duffield R., Drinkwater EJ. (2010). Effects of
Resistance or Aerobic Exercise Training on Interleukin- 6,
C-Reactive Protein, and Body Composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
42(2):304-313.
Feldman AM., Combes A., Wagner D. (2000). The role of tumor
necrosis factor in the pathophysiology of heart failure. J Am Coll
Cardiol. 35(3):537-544.
Ferreira FC., Medeiros AI., Nicioli C., Nunes JED., Shiguemoto
GE., Prestes J., et al (2009). Circuit resistance training in
sedentary women: body composition and serum cytokine levels. Appl
Physiol Nutr Metab; 35: 163171.
Gray SR., Baker G., Wright A., Fitzsimons CF., Mutrie N., Nimmo
MA. (2009). The effect of a 12 week walking intervention on markers
of insulin resistance and systemic inflammation. Prev Med.
48(1):39-44.
Helge J., Stallknecht B., Pedersen B., Galbo H., Kiens B.,
Richter E. (2003).The effect of graded exercise on Il-6 release and
glucose uptake in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 546(Pt
1):299-305.
Heyward VH. (2002). Advanced fitness assessment exercise
prescription. Human kinetics.p 128.
Hiscock N., Chan MH., Bisucci T., Darby IA., Febbraio MA.
(2004). Skeletal myocytes are a source of interleukin-6 mRNA
expression and protein release during contraction: evidence of
fiber type specificity. FASEB J. 18, 992-994.
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Huffman KM., Slentz CA., Bales CW., Houmard JA., Kraus WE.
(2008). Relationship between adipose tissue and cytokine responses
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Kadoglou NP., Iliadis F., Angelopoulou N., Perrea D., Ampatzidis
G., Liapis et al (2007). The anti-inflammatory effects of exercise
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Kasapis C., Thompson PD. (2005). The Effects of Physical
Activity on Serum C-Reactive Protein and Inflammatory Markers. J of
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Kimura H., Suzui M., Nagao F., Matsumoto K. (2001). Highly
sensitive determination of plasma cytokines by time-resolved
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interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha), Tumor necrosis factor alpha
(TNF-alpha), and Interferon Gamma (IFN gamma). Anal Sci.
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Levinger I, Goodman C, Peake J, Garnhamt A, Hare DL, Jerums G.,
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in individuals with metabolic risk factors. Diabet Med; 26:
220-229.
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-
Nikbakht et al 22
Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill
Performance
in Young Soccer Players Mohebbi, H;1 Rahnama, N;2 Moghadassi,
M;3 Ranjbar, K1 1 Department of Exercise Physiology, Guilan
University, Guilan. Ira 2 Department of Physical Education, Esfahan
University, Esfahan, Iran 3 Department of Exercise Physiology
Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran
Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the effect of
creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young
soccer players. Seventeen young soccer players (mean age: 17.18
1.37 y, mean high: 169.6 6.17 cm and mean weight: 61.67 1.37 kg)
participated in this study. Subjects were assigned to either a
creatine (5 g of Cr, 4 times per day for 7 days) or a placebo group
(same dosage of a glucose polymer) using a double-blind research
design. Subjects performed a repeated sprint test, a dribble and an
accuracy of shooting to a target zone tests, before and after
supplementation. Results showed that the weight and lean body mass
increased significantly in the creatine group (P
-
Mohebbi et al 23
effects of oral creatine-monohydrate supplementation on specific
performance in sport such as soccer (Ostojic., 2004). Therefore, it
is possible that creatine supplement use in improving performance
of soccer players be effective. Performance improve of speed and
skill in different fields of sports such as wrestling, sprinting
and volleyball and after complementary use of creatine have been
experimented (Volek et al., 2001; Delecluse et al., 2003; Koak
& Karli., 2003; Mohamed Ebrahim 2010). For example Preen and
his colleagues (Preen et al., 2001) reported that consumption of 20
g creatine per day for 5 days improves the performance of
repetitive of short-duration and rapid cycling. Also Gaeeni and his
colleagues (Gaeeni et al., 2009) reported that short term use of
creatine supplement has a significant effect on short term running
(20 and 40 meters), long term running (60 and 100 meters), interval
speed endurance running (30 fast running in 5 seconds with 10
seconds of rest between each running) and muscle strength (1-RM in
knee extension) of wrestlers. The effect of this supplementation on
performance of speed and skill of soccer players is not clear. Some
studies have reported the soccer speed improvement after taking a
course of creatine (Mujika et al., 2000) while in other research
taking creatine on performance speed and precision ball kicking of
football players was ineffective (Cox et al., 2002). Lack of
studies regarding the effect of creatine supplementation on
performance in soccer skill and little attention to the effect of
creatine supplementation in speed and performance skills of young
soccer players and the importance of these variables in soccer led
to the current study investigating the effect of creatine
supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young soccer
players.
Methods Subjects In this experiment 17 young soccer players from
the squad of first batch were selected and they were organized (in
terms of endurance and speed performance, body mass index and
playing position) in two groups of creatine (n=8) and placebo
(n=9). Research design A double-blind research design was followed
to administer the creatine and placebo treatments. The creatine
group ingested four capsules content (5 g doses of creatine) per
day and placebo group ingested the same dosage of glucose polymer.
They were recommended to use the content of each capsule solved in
250 ml of lukewarm water or juice and consume with breakfast,
lunch, dinner and the last meal before sleeping. During the
supplementation, the subjects were asked to avoid consuming lots of
red meat and white and avoid materials containing caffeine and any
intensive activities. During the supplementation, the participants
practiced only soccer training (three sessions per week). Repeated
sprinting test and the skill test of dribble and accuracy of
shooting were performed before and after the supplementation.
Measurements Subjects' height and weight were recorded by height
measurement and standard digital scale respectively. Fat percentage
was measured by method of seven-point skin fold thickness (Jackson
& Pollock., 1985) and Lafayette caliper made in America and
millimeter accuracy were used to assess the maximum oxygen
consumption used in 12 minute (Cooper test) (Neiman., 1990). To
measure the speed repetitive sprinting test was used. Thus subjects
performed six distances of 15 meters sprint that were interspersed
by 30 seconds of recovery. The recovery was active rest (walking
slowly). Accuracy of shooting was measured, by kick a role ball
-
24 Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill
into a 0.8 2.3 meters target constructed in the center of goal.
Strike zone was constructed with dimensions of 1 1 meter then this
zone 7.0 meters away from the target. Subjects with a 5 / 5 meters
away from this area were located. Four balls were rolled from the
player right-hand side, and followed by four balls from the players
left-hands side. Balls were rolled at 6 seconds intervals. Players
were instructed to kick the ball with their dominant kicking foot
when it reached to strike zone. Between each ball strike, player
returned to a baseline position 5.5 meters behind the strike zone
before approaching the next ball. Subject repeated this procedure
until striking the ball eight. For every ball into the target, one
score for subjects was recorded. In the dribble test five cones on
a line with a distance 1 m between them were used. Starting point
was a 1 meter distance from the first cone. Each subject was
standing at the start point
while holding the ball under his dominant foot, by hearing the
whistle he began the dribble test with maximum speed, and in the
moment of passing the last cone, he return to the starting point
with his maximum speed. Time of performance was recorded by the
timer. Creatinine levels of subjects were measured before
performing the pretest and post test. For comparison in each group
the dependent t test was used and for comparison between groups
independent t-test was used at significant level of 0.05. Results
Profiles of subjects were presented in table 1. As can be seen
there arent significant differences (Where P in table 1) in aerobic
fitness and body mass index between creatine and placebo groups.
Therefore, the subjects were divided into two homogeneous
groups.
Table 1. Profiles of individual subjects (mean SD)
Creatine Placebo Age (yr) 17.381.18 171.5 Height (cm) 170.376.23
169.016.42 Weight (kg) 61.956.65 60.464.88 BMI (kg/m2) 21.302.01
21.181.76 Vo2max (ml/kg/min) 45.173.24 46.852.13
Result of in-group differences were presented in table 2. The
results showed that urinary creatinine in the creatine group had
significantly increased (P
-
Mohebbi et al 25
Table 2: Comparison of pre-test and post test one week after
taking creatine (mean SD)
*Significant difference (P
-
26 Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1placebocreatine
Chart 1: Comparing the difference of dribble between creatine
and placebo groups (second)
Discussion The aim of this study was to determine the effect of
creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young
soccer player. The results showed that the creatine group
significantly gained weight (2.71 percent). Various investigations
has observed that body weight after creatine supplementation is
increased about 0.5 to 3 kg (Mujika et al., 2000; Cox et al., 2002)
although this topic has not been confirmed by some studies (Kambis
& Pizzedaz., 2003; Mckenna et al., 1999]. Lean body mass
increased significantly in the creatine group. Researchers
announced that cause of increasing weight and lean body mass with
the use of creatine is increase of total body water (water
retention) possibly resulting from simple osmotic effects, sell
swelling, and consequent increase in protein synthesis. While some
studies have also reported that muscle protein anabolism after
creatine supplementation over the short term is due to decrease of
catabolism (Branch., 2003; Kilduff et al., 2004). Either reduction
loss or increase synthesis of protein muscle myofibril cause of
increased lean body mass after creatine is supplementation (Preen
et al., 2003). On the other hand, weight gain created in the
placebo group may be related to their body fluids is increased
(Preen et al., 2003; Falah Mohammadi et al., 2007), because the
subjects had been
recommended taking a lot of fluids during their research since
the creatine storage needs water. Other results of this study
showed that percent of body fat did not change significantly
between groups. Much of researches have shown that fat percent
doesnt change much after creatine supplementation (Cox et al.,
2002; Branch et al., 2003; Leenders et al., 1999; Sub Lim., 2003).
As was observed despite fat gain in both groups, there was no
significant difference between the two groups. Fat weight increase
in this study might be due to reduced volume and intensity of
exercise, started after the competitive season (in the rest
period). The results showed that speed of dribble increased
significantly in creatine group. In the creatine group, cause of
improve in the speed of dribble probably was due to increased speed
of the subjects that might be due to increased muscle
phosphocreatine and increase production of ATP (Mckenna et al.,
1999). In confirming this, Ostojic (Ostojic., 2004) also observed
that speed of dribble has improved in the creatine group after a
week (speed of 13 seconds to 10.2 seconds decreased). This study
showed that the speed of performance improved following creatine
intake, earlier researches are in line with this result (Gaeeni et
al., 2009; Mckenna et al., 1999; Falah Mohammadi
-
Mohebbi et al 27
et al., 2007; Burke et al., 2001). Improve in the speed
performance may be due to phosphocreatine re synthesis in the rest
between activities (Mujika et al., 2000) as well as improve
performance of phosphocreatine, as H+ buffer [20]. In contradiction
with the results of this study, speed performance is not improved
in other sports [Mckenna et al., 1999, Leenders et al., 1999). For
example Leenders et al. (Leenders et al., 1999) observed that two
weeks creatine supplementation does not affect swimming speed of
1025 yards women and men and as well as 650 meters with 30 seconds
in the rest between activities. The gender differences and age
differences in the samples as well as dose of creatine
supplementation may be the cause of contradiction to the
researchers. Mckenna et al. (Mckenna et al., 1999) also observed
that the speed in five 10 s maximal cycle ergo meter sprint with
rest intervals of 180, 50, 20, and 20 s after 4 weeks of creatine
supplementation compared to control group remains without change.
Finally, study results showed that the accuracy of shooting in
creatine group (17.4 percent) and placebo (14.72 percent) has
increased but this increase was not statistically significant and
also significant differences between the two groups was not
observed. The small increase in accuracy of shooting in the groups
was probably due to learning in the post test. The present results
confirm with Cox et al. (Cox et al., 2002) who observed that using
creative supplement for a week does not affect accuracy of shoot in
women's soccer. Thus the necessity of research on creatine
supplementation on longer period is recommended. In this study,
urinary creatinine as a marker of muscle creatine was used. Studies
have shown that creatinine excretion takes place only in conditions
when amount of creatine is stored in the body (Wilder et al.,
2004). The results indicated significant increases in urinary
creatinine in creatine group, thus its clear that creative
supplementation (20
g a day for 6 days) increased creatine levels in the body, and
despite the increased body weight, these supplements could cause
performance improvement in speed and skill of young soccer players.
Results from this study can concluded that short-term consumption
of creatine supplementation is effective in improvement of
performance, speed and skill of young soccer player. References
Branch, D. (2003). Effect of creatine
supplementation on body composition and performance: A
meta-analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 13(2): 198-228.
Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Davidson KS, Candow DG, Farthing J,
Smith-Palmer T. (2001). The effect of whey protein supplementation
with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance
training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength. Int J Sport Nutr
Exerc Metab. 11(3): 349-64.
Burke LM, Pyne DB, & Telford RD. (1996). Effect of oral
creatine supplementation on single effort sprint performance in
elite swimmer. Int J Sport Nutr. 6(3): 222-33.
Cox G, Mujika I, Tumilty D, & Burke L. (2002). Acute
creatine supplementation and performance during a field test
simulating match play in elite female soccer players. Int J Sport
Nutr Exerc Metab. 12(1): 33-46.
Delecluse C, Diels R, & Goris M. (2003). Effect of creatine
supplementation on intermittent sprint running performance in
highly trained athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 17(3): 446-54.
Falah Mohammadi, Z., V.A. Dabidi Roushan & Soltani, H.
(2007). The effect of creatine supplementation on blood lactate
after an intermittent exercise protocol in trained taekwondo
players. Olympic. 15: 45-53.
Gaeeni, A.A., E. Alidosteghahfarokhi, A. Ahmadi &
Aabolhasani, M. (2009).
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28 Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill
The effects of short term creatine supplementation in sprint
performance and muscular strength in wrestlers. Journal of Sport
Biosciences. 1(3): 77-92.
Hultman E, Sderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, & Greenhaff
PL. (1996). Muscle creatine loading in man. J Appl Physiol. 81(1):
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Jackson, A.S. & M.L. Pollock. (1985). Practical assessment
of body composition. Physician Sports med, 13:76-90.
Kambis, K.W. & Pizzedaz, S.K. (2003). Short-term creatine
supplementation improve maximum quadriceps contraction in women.
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 13(1): 87-96.
Kilduff LP, Georgiades E, James N, Minnion RH, Mitchell M,
Kingsmore D, & et al. (2004). The effect of creatine
supplementation on cardiovascular metabolic, and thermoregulatory
responses during exercise in the heat if endurance-trained humans.
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Koak S, & Karli U. (2003). Effects of high dose oral
creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers.
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Leenders NM, Lamb DR, & Nelson TE. (1999). Creatine
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251-62.
Mckenna, M.J., J. Morton, S.E. Selig & Snow, R.J. (1999).
Creatine supplementation increases muscle total creatine but not
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Mohamed Ebrahim, A.E. (2010). Impact of Load Muscle with
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the Level Digital for Racers 100 Meter Running. WJSS. 3:
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Mujika I, Padilla S, Ibaez J, Izquierdo M, & Gorostiaga E.
(2000). Creatine
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Neiman, D.C. (1990). Fitness and sports medicine. An
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Akbari et al 29
The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on
Cardiovascular Health and Socio- Economic State of Male Students
of
Islamic Azad University- Fars Science and Research Branch
Noura, M; Hosseini, S.A Department of Physical Education, Fars
Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars,
Iran
Abstract Field and aim: obesity is in parallel with raise in
risk of a lot of disease such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and
type two diabetes and has relation with lifestyle and socioe-
economic state. Aim of present study was evaluation the
relationship between obesity and effective factors on
cardiovascular health and socio-economic state of male students of
Islamic Azad university-Fars Branch Science and Technology.
Research method: For this purpose 785 individuals with mean age
20.83 1.72 year, height 174.50 6.48 centimeter and weight 71.11
12.35 kg) randomly selected among male student of Islamic Azad
university-Fars Branch Science and Technology. For measure Weight
and fat percentage used scale, and tape. Also socio-economic state
measured by using socio-economic state evaluation questionnaire
with acceptable reliability (r=0.75). For analysis of data, we used
Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficient. Findings: Results
showed there is significant positive relationship (r=0.19, p=0.001)
between body fat percentiles and resting blood pressure. Also, it
is obtained a significant negative relationship between waist to
hip percentile and cardiovascular fitness (r=0.23, p=0.001). But
did not Noura M ( ) [email protected]
observe significant relationship between obesity and
socioe-conomic state (r=0.01, p=0.001). Key words: Obesity;
Socioe-conomic State; Cardiovascular Fitness; Physical Activity
Introduction Obesity is defined as an excess of adipose tissue as a
result of excessive energy intake (Bouchard., 2000). Obesity
increases the risk of many diseases such as CAD, hypertension and
non-insulin dependent diabetes followed by early death (Bouchard.,
2000). In the second study in Western Samoa, it was determined that
inactive and sedentary individuals have more mean body mass index
(BMI) and more weight than people who are active (Hodge et al.,
1994). Evidence shows that any reduction of the total daily
physical activity may be an important factor in increasing body
weight in the western countries (Roland et al., 1998). Rowland and
Weinsier have reported a lack of physical activity as a major
factor in increasing prevalence of obesity in the modern societies
(Roland et al., 1998). Obesity and overweight are affected by other
factors such as socioeconomic conditions (Sallis et al., 1996). In
some states of America, inverse relationship between socioeconomic
status and obesity
ORGINAL ARTICLE
Researcher in Sport Science Quarterly 2011, 2 (3): 29- 40
-
30 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on
in 59,566 women has been reported (Oken et al., 1977). Similar
results in other studies of urban areas (Saelens et al., 2003, Wang
et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2007), suburban (Kyle et al., 2001) and
rural (Bove et al., 2006) areas have been reported by them. Studies
show that in rich countries, the prevalence of obesity in lower
social classes is higher than the higher classes of society, while
in the poor countries, the prevalence of obesity is higher in
higher social classes (Shimakawa et al., 1994). In other studies,
the relationship between socioeconomic factors and obesity has been
noted (Prentice et al., 1995, Singh et al., 2008). According to a
wide study made about the prevalence of obesity in 1999 in many
European countries, it was determined that the lowest prevalence of
obesity in all groups belongs to the people who have high social
rank and grade (Martinez et al., 1999). Goldblatt (1965) studied
over 1,660 people ranging in age from 20 to 59 residents of
Manhattan's six urban areas that mostly were white- skinned people
and found out that in the people with lower socioeconomic status,
overweight increases around 20%, while in women with a low
socioeconomic status, it is 6 times that of women with high
socioeconomic status (Goldblatt et al., 1965). Silverstone (1970)
has reported an inverse relationship between the obesity and
socioeconomic status (Silverstone et al 1970). However, results of
some studies contrast with the results from studies mentioned.
Vijayalakshmi et al (2002) and Wang et al (2006) in their study
showed that people with a good socioeconomic status, obesity is
higher. The findings of the study conducted by Merchant et al
(2007) and Popkin et al (1998) also show that individuals with
favorable economic conditions and/or with moderate to low economic
status were overweight, but there was no difference in amounts of
their obesity. These results obtained indicate that in both poor
and rich, there is the prevalence of obesity, and there is no
significant relationship between obesity and economic status
(Popkin et al., 1998, Merchant et al., 2007). While the prevalence
of obesity has increased over the past years, various measures
taken for preventing it have not been followed by considerable
successes (Oken et al., 1977). In Iran, according to studies,
overweight and obesity are higher than international standards
defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the
overweight and obesity have been reported more in girls more than
boys (Mosavi Jazayeri., 2005). Definitely, many researchers
reported obesity to have close ties with variables such as
lifestyle and patterns of physical activity and the spatial factors
such as age, gender, ethnicity and race and socioeconomic status
are involved (Kelly et al., 2006, Lohman et al., 2006, Kyle 2001).
Since the recent years, obesity and overweight has increased
dramatically in different communities and researchers believe that
obesity is a multi-dimensional phenomenon and non-biological
factors and cultural factors can also be effective in its
development. Also, considering the contradictions which exist in
different countries research results in view of the prevalence of
obesity as influenced by factors such as lifestyle and economic
situation, it is necessary to further study the issue raised and be
more accurate about this so that we are able to find a clear and
strategic view of the subject. Accordingly, the present study is
looking for determining levels of obesity in male students of Fars
Islamic Azad University, Fars Science and Research branch and it
attempts to answer this question that to what extent is the
relationship between obesity and cardiovascular factors affecting
the health of the socioeconomic status of the students? Methodology
This study is of the survey-correlation type and its statistical
society consists of all male students of Fars University of
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Noura et al 31
Science and Research (4616 people). The people in this community
sample are 785 subjects who were selected by using random sampling
with replacements. The total number of male students in the sample
amount was determined in Cochran formula. Measurement Tools
Socio-economic status was evaluated by a socio-economic status
assessment questionnaire. The content validity of the questionnaire
was reviewed by the professors of sociology and economics and then,
it was approved. For compiling it, using the three variables of
income, education and occupational status of parents were assessed.
All three variables necessary which are necessary for calculating
the index of socioeconomic status were scaled with the same weight
and scale and then they combined with each other in format of an
ascending equation. In order to address the probable shortcomings
of this questionnaire, 30 copies of the questionnaire being
studied, were distributed and collected in the study group. The
reliability of it was evaluated and the Korenbakhs alpha
coefficient was obtained as equal to 0.75, respectively. A digital
scale is used to read subjects weighing 160 kg with an accuracy of
0.1 kg, The DLT-411 model, which was made in Germany. The height of
the subjects was read by means of a wall length gauge device of
Sakka with an accuracy of 0.1 centimeters. Measures of heights were
read without wearing shoes and minimal clothing, while a person
standing motionless, with an accuracy of 100 grams. Measurement of
height without shoes were written down against the height metering
system which was mounted on the wall, and while the back of the
heel, hip and shoulder contacted the wall and with an accuracy of
1.0 cm. Waist of the subjects was measured by a muscle-bound tape
measure. The area between the lowest rib and iliac waist up to the
tip of the tail was measured three times and the average
was considered. Subjects and hip circumference were measured by
muscle-bound tape measure which was the most prominent area of the
buttocks. Subcutaneous fat subjects (for measuring percentage of
body fat) were measured by the caliper device made in Britain.
3-point formula was used in order to determine the amount of body
fat of the males (pectoral muscles, triceps and scapular). Systolic
blood pressure measurements of subjects were conducted after 10
minutes of relaxing and sitting by the use of digital barometer of
Hartmann Tensoval made in Germany. Measurements of
cardio-respiratory improvements the Cooper field test was used
which was running for 12 minutes. In this test, the subjects ran
for 12 minutes and the distance traveled by the subjects was
recorded. Then, the cardio-respiratory readiness or maximum oxygen
consumption of subjects were recorded in the following formula for
the distance traveled by each subject and the rate of their
cardio-respiratory amount of readiness was determined (American
College of Sports Medicine., 2005). Cardio-respiratory fitness
(VO2max) =
Statistical methods All the information obtained from variables
being measured was reported as the mean and standard deviation.
Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients were used to
determine the relationship between the variables studied. The
Korenbakh's Alpha test was used for internal consistency and
reliability coefficients. Significant level of analysis was done
for all p=0.05 all the calculations were performed using SPSS 15
software. Findings Presenting a definition of the general
characteristics of the subjects (mean of age, height and weight)
and also the results of statistical analysis of rest, the blood
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32 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on
pressure, cardio-respiratory readiness, body fat percentage,
waist to hip ratio and body mass index of subjects are presented in
Tables 1 and 2. In Table 3, percentile of cardio-respiratory
readiness is presented in Table 4, percentile of body fat and Table
5 presents the percentile of waist to hip ratio of subjects with
the dangers that put them at risks. Percentiles of percent body fat
with the standard of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
in terms of subjects gender and age, whom amongst them, those above
the 90th percentiles are underweight, those between 90 and 70
percentiles, are exposed to the risk of impotence, between 70 and
30 percentiles are at the normal state, between percentiles of 20
to 20 are overweight and less than 10th percentile were rated as
obese. The findings of this study showed that 19.1 percent of
students have high levels of the socio-economic conditions, 8.5
percent of them are overweight ones. While 16.7
percent of students with very low socio-economic conditions are
low-fat and 11.8 percent of them are overweight (Figure no.1).
Results of the Pearson correlation test showed a significant and
direct relationship between body fat percentile and resting times
blood pressure (p=0.001) and a significant inverse relationship
with cardio-respiratory readiness (p=0.001). A direct significant
relationship was observed between percentile ratio of waist to hip
ratio with resting time blood pressure (p=0.001). Also, a
significant inverse relationship (p=0.001) between
cardiac-respiratory readiness and this ratio were observed (Table
6). On the other hand, Spearmans correlation test results indicated
a lack of the significant relationship (p=0.63) between obesity and
socioeconomic status of the subjects (Table 7).
Table 1. Describes the general characteristics of subjects
Sex
Total Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg)
Male 785 1.72 20.83 6.48 174.50 71.11 12.35
Table 2. Description of Variables Item Variables Mean standard
deviation
1 Average blood pressure during rest
11.70 115.43
2 Average cardio-respiratory readiness
6.98 36.02
3 Average body fat percentage 6.61 15.49 4 Average body mass
index 3.66 23.32 5 Average waist to hip ratio 0.04 0.82
Table 3. Percentile of cardio-respiratory readiness (maximum
oxygen consumption) of the
subject Percentile (ml/kg of body weight/min) Total Percentile
10 (34.5) 332 Percentile 20 (37.1) 129 Percentile 30 (39.5) 93
Percentile 40 (41.0) 51 Percentile 50 (42.5) 49 Percentile 60
(44.2) 46
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Noura et al 33
Percentile 70 (46.8) 46 Percentile 80 (48.2) 8 Percentile 90
(51.4) 31
Table 4. Percentile of body fat of the subjects Percentile (the
percentage of body fat) Total Percentile 10 (25.9) 138 Percentile
20 (22.4) 83 Percentile 30 (19.5) 67
Percentile 40 (17.4) 41
Percentile 50 (15.9) 79
Percentile 60 (14.1) 93
Percentile 70 (11.8) 136
Percentile 80 (9.4) 95 Percentile 90 (7.1) 53
Table 5. Percentile of waist to hip ratio
No. The risks limit 443 Low (0.94)
Table 6. Pearson correlation coefficient between body fat and
waist to hip ratio, blood
pressure and at rest times cardio-respiratory readiness
Cardio-respiratory readiness
Resting blood pressure Variables
p=0.001* and r=0.19 p=0.001* and r=0.19 Body fat percentage P=
0.001* and r= -0.23 p=0.001* and r =0.19 Waist to Hip Ratio
* A significant relationship between variables in p
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34 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on
Figure 1. Frequency of obesity, overweight, normal weight and
slimness regarding the
students with higher and lower socio-economic status Discussion
Results showed that there is a significant relationship between
body fat percentile and blood pressure during resting times. The
Results of this study were all in line with the results obtained by
Martinez et al (2006). In their study, they found a significant
relationship between obesity and risk factors for cardiovascular
diseases (Martinez et al., 2006). The blood pressure is produced
through the force of blood against the walls of arteries and veins
and then, the heart pumps blood to all parts of the body.
Hypertension or high blood pressure refers to a situation during
which the blood pressure (systolic blood pressure and either both
or a diastolic blood pressure), the chronic level is desirable or
optimal. This situation occurs when the heart or the ability to
pump blood is low or high resistant against the blood vessels. Many
factors are involved in this to happen. Body fat increases
cholesterol levels and subsequent storage of triglyceride in our
body. In the body, the cholesterol is carried by high-density
lipoprotein (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) and very low
density lipoprotein (VLDL-C). In fact, LDL-C and VLDL-C, during
passage through the blood vessels, are attached to the walls of the
arteries and cause narrowing of the
vessels walls and subsequent rise in blood pressure are produced
(Moffat et al., 2005). However, sports activities in general, and
endurance exercises, in particular, can reduce both the rate and
the body fat and thereby, we can witness effects of the subsequent
decrease in blood pressure (Moffat et al., 2005). The results also
showed a significant inverse relationship between the body fat
percentiles with cardio-respiratory readiness. This relationship
confirms that while the percentile increases in the body fat,
cardio-respiratory readiness is reduced. Cardiovascular readiness
which is also called the cardio-respiratory endurance and
cardiovascular readiness is defined as the heart's ability to drive
a high volume of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles and the muscles
subsequently consume more and more oxygen. For this reason, the
best indicator in order to evaluate cardiovascular readiness
includes the measurement of breathing and the maximal oxygen
consumption. Sometimes, the indirect measures such as time and
distance and heart rate during exercise in endurance tests or
quickly return to heart rate during resting times is applied in
order to assess cardio-respiratory fitness (Bouchard., 2000). High
cardio-respiratory readiness or fitness will cause
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Noura et al 35
reduction of LDL-C and VLDL-C, blood pressure, anxiety,
depression, mental stress, and also the increased HDL-C, muscular
mass, endurance and strength, flexibility and the optimal use of
the leisure time ( Martinez et al., 1999). Fats are the dominant
metabolism in the long-term and moderate intensity aerobic
activities. These types of physical activities can improve
cardio-respiratory readiness (American College of Sports Medicine.,
2005). The results of this study showed a significant inverse
relationship between body fat percentile and cardio-respiratory
readiness. These results were in line with the results of Marshall
et al (2004). In their studies they stated all the activities
planned for the prevention of obesity and body fat as necessary
(Marshall et al., 2004). The results of Kyle et al (2001) showed
that while age is increased, the weight also increases and this
increase in weight in the middle-aged individuals has been due to
increasing levels of body fat mass (Kyle et al., 2001). Another
study found a significant relationship between the percentiles of
waist to hip ratio with blood pressure during rest times. Waist-hip
ratio is a comparison between waists circumference to hip
circumference. This ratio clearly shows the relative distribution
of body weight and probably the body fat in individuals (Lohman et
al., 2006). The pattern of body weight as an important predictor of
health risks of obesity has been identified. The individuals who
have more weight or body circumference are more at the risk
hypertension, type II diabetes, high blood fats and coronary artery
disease than those whose body weights are moderately distributed
(Sobal et al., 1989). Upper body obesity is associated with the
increased risk of mortality. An individual with the upper body
obesity carries more amount of weight in the upper body part in
comparison with the torso and buttocks and he/she has a higher
ratio of waist to
hip ratio compared to the lower body obesity (Sobal et al.,
1989). One of the indirect effects of increased waist to hip ratio
is increasing amount of blood pressure during resting times. As it
was previously mentioned in the above paragraph, one of the effects
of increased body fat is any increase of the LDL-C and VLDL-C
levels in the blood circulation (Metcalf et al., 2007). Studies
have shown that LDL can be deposited in artery walls and result in
making the blood vessels smaller, and this is accompanied by
increasing amounts of the blood pressure which enters into the
vessel wall from the direction of blood. Thus, the increased fat
around the waist has a direct relationship with the increased blood
pressure. In a study conducted by Roland et al (1998) 40 percent of
people with high fat around their waist had high blood pressure
(Roland et al., 1998). The research results are in line with the
results of Metcalf et al (2006). The researchers observed in their
study that in individuals with high blood pressure, the waist to
hip ratio is high (Metcalf et al., 2006). The results showed a
significant inverse relationship between the percentile of waist to
hip ratio with the cardio-respiratory readiness. Merchant et al
(2007) during 8 years of research conducted about Australian men
and women ranging from 15 to 24 years have approved that the
individuals with more fat in the lower back area have had lower
amount of cardio-respiratory readiness. These researchers concluded
that this was one of the most common causes of obesity in women is
the lack of regular participation in the physical exercises
(Merchant et al., 2007). Arnab Gosh (2006) measured body mass index
and waist to hip ratio in 500 men and women in Calcutta, India, the
effects of their habits, behavioral patterns and in their
socio-economic status with regards to inactivity and obesity and
showed that inactivity, and the direct relationship between
physical activity and exercise,
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36 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on
and obesity are all inversely related (Arnab Gosh., 2006). Jill
(2006) in his study of epidemic of obesity and impact of this on
health suggests that reduced physical activity will result in
cardio-respiratory readiness and the reduction is one of the main
factors affecting the obesity (Jill., 2006). Alicia B. Orden et al
(2006) in a study conducted in Argentina, concluded that their
lifestyle, eating habits and cardio-respiratory readiness developed
by physical exercises have an active role in preventing obesity and
excess fat in the waist and creating more weight and putting on
weight (Orden et al., 2006). America College of Sports Medicine
(2005) in a study entitled as the recommendations for exercise
testing has shown that physical activity results in the health of
women and men in all age groups and some of the advantages of
physical activity include: increased muscle strength, increased
ability of the cardiovascular system, the decreased blood pressure,
improvement of the bloods lipid levels, reduced body fat and
reduction of the incidence of type II of diabetes (America College
of Sports Medicine., 2005). The findings of this study indicate
that there is no significant relationship between obesity and
socio-economic status. In developed industrial societies, obesity
is related to the low socio-economic status. Strong evidence for
this has been demonstrated in the United States (Powell et al.,
2007, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services., 2008, Zhang et
al., 2007, LaFontaine., 2008), Australia (Sobal et al., 1989),
China (Woo et al., 1999), Finland (Neuvonen et al., 2007), France
(Lioret et al., 2007), Great Britain (Prentice et al., 1995), Italy
(Cota et al., 2001), New Zealand (Metcalf et al., 2007), Northern
Ireland (Sobal et al., 1989), Scotland (Lohman et al., 2006) and
Spain (Simmons et al., 2008). Several cases including education,
income, the socio-economic status and less physical activity, poor
nutrition and socio-psychological factors are effective elements
for obesity.
Obesity in people with low socio-economic status is more
prevalent because of low levels of awareness regarding the ways to
stay healthy, stronger belief in the effect of having chances on
health and lower levels of life expectancy (Moffat et al., 2005,
Irala-Estevez et al., 2000, Swallen et al., 2005). The rate of
obesity in some parts of the community with a better socio-economic
status is more in developing countries. Some evidences exist in
Brazil, Jordan, and Madagascar (Stunkard et al., 2003). It has been
suggested that the increase in obesity can be used in different
parts of the community in order to explain the state of its
development, because simultaneous with an increase in GDP of a
country, the obesity will be transferred toward a part or the
society with lower socio-economic status (Stunkard et al., 2003).
The findings of this study showed that there are no significant
relationships between obesity and socio-economic status. As
mentioned in the above sentences, many factors can increase both
the body fat and obesity; in fact, it can be stated that the
subjects of this study may have different physical activities and
sports activities, and this difference could affect the
relationship between obesity and the socio-economic status. In
addition, the amount of calories gained through a nutrition diet is
one of the other variables involved that can affect the
relationship between the anticipating variables (socio-economic
status) and the criteria (obesity) in this study (American College
of Sports Medicine., 2005). Brown et al (2009) in their study state
that the prevalence of obesity is lower in Asian Americans
populations because of consuming low-calorie foods and it has no
significant relationship with social- economic status (Brown et
al., 2009). Therefore, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(2009) in its research, states that the risk of obesity and being
overweight is affected by the environmental factors, dietary habits
and physical activity of the individuals as well
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Noura et al 37
as being affected by the environmental factors. Conclusion The
study results showed that there are no significant relationship
between the obesity and the socio-economic status. The prevalence
of obesity in Fars Islamic Azad University, Science and Research
Department was high compared with developing countries and this
should be considered a serious problem and public health strategies
should be applied in order to mitigate the negative attitudes
towards physical activity and to reduce television watching and to
promote a vast range of physical activities in order to increase
the levels of education, participation in physical activity and
other healthy behaviors. Given that universities have less physical
sports activities, our students are used to the bad habit of lack
of physical exercise and also being inactive in universities and
this habit still exists at home after graduating and they use most
of their time for doing sedentary activities or to rest. Emphasis
put on preventing from home-based programs is highly crucial to
reduce obesity in groups of socio-economic conditions diversity.
The findings of this study concluded that both elements of obesity
and overweight have direct relationship with cardiovascular risk
factors, while the maximum oxygen consumption or VO2max as the most
important indicator of cardio-respiratory readiness affected by
physical exercise both are inversely related. It is recommended
that the sports activities in leisure time should be considered as
important tasks and in line with the increase of spaces and sports
facilities, appropriate facilities should be provided for all the
students in order to engage in sports activities. Otherwise, we
will observe the prevalence of obesity and reduced health at the
cardiovascular level among the students. Acknowledgments
In view of the fact that this study was conducted in Islamic
Azad University, Fars Science and Research Branch, as a research
project entitled "comparison of obesity, physical activity and
cardio-respiratory readiness with the approach of socio-economic
statuses of both male and female students of Islamic Azad
University, Fars Science and Research Branch", hereby we appreciate
and express our acknowledgements regarding the financial supports
and the efforts of the Deputy of University Research who helped the
authors involved in this study. References: Alicia, B., Oyhenart ,
E., 2006, Prevalence
of Overweight and Obesity Among Guaran -Mbya From Misiones,
Argentina American Journal of Human Biology; 18:590599.
American College of Sports Medicine, 2005, ACSMs Guidelines for
Exercise Testing and Prescription Baltimore, MD: Lippincott,
Williams and Wilkins .
Arnab, Ghosh., 2006, Effects of Socio-Economic and Behavioral
Characteristics in Explaining Central Obesity A Study on Adult
Asian Indians in Calcutta, India. Coll. Antropol.;
30(2):265271.
Bouchard, C., 2000, Physical activi