University of Nigeria Research Publications UDEH, Cprian Nkoklonye Author PG /Ph.D/92/13568 Title Effect of two Instructional Strategies on Students Achievement and Retention in History of Education in Nigerian Colleges of Education Faculty Education Department Educational Foundation Date April, 1997
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University of Nigeria Research Publications
UDEH, Cprian Nkoklonye A
utho
r
PG /Ph.D/92/13568
Title
Effect of two Instructional Strategies on Students Achievement and Retention in History of Education
in Nigerian Colleges of Education
Facu
lty
Education
Dep
artm
ent
Educational Foundation
Dat
e
April, 1997
Sign
atur
e
TITLE PAGE
EFFECTS OF TWO INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ON STUDENTS' ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION
IN HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIAN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION
A THE IS PRESENTED TO THE 8 1
DEPARTMENT F EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
NSUKKA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY OF EDUCATION
NKOKELONYE, CYPRIAN UDEH PG/Ph. D/92/13568
4,
APRIL, 1997.
APPROVAL PAGE
THIS THESIS HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
INTERNAL EXAMINER
DEAN FACULTY OF EDUCATION
iii.
CERTIFICATION
Nkokelonye, Cyprian Udeh, a Postgraduate student in the Department of
Educational Foundations and with Registration Number PG/Ph.D/92/13568 has
satisfactorily completed the requirements for course and research work for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History of Education.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted
in part or full for any other Diploma or Degree of this or any other University.
Professor A. Ali. I Head of Department Supervisor
iv,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
While I take full responsibility for the shortcomings that may be found in this
work, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to some individuals who helped me
in one way or the other in the course of this study.
My thanks and gratitude first of all go to Professor A.Ali for his kindness,
tenderness of heart and fatherly attention as well as steadfastness in guiding,
directing and supervising this work. His sacrifice and concern for my progress are +
hereby placed on an ever green record. I also wish to express my gratitude to
Professor E.O. Okeem for his assistance, supervision and guidance.
I owe much gratitude and appreciation to the following Faculty members:
Dr. (Mrs.) U.N.V. Agwagah, Mrs. D.W. Dike, Professor R.N. Oranu, Dr. B.G.
Nworgu, Dr. N.J. Ogbazi, Dr. C.J.A. Onwuka and Dr. P.O. Nwaogu whose
constructive criticisms led to the improvement of this work.
I must not fail to express my gratitude to my colleagues who in one way or
the other offered invaluable assistance towards the successful completion of this
work. My thanks and gratitude also go to Mr. P.A. Nwigbo of College of Education : I t
Nsugbe, Mr. Richard ljeoma of Federal College of Education Asaba, Mr. Emele,
p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - L.0,Mr. Eya Cawrence, and ~ r . ~ z e Godwin of College of Education Eha-Amufu
v.
for their patience, kindness and faithfulness in administering the three tests,
conducting all the experiments and teaching the control groups. Dr. A.E.C.
Ogunna of Alvan lkoku College of Education must be remembered for his prompt
response in organising the Pilot study. The invaluable assistance given to me and.
personal sacrifices made on my behalf by individuals in the course of this study
are hereby heartily appreciated.
Finally, I must express my gratitude and appreciation to Almighty b
God for seeing me through this task, and to friends and well wishers whose
support and prayers made it possible for me to complete this work. To these 4
friends and well wishers I say thank you and God bless.
C.U.N.
Title page . Approval page
Certification Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Tables Abstract
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study Scope of the Studv Research Ouestions Hypotheses
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Theoretical and Philosophical basis of the Study Factors that Influence Students choice of courses in Schools and Colleges of Education Role of history in the education, socialisation and conscientization of the youth History of Education Curriculum in Nigerian Colleges of Education Methods and Media in Arts Instruction Methodwf teaching History Characteristics of learners (s?$dents variables) as a Basis for choosing Effe~t~teaching methods. Methods of Evaluating History of Education Lessons. Modern Methods And Techniques of teaching History of Education. Methods And Techniques (Strategies); Lecture and Discussion Method Lecture Method
vi.
Page
i II ... 111
i v v vi vii
1 1 6 7 8 10 1 1 1 1
13
14
1 6
2 2
2 5 2 9 2 9
3 7
4 6
4 9 50 5 6 5 6
Discussion Method Activity Method Empirical Literature on methods of teaching General History Details of Nnadozie's (1 982) Experiment . Summary
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Design Area of Study 4
Population of the Study Sample and Sampling Techniques Instruments for Data Collection Validity of the lnstruments Reliability of the lnstruments The Lesson Plan Training programme for teachers Conduct of the Study 4
Methods of Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Effects of Discussion and lecture methods on students' Achievement in History of Education Effects of Teaching Method on Retention Effects of Discussion Method on the Mean Achievement Scores of Male and female Students Effects of Discussion Method on the Mean Retention Scores of Male and Female Students Conclusion Educational Implications of the study Recommendations Limitations of the Study Suggestions for further Research Summary of the Study REFERENCES
APPENDICES Appendix A: List of Abbreviations
Appendix B: History of Education Achievement Test (HAT)
vii. 56 58
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
Appendix E:
Appendix F:
Appendix G :
Appendix H:
Appendix I:
Appendix J:
Appendix K:
Appendix L:
History of Education Retention Test (HIRET)
Marking Scheme for pre treatment and post treatment History Achievement Test
Marking Scheme for History Retention Test
Computer Programme for the study
List of Colleges Used in the Study -
Mean Scores and Standard Deviation of HAT Scores of Subjects * -
Mean Retention Scores and Standard Deviation of HIRET Scores of Subjects
Mean Achievement Scores and Standard Deviation of Scores of subjects due to treatment and Gender in HAT
Mean Retention Scores and Standard Deviation of scores of subjects due to treatment and Gender in HIRET
Lesson Plan
Instructional Procedure:
LIST OF TABLES
History of Education Sessional Examination Result Yaba College of Education, Yaba (1 993194).
History of Education Sessional Result:Federal College of Education Eha-Amufu (1 993-95).
History of Education Sessional Examination Result UNN (1991-94).
Research Des~gn
Sample Distribution of Respondents , The Test Blue Print
Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) between Covariates and their respective dependent variables.
Mean Scores of Subjects in HAT.
A Two-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) showing students' performance in HAT.
Mean Scores of Subjects in HIRET.
A Two-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) showing students' performance in HIRET.
Mean Achievement Scores of subjects due to treatment and gender in HAT.
Mean Retention Scores of Subjects due to Treatment and gender in HIRET.
ix.
Page
5
5
5
93
96
99
112
113
115
116
117
118.
121
~~~~
ABSTRACT
The importance of methodology in the attainment of educational goals
creates the need for continuous iesearch efforts directed at discovering more
effective instructional strategies. The present study is one of such research efforts.
%e study was conducted to ascertain the effect of Discussion and Lecture
methods on students' achievement and retention in history of education. The
effect of these teaching methods according to gender was also determined. Four
research questions and four hypotheses, were formulated to guide the study. The
study was a quasi - experimental research design. One experimental group and
one control group were used in each of the three Colleges of Education.
Purposive sampling and simple random sampling techniques were used to select
the 432 subjects for the study. Intact classes were randomly assigned to the
treatment and control groups. The study lasted for seven weeks. Two validated
research instruments and lesson plan were used. Data obtained from
administration of the instruments were summarised and analysed using mean
scores, standard deviation and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).
xi.
Major findings were as follows:
1. Discussion method was significantly more effective (P 0.05) in enhancing
students' attainment in history of education.
2. Students who were taught using discussion method achieved significantly
higher than those taught using lecture method.
3. Discussion method enhanced students' ability to retain concepts taught in
history of education. b
4. There was slight disparity due to female superiority in achievement.
Based on these findings, it was recommended among other things that
discussion method should be adopted in teaching history of education, that
governments and organisations concerned with education should organise
seminars and workshops to popularise discussion method of teaching.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study:
History of education is the study of factors and forces which influenced the
evolution and development of education in both time and space (Okobiah, 1986).
Onwuka (1983) defined it as the study of the various stages of growth and
development of the present education system from its origins in the past. It t
enables students to know the origins of educational developments and what is
behind a nation's educational principles and practices. It is now known that all
problems in education are the outcome of past mistakes (Nwuzor & Ocho, 1982).
There is hardly any new problem in education. The central problem of Greek 1 3 4
education which Socrates, Plato and Aristotle tried to solve was the problem of .
relevance which is still the central problem of Nigerian education today.
In their search for an education that was relevant, Greek philosophers
introduced historical, philosophical, psychological and sociological foundations
of education, (Boyd and King, 1975). Cicero and Quintilian used history of
education to produce morally upright and public spirited Romans on whose
shoulders rested the prolongation and perpetuation of Roman domination of the
world (Nwuzor and Ocho, 1982).
Did the great Roman Empire, the wealthiest, largest, the most flamboyant
and most powerful Empire the world has ever known not collapse thereby
bringing the ancient world to an end and plunged Western Europe into Dark Ages, .
because of utter neglect of adequate instructional strategies in history of
education (Boyd & King, 1975; Nwuzor & Ocho, 1982). The church in the Middle
Ages took the initiative and preserved education from total ruin and decay. Was
the church not broken, bruised
strategies in history of education
#
and battered when adequate instructional
were ignored, ridiculed and under- mined?
(Good, 1960, Boyd and King, 1975). Neglect of adequate instructional strategies
in history of education brought about the fall of Empires and Kingdoms (Clement,
1936, Guest, 1950). For the survival of the individual and the society, Nigeria
cannot afford to neglect adequate instructional strategies in history of education.
Without adequate instructional strategies, proper perspectives and illumination in
history of education, education in general becomes thin, shallow and rootless.
This is the rationale for this study particularly at this time - a time when men are
pepped into frenzy by science to the neglect of adequate instructional strategies
for the teaching of history of education. In most colleges of education, lecture
3
method is the dominant instructional strategy. It was lecture method with its
memorization and rote learning process that kept the world away from discoveries
and inventions from 476 AD to 800 AD, a period known in History as Dark Ages
(Guest, 1950, Buah, 1965). Time has come when history of education should
receive new emphasis, new impetus and new interpretation. There is need for a
prompt action to be taken by history educators to save the nation from going the
way of world empires and kingdoms.
But one distressing fact about historybf education is what Hegel observed:
The one thing one learns from history is that nobody ever learns anything from history. (Rowse, 1963: 18).
This is true of Nigeria today where lesson from history of education is not taken
seriously. This reduced emphasis and inadequate attention given to history of
Education and its methodology resulted in lack of seriousness in the subject by
students in tertiary institutions. (Nwosu, 1972, Nnadozie, 1982). One of the
reasons often adduced for this exodus is poor retention of what is learnt and
unimpressive methods used in teaching the subject (Nwosu, 1 972). For effective
teaching to occur there is need for teachers to possess the necessary skills, , \ , 4
knowledge of subject matter as well as the ability to select appropriate methods
from a variety of options. The success of any of these methods implies that the
4
objectives of history programme as stated in the National Policy on Education
(1981) are being realised. The objectives include inculcation of proper value
orientation for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society, as well as
inculcation of national consciousness and national unity (FME, 1981:8). But the .
present situation where students desert the subject massively (Nwosu, 1972) and
the few that remain perform poorly in examination (Adeyinka and Orebanjo, 1986)
and exhibit poor retention ability does not give much hope for the realisation of
b the national objectives. Records have shown that there is a general decline in the
number of passes in history examinations (Adeyinka and Orebanjo, 1986) not only
in secondary schools but also in history of education in colleges of education.
In tertiary institutions poor performance of students in history of education
examinations appears to be a continuation of the poor attainment in history
examinations at the secondary school level. History of education results in
selected tertiary institutions from 1990 to 1995 showed the seriousness of the
situation and the magnitude of
Table 1: History of Education
Education, Yaba 1 993194.
the problem. See Tables 1-3 below.
Sessional Examination Results, Yaba College of f 4
I No of Candidates 1 No of Passes I Failures I % P I % Failure I
Source: Onwuka, C. (1995) External Examiner, History of Education, Yaba.
Table 2: History of Education Sessional examination result Federal College of Education Eha-Amufu 1993-95.
Source: Eya Lawrence, 0. (1995), Office of Head of Department,Education, FCEE.
From Table 2 the number of failures each year exceeded the number of passes.
Session
1993194
Table 1 showed mass failure in the subject. Since only 10 students registered
for the course out of over 100 admissionsin 1993, mass exodus from the subject
was also established.
Table 3: History of Education Sessional Examination Result University of Nigeria Nsukka 1991-94.
Session No of No of Passes Failures % P % Failure Candidate
Source: W.J. Kalu (1995), Office of Coordinator, Arts Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
No of: No of Passes Candidate
Fiilures
343 610 267
% P
44
% Failure
56
6
Another research finding on factors responsible for mass failures in the
subject rated ineffective teaching methods very highly (Adeyinka, 1983). Many
opinions also agreed that majority of teachers use lecture method (Nwosu, 1972,
Adejumobi, 1978). Many researchers suggested the use of Discussion method.
(Osokoya, 1987). But there was no empirical basis for these suggestions. In view
of the above background information the present study is designed to determine
the effects of two teaching methods on students achievement and retention in b
history of education as a basis for comparing the effectiveness of the two
methods.
Statement of the Problem
Methods used by teachers are crucral to the achievement of national . , +
objectives and goals of history programme as specified by the Federal Ministry of
Education (FME, 1985) in the National Curriculum and the National Commission
for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 1990). Adeyinka (1983), Adeyinka and Orebanjo
(1986) stated that mass failure in the subject was due to inadequate teaching
methods and poor retention by students. However, no information has so far been
obtamed from field work to confirm the above claim in the area of History of
education in Colleges of Education. Therefore, the problem of this study is that
7
there is need to experimentally determine the relative efficacy and effectiveness
of two teaching methods-lecture method which is popular among teachers and
discussion method which is recommended by the 26 man panel on History
Curriculum without empirical basis (FMOE, 1985). Specifically, the problems
investigated are stated as follows:
Which of the two methods namely: lecture and discussion methods is
better and more effective in teaching history of education? Will students retain
b what is learnt better when they are taught using lecture method than when they
are taught using discussion method?
Purpose of the Study:
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the relative efficacy and
effectiveness of lecture and discussion methods in the teaching of history of
education in Colleges of Education. Specifically, the purpose of the study was:
1. To determine the effects of discussion and lecture methods on students
achievement in history of education.
2. To ascertain the extent discussion and lecture method affect studentsf
Retention of concepts taught in History of Education. I --"
3. To determine and compare the differences between the mean scores of
8
male and female students taught with discussion method and those taught
with lecture method in history of education achievement test.
4. To find out the differences in mean scores in Retention Test given to male
and female students in experimental and control groups.
Signiticance of the Study:
In teaching history of education, the history educator has several
pedagogical theories from philosophy and psychology at his disposal. Such #
philosophical theories include: progressivism and pragmatism. One of the major
tenets of progressivism is that discussion method rather than lecture method
should be used and that cooperation rather than competition should be
encouraged in teaching students. Pragmatism advocates learning by doing and
the use of many textbooks rather than one and that the teacher is a facilitator of
learning, not a lecturer. This work is important because it has called the attention
of academic historians to these forgotten educational principles and practices
which placed America in its present premier position (Okafor, 1984:322).
The study is also based on psychological theories. Four learning theories
exist (Ortyoyande, 1992)
Psychoanalytic theory
S - R theories
- Cognitive theories
Humanistic theories of learning
Of these four theories, S-R and Cognitive theories dominated the scene in 20th
century. S-R theories emphasize learning by doing. Cognitive theories emphasis
learning by discovery. Stimulus Response theories formed the psychological #
basis of this study. Its emphasis on motivation and reinforcement, laws of Exercise
or Practice Reward or praise are useful tools in the hands of academic historians
using discussion method.
Today, academic historians ignore these philosophical and psychological
theories as a basic framework for their selection of teaching method. The study
contributed to development of historical pedagogy and modern historiography by
highlighting the fact that choice of teaching method need not be mechanical but
must be based on sound theory.
The importance of the study lies in its removal of doubt on the
a ropriateness of lecture and discussion methods in teaching history of education. B The findings are expected to provide empirical knowledge to history educators at
the education system. The strategy which was found to be effective in improving
students' achievement and retention in colleges of education could by extension
be used by history teachers in secondary schools to improve achievement and
retention. This is so because obvious relationship exists between content and
structure of history of education and general history done in secondary schools.
This will help in redressing poor performance and retention in the subject.
Scope of the StudyILimitation:
+ This study covered only one subject area - history cf education in three
Colleges of Education. Teaching methods were classified by researchers in
different ways ranging from three (Gage, 1969), to eight (Bining and Bining, 1952)
and Adejumobi (1978). This study focused on lecture and discussion methods.
This decision was motivated by the fact that most teachers in colleges of
Education use \ecture method predominantly without scientific basis but merely
as a time honoured tradition or a social convention.
The study was limited to only two dependent and two independent
variables. History achievement test scores and history retention test score were
the two dependent variables while teaching methods and gender were the two
independent variables.
Research Questions:
1 . What are the effects of discussion and lecture methods of teaching on
students' achievement in history of education?
2. To what extent can discussion and lecture methods of teaching affect
Retention of concepts taught in history of education?
3. What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students @
taught history of education using lecture and discussion methods?
4.' What are the mean retention scores of male and female students taught
history education using lecture and discussion methods?
Hypotheses: I -,- >
The following four null hypotheses were formulated and tested in this
study at P r 0.05 level of significance.
1. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
students taught with discussidn method and those taught with lecture
method as measured by their History Achievement Test (HAT).
2. There is no significant difference in the retention scores of students taught
with discussion method and those taught using lecture methods as
measured by History Retention Test (HIRET).
3. There is no significant interaction of the teaching methods on students'
achievement as measured .by their mean scores in history of education
Achievement Test (HAT).
4. There is no significant interaction of teaching methods on students
Retention as measured by their mean scores in history of education
Retention Test (HIRET).
b
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The researcher is aware that a good literature review should combine a
theoretical framework with empirical studies. Therefore related literature was .
examined and organised under two major subheadings:
Theoretical (General Review) and Empirical Review.
Theoretical Review b
Theoretical and Philosophical basis of the study.
Factors that influence students choice of certain courses and subjects in
schools and colleges of education.
Role of history of education in socialisation, education and conscientisation
of the youth.
History of Education Curriculum.
Methods and media in Arts instruction - viz:
Methods of teaching history of education.
Empirical Review
Empirical literature on methods of teaching history of education.
Instructional materials for teaching history of education.
Retention.
Retention Studies on effects of gender differences on students
achievement.
Summary.
Theoretical and Philosophical basis of the study
The study is based on Piagetian theory of mental development. Piaget had
set age limits within which a child develops historical thinking. He suggested b
teaching methods that are appropriate to different age levels, (Nnadozie, 1982). ..
Piagetian stages apply to the development of historical understanding. From
twelve years upwards a child develops formal logical operations (critical thinking)
(Nwachukwu, 1992). Discussion method develops in children power of critical
thinking. From sixteen years upwards Discussion method should be used. This is
the age level of students in Colleges of Education and Universities. Piaget also
suggested that choice of teaching method should be based on the three most
important supportive learning theories:
Theory of Motivation.
Theory of Reward.
Theory of Practice.
15
This study is also based on these important learning theories. Of the four
psychological learrl~rly themes - Psychoanalytic, S - R theories, cognitive theor~es
and Humanistic Theory, only S-R and cognitive theories are applied in this work.
S.R. theories emphasise learning by doing (Discussion method); while cognitive
theories emphasise learning by discovery. Discussion method is closely related
to Discovery. Discussion can lead to discovery and discovery also leads to
discussion and debate. +
Most teachers ignore these psychological theories in their selection of
teaching method. This study contributes to the development of historical
pedagogy by reminding history educators that choice of instruct~onal 'strategy
need not be mechanical but should be based on sound theory. Apart from
psychological screening the work is also based on certain philosophical theories
and tenets. The most important philosophical theory relevant to this work is
Progressivism - a Pragmatist theory of education derived from pragmatist school
of philosophy. One of the major tenets of Progressivism is that Activity method
rather than lecture method should be used. In terms of methodology,
progressivism (pragmatism) advocates learning by doing. Discussion is learning
by doing. This study draws the attention of academic historians to these forgotten xu*
philosophical principles and practices.
Factors that influence students choice of certain courses and subjects in schools and colleges of education
Not much work has been done especially in this country to investigate the
factors which influence students performance and enrolment in specific subjects
in schools and colleges of education. Although, some scholars have conducted
researches in such areas as students attitudes to some subjects, none of those
studies has focused on effects of teaching methods on achievement and retention
since the launching of the new National Policy on Education. Attempts are made
in this review to identify some studies on achievement carried out on this and
related issues in Africa, Europe and America.
One of the earliest of such studies was the work done in America in 1950
by Shuey, A.M. of Randolph Macon Women's College U.S.A. His research *odic
was "choice of major subjects as Related to American Council Examination Scores
and College Grades." Over two thousand students were sampled for this study.
He came out with the finding that "choice of subject bears some relationship to
American Council Examination Scores and the grades of those enrolled in more
elementary courses (Shuey, 1950). Another study of similar nature was the
investigation conducted by a team of scholars between 1960 and 1972 in Oxford
17
University. I \ --,i
Their mterest centred on finding out whether high ability students are similar
in their choice of subjects. The members of the team broke into three study
groups. The first group headed by Peterson completed the study in 1960 and
came out with the findings that "no extreme Arts and Science differences exist" 4
among the students (Crowther, 1973).
The second group headed by Lewis of Education Department, New Castle
University worked between 1970 and 1971 and &me out with the finding that high
ability students concentrated on science subjects while medium ability (moderate
achievers) students had mixed subject combinations (Crowther, 1973).
The third group still from New Castle completed their work in 1972 and
upheld the findings by earlier researchers that high ability pupils concentrated on
science based subjects particularly Mathematics (Crowther, 1973).
Dole and Sherman (1964) from University of Hawaii, USA conducted a similar
research in 1964 and concluded that choice of science subjects by students in
Hawaii did not depend on any of the three ability levels (high ability, medium
ability and low ability). They were more influenced in their choice by aptitude,
interest in science and professional bias, and other personal and socio-economic
18
attributes especially high socio-economic status of the family (Ebadan, 1975: 14;
Dole, 1964).
Eze, (1964) carried out a similar investigation at Onitsha in the then' Eastern
Region of Nigeria. His purpose was to find out which subjects were the most
popular and wh~ch were most hated, variables influencing this position ad reasons
for students likes and dislikes of school subjects. His findings supported the views
of Dole and Sherma (1 964) of University of Hawaii. He concluded +
that certain factors and variables inside and outside the school influenced
students interest and choice of school subjects. He listed such factors as
utilitarianism, prestige, examination, teachers influence, parents expectations and
escape motive as key variables influencing their choices; likes and dislikes (Eze,
1 964).
Kleinfold (1972) studied the importance of teachers and parents in the
formation of Negro and White students academic self concept in Alaska University.
She came out with the findings that parental influence was greater on the white
students academic self concept while teachers influence was greater on Negro
students academic self concept. The result of this study supported the findings
of Eze (1 964) and Dole (1964) that teachers influence was one of the key factors
19
affecting students choice of subjects. These findings pose a challenge to history
teachers in education.
An independent study by another scholar Musgrove (1 968) of University of
Manchester between 1966 and 1968 supported the findings of earlier researchers
that teachers have over-riding influence on students choice of subjects. His
findings showed that while convergence occurred among all students in that they
all tend to concentrate their interest on academic excellence at the same time b
there was divergence in educational values between scientists and technologists
on the one hand and arts and social sciences on the other (Ebadan. 1975:17,21).
This difference in value re-orientation is the direct impact of subject masters on
students academic self concept - a food for thought for history teachers in
education.
In a scholarly article, "Towards a Satisfactory History Programme for
Secondary Schools in Nigeria" Nduanya (1 971) reviewed the History Curriculum
in Nigerian Colleges and Schools and came out with the conclusion that history
curriculum was unsatisfactory. He based his arguement on the ground that
instead of using history in general to realise the broad aims of education -
education for good citizenship (education for the development of good citizens) -
20
history in general is geared towards passing examinations. Again, beginning
history of education from the remote past without arriving at the present has no
real significance (Nduanya, 1971). He then recommended a new approach to the
teaching of History in order to make history more appealing and marketable
thereby arresting students' interest and influencing their choice.
Adejumobi (1 972) carried out an investigation into the objectives of History
Teaching in Western Nigeria and came out with the finding that there was no
+ significant correlation between the observed and ideal assessment. In other words
the stated objectives were not achieved in actual practice. He attributed this failure
to teachers who were not teaching what they were employed to do, due to a
I \
number of inhibiting factors such as poor conditions of service, heavy workload +
and over burdened syllabus. All these factors make history a dreaded subject.
Onyeakosi (1 973) also conducted a study to find out whether it was true that there
was lack of student interest in general history and discovered that students had 4
unfavourable attitude towards history and that parents, peer groupism and
teaching methods were the factors responsible for this situation. Edem (I 973) in
his own studies aimed at finding out how much students liked or disliked history
came out with a surprising result that students had favourable attitude to history.
2 1
In summary, cultural factors, personal aspirations, peer influence,
examination, parental influence and teachers methods were some of the factors,
influencing students interest in general history. Students naturally have interest in
some subjects and naturally hate others. Gender interaction influences choice of
subjects and performance. Parental influence is greater on white students while
teachers influence is greater on black students. History of education teachers are
part of the problem since they do not do what they are paid to do due to certain
negative factors. Objectives of history in g)eneral are not being realised due to
ineffectiveness of teachers.
It is significant to note that none of these studies so far has carried out
systematic research on effects of teaching methods on achievement and even
those who studied problems in History of education came out with contradictory
conclusions and findings. For instance, while Onyeakosi (1973) found out that
students' attitude to general History was unfavourable, Edem (1973) who
conducted his studies in the same part of Nigeria (old Anambra State of Nigeria)
and in the same year (1973) came out with a finding that students attitude to
general History was favourable. This contradiction alone is enough to make other
researchers investigate the same problem in the same or a new area; especially
22
now that the problems they investigated are still persisting. This is why the present
researcher finds it worthwhile to examine the effects of two instructional strategies
on students achievement and Retention in the very area where Onyeakosi (1973)
and Edem (1 973) conducted their researches which yielded contradictory results. I \ 4
Having seen the factors that influence students interest in general history,
attention is now directed to the primary role of history of education in the
socialisation of the youth. b
The Role of History in the Education, Socialisation and Conscientization of the Youth
A subject is considered relevant and useful only when its role in the life of
individuals and society as a whole is established and accepted. Afigbo (1973) in
a meeting of 21 November, 1973 with the East Central State History Panel
pinpointed the need to state clearly what the ultimate objectives of teaching
History in general should be. Ajayi (1975) emphasised the need to examine the
objectives history of education should have in Nigeria. On the whole academic
historians agreed that history in general is for national integration and unity
(Nnadozie, 1982). Today, there is a problem of national unity and peace in
Nigeria. History of education has a very important role to play in the task of nation
building. It is important to get the youths to read about themselves and their
23
educating, socializing, and conscientizing the youth who have been indoctrinated,
brainwashed and politically de-socialised by ethnic jingoists and political
opportunists, whose stock in trade is to fish in troubled waters. By this re-
education through history lessons in general the youths will learn how to respect
and tolerate one another. Sympathetic understanding of their neighbours will
develop and peace and progress follow. Collister (1 972), Carpenter (1 964); Ballard
(1 970), Finberg (1 962), Henry (1 960) Rowse (1 963), Steele (1 976), seem to agree 4
that it is better to live in peace and cultivate the arts of progress than to make all
the material gains in the world. A peaceful house can achieve anything it wants.
Our urgent need now is peaceful coexistence. For this reason, study of history
and history of education should be compulsory in all educational institutions.
If this is done, Nigeria will be doing what developed nations of the world
including Israel who made the study of history in general compulsory in all their
schools and colleges did a long time ago (Nnadozie, 1978).
The 26 man panel on History Curriculum stated that:
Teaching of Nigerian history should have the effect of producing citizens better informed about how things have come to be as they are; citizens who are less prone to accept stereotypes and more inclined to strive towards the achievement of greater understanding among Nigerian diverse peoples. If as many Nigerians as possible are to be
p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
enabled to acquire these laudable traits, they need to be taught the history of their own country and history of their own education. We recommend that as a matter of National Policy all who proceed to SSS should be made to read history. (FMOE, l985:112). '
People to teach this history must be those who read history of education..
Akubue (1993) said that through the study of the various subjects like History,
Geography, etc. that make up social studies students will develop awareness and
understanding of our physical environment and the evolving social and cultural *
processes. Students will also appreciate the diversity and interdependence of
members of local and national communities and the need for cooperation for the
unity of the country and international understanding. The subject inculcates in
students positive attitudes and appropriatevalues like honesty, integrity, hardwork,
fairness and justice for national growth and development (Akubue, 1993:14-49).
Apart from inculcating in the youth patriotism and spirit of tolerance and
understanding thereby promoting national unity, history of education produces
critical consciousness which is the highest level of conscientization pr,ocess.
According to Akubue (1993), conscientization refers to learning how to perceive
rightly all the social, political and economic contradictions in an ongoing political
system and to take positive action against the exploitative and oppressive
elements of social reality. For history of education to play its role of educating,
socializing the youth, its curriculum ought to and should be a response to a goal
oriented education.
The History of Education Curriculum in Nigerian Colleges of Education
According to National Curriculum Conference the objectives of teaching
history and history of education determined the selection of course content
(F.M.O.E., 1985:111). In other words, the objectives of teaching history determined b
what the History of education course work would be. The major objective of every
country is very rapid development which depends on many factors. In the National
Curriculum for Senior Secondary School (SSS) volume six of 1985, it is stated
that development of Nigeria depends on the following factors:
- quality of leadership and followership;
- management of available resources, both human and material;
use of science and technology;
honesty and self discipline; and
- unity and stability of the nation (FMOE, 1985)
The critical need of Nigeria is how to integrate the above factors into a
learning structure for the youths of the land in Colleges of Education. ,
26
To the History course content developed for the 6-3-3-4 system now in use in our
schools, it was stated that the curriculum designers were guided by the broad
objectives of the National Policy on Education especially that which seeks the % , A,
achievement of a united strong ad self-reliant nation.
The eight objectives which guided the formulation of the History course work are
stated as follows:
1. TO afford students the opportunity oflearning about the history of their own 4
country as well as that of Africa and the wider world.
2. To expose students to a body of knowledge which would enable them
appreciate how various peoples of Nigeria evolved and how they related
to one another.
3. To enable students through comparative analysis appreciate that even
when there are differences in socio-political institutions of Nigeria's diverse
peoples, the underlying principles that govern social behaviour are
basically similar.
4. To enable students recognise that differences of culture are a product of
history and so to develop a deeper understanding of th-e-differing culture 1 - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
which exists in our nation.
27
5. To develop in students a sympathetic understanding of the difficulties
involved in the effort at building a united nation out of Nigeria's many ethnic
groups and to fire them with a zeal to contribute their quota to the
achievement of nation's goal.
6. To afford the students an opportunity of fitting the history of their country
into the history of their continent Africa, as well as to develop in them an
appreciation of the way in which the destiny of their country is bound up +
with the destiny of Africa and the wider world.
7. To develop in students the ability to appreciate historical facts and to use
such facts objectively towards arriving at reasoned conclusions.
8. To arouse the students' interest in the study of the past and to encourage
them to take a continuing interest in historical studies (FMOE, 1985).
Teachers must highlight issues and problems raised in the general
objectives. Students are to be exposed to problems peculiar to their local
environments before being introduced to national and international problems and
relationships. Teaching of concepts may not achieve any objective unless they are
associated with specific local and national problems.
The course work is divided into two parts:
1. Nigerian History with 17 Topics.
2. Africa and the wider world with 14 Topics.
The national Commission for Colleges of Education Minimum Standard for
NCE Teachers (Education) published by the National Commission for Colleges of
Education Kaduna in August, 1990, following the recommendations of National
Curriculum Conference came up with what it described as Minimum Standard for
NCE Teachers in History of Education. he minimum standard included strong
foundation in history of Education, history of Nigerian education and problems of
Nigerian education.
The Commission was inaugurated on April 19, 1989 by Prof. Jibril Aminu,
Minister of Education in Babangida regime. Decree No. 3 of 1989 Section 5(c) and
(d) set up the Commission. The decree was used to back up the National Policy
on Education position that NCE would be the minimum basic qualification for
entry into teaching profession in Nigeria. The Commission recommended that the
mode of teaching would be Lecture, Seminar, Tutorial and discussion (NCCE Mini
Std. for NCE Teachers 1990:2).
The recommended instructional materials are: Maps, Photographs,
Newspaper cuttings, Visual and Audio visual aids, films and film-strips. Related
activities which teachers are expected to carry out are:
Excursion or filed trip, visit to places of interest, collection of information from
Newspapers, and documents, dramatisation, simulation etc. The 26 man panel on
History Curriculum showed that the predominant method that should be used in
history teaching is discussion method. Out of 31 Topics in the History Curriculum
Discussion method is recommended for teaching 29 of them.
The National Curriculum with Minimum Standard for NCE Teachers +
discussed above forms the background and the basic framework for the selection
of subject matter content for this study.
Methods and Media in Arts Instruction
This is examined from three subheadings:
Method of Teaching History.
Empirical Literature on Methods of Teaching History.
Instructional Materials for Teaching History
Methods of Teaching History , ,.I \
Extensive research on teaching methods in arts and sciences has been
conducted in Europe, United States and Africa. In Nigeria, however, research
studies on special methods of teaching history and history of education suffered
I
30
a set back especially since the curriculum conference of 1969 recommended full
scale and nationwide introduction and development of social studies as against
the traditional single subject approach. Research should be active in the area of
History teaching for certain obvious reasons. For instance, information explosion .
in education and cultural dynamics is a compelling need for research activity to
be intensified in history and special methods in history of education. Information
explosion according to Becker (196520) refers to the pressure exerted on the @
"curriculum" by a steady mounting volume of materials to be taught. Becker (1 965)
said that the problem of teaching method is not that we cannot teach facts well,
but rather we have more facts to teach than can be taught well.
A number of research studies on special methods of teaching history has
. been reported in the literature. Such studies include those of Freeman (1879),
Collings (1923); Zeleny, (1940), Hullfish and Marks (1947), Wagner and Arnold
(1950), Nnadozie (1982), and others published between mid eighties and early
nineties.
Freeman (1879) who later became professor of History at Oxford England
stated at Institute of Education Liverpool that history teaching was deficient
because it consisted of loading student's memory without appealing to their
3 1
imagination. He said that students were overwhelmed with words and names
without being taught to attach ideas to those words and names. The result of it
all was that critical thinking was discouraged and students could not think for
themselves. Collins (1923) carried out an experiment on project technique in a
rural school. The experience lasted for four years. The result of this experiment
favoured the use of project in general history and history of education. Result of
evaluation of new methods of teaching history of education conducted by * progressive Education Association of America in 1941 supported the project
I \
technique and upheld Collin's findings. Reasons for the superiority of the Project +
Technique as reported on these two studies were not stated. Zeleny (1940)
conducted an experimental study on Discussion using Recitation as a control. He
found out that there was no significant difference in favour of group discussion 4
procedure. Discussion was defined by Hullfish and Marks (1947) as a conscious
effort of a community of ind~viduals to think cooperatively and effectively. The
investigators stated that Discussion was not just an opportunity to express
different views but rather an acceptance of a problem by a group of individuals
working together to arrive at a solution. Other earlier contributions to the study of
Discovery Method include the handbook by Wagner and Arnold (1950) in which
32
the role of the Discussion Group leader was defined and many other suggestions
were given. In a study carried out by Dale and Roths (1 945) it was discovered that
Discussion brought more ideas into the classroom and made reading more
interesting. Farley and Overton (1951) in a similar study reported that a definite .
gain in understanding of problem was made by students through Discussion
method. Perham (1 949) in his report said that the use of a moderator and round
table Discussion helped to increase teaching effectiveness. A long and elaborate b
descriptive study of Group Discussion was reported by Cantor (1 953) Jones and
Ortner (1954) who carried out the study at Colgate, a case study at Havard and
use of Discussion Methods at Chicago. Miel, Alice and others (1952) studied the
roles of students and teachers in cooperative group patterns of instruction and
documented the roles which should accompany cooperative group activities and
cooperative procedure in the classroom. On the basis of available evidence one
I > could say that Discussion method is an effective method of teaching and learning -.-
history. But its effect on achievement and retention was not studied. Its effects on
teaching and learning in colleges of education was not studied also. This gap was
filled by this study.
In Nigeria history teachers use the conventional lecture method which
33
according to Nnadozie (1982) appears to have failed the school and the society
(Nnadozie, 1982). People interested in improving methods of teaching general
history and history of education have suggested a number of strategies such as
simulation and games, discussion, drama, guided discovery, collection of oral
tradition, project, debate, excursion or field trips. Some of these strategies are
popular particularly in some places. Simulation and games for example are very
popular in U.S. By late seventies there was rapid extension of their use to English
+ schools. Milburn (1972) stated that the use of simulation was a challenge to
history teachers. Rayner (1 972) stated that in United States, simulation was seen
not as a game but a practical demonstration of some academic concept. He
mentioned that simulation also promotes more cooperation and discussion amo'ng
students. Some teachers questioned the merit of simulation in history teaching in
general as well as in teaching branches of history such as history of education,
history of religion, etc. One criticism is that if history is concerned with the ; , 4.
establishment of something unique in nature, simulation which involves
generalization contradicts this. Milburn (1972) was doubting whether simulation
had any merit over other strategies used in history teaching in general and in its
branches. 4
- - - ~ ~
34
Another technique of teaching history and its branches which received
favourable attention is drama. Evidence is available to show the growth in
popularity of drama in the teaching of general historyJbranches of history. The
best studies in this area were done by Fines and Verrier (1 974). They discovered
that drama and simulation had similar advantages - advantages claimed for drama
were the same as those claimed for simulation. It was intended that through
drama students would develop historical understanding and at the same time gain b
enjoyment and interest in the subject (Nnadozie, 1982). They gained
understanding by acting the parts of the characters they studied and by carrying
out background research in order to get up the scene for the play. By so
doing,they became active, located and used relevant sources and recreated the
past as authentically as they could" (Nnadozie, 1982).
Thornton (1 971 ) demonstrated the use of drama in teaching general history
with the production of a play on Elizabethan England at the Abbey Junior School
( in Reading England. He used a class of top Juniors after teaching them -. Elizabethan period in general history to produce a play. Historical benefits were
gained because the students conducted a research in order to make the play
authentic in terms of language, dressing (costume) and furnishing.
35
Medlycott (1973) also produced a historical play at Sutton Park School,
Dublin. After studying the reign of Henry It, a mixed ability group of boys and girls
built up a play on Henry II and Thomas a Becket. Medlycott (1973) stated that his
play was a success because students proved capable of stepping inside the.
period to ask how, why and what of events. The students were able to defend the
parts they played and discussed church state relations in the period in question.
In both Abbey and Sutton the key to success was in the fact that the play came +
after a research into the topics (Nnadozie, 1982). Drama must be regarded as one
of the ways of developing students interest in history of education. It plays a major
role in arousing students' historical imagination, an important but neglected aspect
of historical study (Nnadozie, 1982).
Earlier attempts according to Nnadozie (1982) to formulate a method of
teaching which would contribute to cooperative Group Effort for solving problems
were called by the name "Socialised Recitation". This teaching method provides
opportunity for teacher and his students to work together and exchange ideas in
group discussion with a student as Chairman and the teacher as a guide and
consultant. Studies conducted on the effectiveness of socialised recitation have
not been very successful_ due _ to_ various types - of- techniques adopted by p p p p p - - - - - - - -
36
researchers. Some used problem solving technique, others used assignments and
supervised studies. The presence of these variations in objective sought from
study to study makes evaluation of the socialised recitation uncertain. Socialized
recitation is as good as other group procedures in history education teaching and
cannot claim any advantage over other group methods.
In Nigeria cooperative group efforts and group techniques in history
teaching is still at its inchoate stage. Absence of group procedures in history of
+ education lessons has contributed immensely to the ineffectiveness of history of
education teaching in our schools and colleges all these years. However, it is not -'
fair to attribute failure of history of education lessons to teacher ineffectiveness
only since such students variables as students interest and willingness to learn
should also be considered. But the fact remains that a method a teacher uses in I
teaching could help to arouse or dampen students interest and desire to learn
(Nnadozie, 1982). Researches by Hallan (1967), Sones (1967), Silva (1972), and
Almy (1976) have shown that students variables are important factors that
contribute to ineffectiveness of teaching and should therefore influence teachers
choice of teaching method.
Characteristics of Learners (Students Variables) as a Basis For Choosing Effective Teaching Methods
H~story teachers must be aware of all those factors that must be considered
before selecting teaching methods for any teaching situation. Some of these
factors are as follows:
- the student h~mself, his chronological age,
mental development and language ability,
- the course outline or course content,
- the environment in which the teaching is taking place.
Piaget divided the mental developmental stages of a child into four:
1. 0-2 years: period of sensory motor intelligence.
2. 2-7 years: pre-operational period.
3. 7-1 2 years: concrete operational period.
4. 12 years and above: period of formal logical operations.
Acceptance of these stages makes the history teacher to ask questions such as:
1. At what stage is a child expected to develop historical thinking? Piaget has
set age limits within which a child can operate or function at different levels.
2. Does transtion from one stage to the other take place at the same age in
every subject?
38
3. Is it possible and desirable to accelerate the process of transition.
4. How can a teacher assess the level or stage a child has reached?
5. What methods are appropriate to the different levels?
6. What learning experiences are also appropriate at different levels?
The problems involved are complex. Added complexity exists for the
teacher because within a class, there are variations in thinking levels of its
members (Nnadozie, 1982). However, educational psychologists have sufficient 4
answers to these questions mentioned above. Research into the problem raised
above proved that Piagetian stages apply to the development of historical
understanding. Researches also seem to suggest that the ages at which the
transition from one stage to another takes place tends to be later in history than
in other subjects (Nnadozie, 1982). This is also true of history of education as well
as other branches of history. One of the earliest researchers in this area was
Hallam (1967) who carried out his first study in Bradford school England. Hallam
(1967) tested 100 children, using a total of 20 students from each class starting
from year 1 to the final year of the secondary school career. He found out that the
students were reaching concrete operational period and so concrete operational
level of thought at the age of 12 years and formal operational period at the age
of 16.2-16.6 years.
Hallams findings are largely supported by the findings of other
psychologists with slight modifications. For instance, Sones (1 967) who worked
with secondary school children in Birmingham, England found out that the
thinking level of the students was concrete and descriptive in the first three years
of their school career, but in the fourth and fifth years, students responses showed
an increasing capacity to engage in abstract thinking (Sones, 1967). # I -,
.%
Silva (1972) working with 160 students aged 11 to 16 in Birmingham
Comprehensive School showed that the turning point in the transition from
descriptive to explanatory modes of thought is in the age range of 13 to 14.
But Almy (1 976) stated that children between the ages of 11 and 13 years 4
do not yet have much capacity for logical thinking or abstract thought. They are
only beginning to have a sense of time and to see cause and effect relationship.
They may have a strong sense of difference between right and wrong, though
their ideas of wrong or right are still crude.
The implications of all these findings for the history of education teacher are
as follows:
1. Events in history of education should be presented in chronological
40
sequence; attempts must be made at all times to show students how one
thing grows into or out of another in all human history including history of
education.
2. Sense of time must be built on the child's own experience. Link between
local national history and history of education should be made and
illustrated with time charts showing the child's own people and their
relations with other people as well as the landmarks in history of education. +
3. Students at this time should not be bothered with many dates. Only great
names like cultural heroes and patrons of education need to be
remembered.
4. Activity method should be used to make history lessons lively.
5. Between the ages of 13 and 15 years and thereafter most children become
aware of people around them. They begin to adjust themselves to larger
society outside the families.
6. Ideals begin to play a part in their lives. These ideals are associated with
persons. Life history of national heroes and their roles in shaping the
course of history of education will help children at this time to understand
the relationship between local community, the nation and history of
education.
7. Idea of chronological order may be rntroduced because children at this
stage show improvement in their sense of time cause and effect
relationship and continuity of education history and the community.,
Different periods in history of education can now be dealt with.
8. From the age of 15 upwards children become capable of rational thinking
(Nnadozie, 1982). They begin to consider people and events with reason b
and intelligence and form personal opinion about them. They are more
interested in arguement than in the result of the arguement. History I ,;
teachers should provide materials on which this arguement should be
based. This is the time to study system of government and their different
roles in educational development.
Important periods in history df education and special themes should be
selected for treatment. In selecting suitable themes reference should be made to
the Report of the National Curriculum conference of 1969 which stated that:
History course should include national history including historical foundations of
education, West African history and modern world history. Obiogun (1969) said
that emphasis s h o d be reversed so that priorrty should be on national-and West
42
African history.
Developmental stages of children have implications for selection of learning
experiences, course content and teaching methods. After considering the mental
age of children the history teacher also has to consider the problem of students
incompetence in the use of English language. Nnadozie (1982) said that
increasing notice has been taken of the relationship between students knowledge
of the language of instruction and their ability to understand the content of +
historical information. This is a complex problem in history of education where the
vocabulary in common use may be above the understanding of the students.
There is a great deal of evidence that students are unable to understand history
of education lessons well.
Charlton (1952) analysed the understanding of a group of 14 year old of
30 key words used in their textbooks. Those words covered economic, political
ad religious concepts. He found out that although 24 of the students thought they
understood the words, less than half of the words were in fact not understood,
and that the brilliant students among them did not understand more than twenty
words. This language problem is carried over to history of education lessons in
- - - - - - - - - - -
tertiary ievelsinductrng colleges of eCiucation,
43
Coltham (1960) investigated the understanding of a group of top junior
pupils with mental age of 8 to 16. He assessed their power of comprehension
using the following terms: King, early man, invasion, ruler, trade, subjects. He
discovered a wide range of differences in their levels of understanding.
Hannam, (1 968) quoted a striking example of misunderstanding on the part of the
pupil who thought that Wolsey wanted to shoot the Pope because he read that
"Wolsey aimed at the Papacy".
+ Bermbaum, (1972) pointed out the confusion which might arise in a description
of Henry Vlll confiscating monastic lands. To the historian, the term implies a great
source of wealth and an area of patronage but to the child it may imply fields.
Nnadozie (1982) stated that misunderstanding of historical terms can arise in
many ways:
By introducing new words to the children. In this case the teacher finds a
way of making students understand the context meaning of the terms.
Children often think they understand a word because they have read it in
the past.
They may learn the definition of a word without understanding it..
Pea (T967) focused atfention~on~theseclifiicuities and said that words such
as church and law carry existing personal concrete meanings and children tend
to carry these over erroneously to colleges of education and other tertiary
institutions.
Efficient use of language is fundamental to good teaching of history of education.
Coltham (1971) called it the enabling factor in education. Use of language is
critcal in concept formation and movement toward higher levels of thinking 6'
(Nnadozie, 1982). Coltham (1 971 ) and Bernbaum (1 972) recommended that closer
+ attention should be paid to historical vocabulary. Coltham (1971) said that
although vocabulary lessons at the beginning of a new topic might be dull, it is
important that a quick check of understanding of basic terms be done through the
use of depleted sheets showing different definitions of terms and requiring
students to tick the right answers. Justification for the use of programmed
approach was made by Stones (1965) whose research showed that ability of
adolescents to think in historical terms was significantly improved after they had
studied a unit of teaching definitions and inter-relationships of important concepts
used in the lesson. Bernbaum (1972) said that history teachers should look for the
words in common use and explain longer and more complex terms but words of
high level of abstraction should be avoided where possible.
45
Honeybone (1971) published an article on "The Development of Formal
Historical Thoughts in children" where he highlighted another aspect of teaching
linguistic skills that must be explored by history teachers. He said that success in
history at school demands high verbal Intelligence Quotient (1.Q) and children with
low verbal I.Q. are less likely to be successful. Consequently, if courses continue
to be based on conceptual verbalisation they will remain unattractive to all but the
literate and verbal elite (Honeybone, 1971). He therefore concluded that if history
b is to remain a valid subject, there must be less emphasis on abstraction. A greater
variety of methods should be encouraged and use of abilities other than verbal
should be emphasised.
Most of these studies cited above were carried out outside Nigeria among
students whose mother tongue was English language. Nigerian students who
learn English as a second language are bound to have more problems in English
language than English students. Therefore, teaching of history of education
demands that the teacher must first know his students both in terms of mental
development and verbal or language ability. This indepth knowledge of his clients
helps teachers to determine appropriate learning experiences to select and the
type of teaching method that will be chosen. Professional historians who condemn
46
certain methods of history teaching might not have done so if they had a
knowledge of the students background which influenced the teachers choice and
approach. The present researcher will take these basic considerations into
account in the course of this study.
Methods of Evaluating History of Education Lessons
Evaluation procedures in history and history of education is another area
that has attracted comments of history scholars. Essay Type question is the
+ prevalent mode of evaluation of history of education in many places. Students
favour use of objective type questions (multiple choice) in examinations. Many of
them dislike examination in history/history of
predominant use of essay questions (Nnadozie,
(1982) the use of essay questions does not test
education because of the , -. 4
1982). According to Nnadozie
appropriate skills and values
which students are supposed to have learnt in history of education. However,
essay questions test students ability tq express themselves, in the language of the
subject. If well constructed, essay. questions can test for attitudes, and values
which students are supposed to derive from the course.
Generally speaking, essay questions require regurgitation of facts and this
- - - - - - - is one-of themeaknesses of this mode d evaluation. Essay type questions have
47
significant effects on the teaching of history of education. It has led to note
dictation syndrome while other approaches like oral work, field trip and projects
are neglected or under-valued. Essay type questions have sent students "globe
trotting" round West African markets in search of already prepared Question and
Answer Booklets. In recent years WAEC (West Africa Examination Council) has
introduced multiple choice questions in History examination in an effort to improve
evaluation procedures in history following the criticism levelled against the "essay +
type" mode of evaluation. The National Commission for colleges of Education
Minimum Standard for NCE Teachers was not categorical on methods of
evaluating History of Education in colleges of Education. Apart from the
recommended continuous assessment, evaluation was left at the discretion of
individual teachers. In the 3 colleges used in this study, while essay was not
entirely neglected, objective tests were used from time to time as situation
demanded. In this study the emphasis was on convergent views, better
understanding of concepts and concretising ideas. This can be better tested
through multiple choice items. Since divergent views were not emphasised, essay
which is very appropriate in testing divergent views was not used. So far a
number of research studies en special methods of teaching history of education-
48
has been reviewed with profit. But there are still a lot to be examined for more
profit.
In the research studies so far examined, the researchers found out that
special methods in history teaching in most instances is carried out as a mere
presentation of facts. But Clark (1973) contended that teaching includes among
other things guiding pupils to learn by means of probing, discovering, analysing
and examining activities - that is teaching inculcates critical thinking in children. 4
According to Clark (1973) to teach is to help someone change behaviour: that is,
acquire some salable skills, attitude, and knowledge. Development of skills is an
essential part of any curriculum. Kenworthy (1969) pointed out that there are
scores of skills that need to be learnt.
He divided the salable skills into seven:
1. Locating, gathering and evaluating information and ideas.
2. Organising information and ideas.
3. Communicating information and ideas.
(Including listening, reading and presenting ideas in oral and written form).
4. Interpreting graphic materials.
5. Critical thinking.
p p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. Living with others.
7. Globe and Map skills.
The above skills must be care full^ 4
and systematically t aught and they can
only be learnt under the guidance of a competent teacher who is conversant with
the modern methods and techniques of teaching.
Modern Methods And Techniques of Teaching History of Education
Aina, Adedoyin, Obilo and Ahmadu (1982:65) classified modern methods b
of teaching into four broad categories:
Expository Method
Inquiry Method
Discussion Method
Activity Method
According to Aina et al (1982) the classification is based on current
(modern) ideas about organisation 'of teaching for effective learning. There are two
aspects of the organisation: The first is learnina principles which assume that
learning revolves around three most important suimortive learnina theories -
motivation, reward and practice. The second aspect is the teachina ~ r i nc i~ l es
which are concerned with how to organjse teaching to promote effechve-learning. p p p - - - - - - - - - -
The three learning theories are the three basic strategies for promoting learning -
motivation - creating in the child sufficient interest in what the teacher is teaching.
Reward - praising the learner for things done properly and well. Reward is more
effective in promoting learning than punishment. Reward is an instrument for ( 1 -*
inducing learning (Aina et al 1982:65). Practice - "Learning by doing", "practice
makes perfect", are axioms which point to this third learning theory. There is no
amount of theory that can make a child learn or gain mastery of techniques or t
skills unless it is accom~anied by pr;actice.
Methods and Techniques (Strategies)
Method is a way of doing something (Aina et a1 1982). It is an approach
adopted by the teacher to explain his lesson. A technique (strategy) is a teaching
device or a teaching strategy adopted by teacher to teach a lesson. Techniques
include use of films, games, simulation, projects, textbooks, library study, resource
persons, field trips, etc. In this study methods and strategies are used
interchangeably.
Below is a summary of available literature on the four basic methods or
techniques of teaching history in general:
1. Expository Method/Telling/Lecture Method
Dramatisation Technique
Questioning Technique
Use of Teaching Aids like Diagrams
2, Inquiry Method/Discovery Method
Question Technique
Project Technique
Problem Solving Technique
3. Discussion Method
Small Group Discussion
Debate Technique
Panel Discussion
Brain Storming/Buzz
4. Activity Method
Simulation Technique
Role Playing Technique
Dramatization or Mock Trial
Music
Independent Study
Study Trip
Local Study
Teachers should be aware of all the methods so as to know which teaching
methods and strategies work best for a particular objective. It is unprofessional to
use one teaching method to teach a whole lesson since any history topic can
accommodate a variety of methods (Aina et at, 1982).
b Ogunsanya (198451) rightly observed that it is only when more than one
method is used that teaching and learning would involve all the senses which
would most likely result in effective learning.
Kenworthy (1969:80) came up with other activities which teachers can use. to
promote learning. Such strategies include the use of ~ul let in Boards, Charts,
Cartoons, Resource person, Learning the danc6s and music of people studied.
Although, the four major methods mentioned above are important to a I
2,
history teacher they are not of equal importance in achieving the objectives of
instruction. According to Kenworthy (1969:9) Clark (1973:66), Ogunsanya
(1984:55), Kupolati (1989) the most useful method is the Inquiry method and the
problem solving technique. Ogunsanya (198455) noted that problem solving
53
technique "involves the use of a scientific approach to learning and teaching". He
added that most problems attacked through problem solving strategy are "teacher
oriented and instructional or society directed". He contended that problem solving
should be learner centred. He characterised what he called a good problem as
follows: The problem should be appealing to students and worthy of solution. It
should be relevant to the experiences of the generality of the students. It should
be possible to solve. The point made by Ogunsanya (1984) is that the problem
6 should concern the interests of the learner, his needs, aims and aspirations. Any
problem in which the students have no interest will not promote learning in any
significant extent. Okpala (1 985:16) also mentioned that the 1981 curriculum guide
for Nigerian Primary Schools identified problems that could arise in man's
interaction with the environment as follows:
Civil and political problems
- Social and cultural problems
Technological problems
From late sixties to early nineties researchers have continued to see
teaching by Inquiry method as the most useful and basic. Akubue (1993:27)
stated that teaching by Inquiry Method is "teaching in which students find out
54
answers and draw conclusions for themselves. it is simply a method of finding out
facts". Clark (1973:63) said that the principal thing in lnquiry method is that
"students should be led to think carefully about ideas under consideration". While
Clark (1973) believed that lnquiry method and problem solving are two different
but closely inter-related methods, Aina et at (1 982) had a different view (which had
been stated earlier).
Clark (1973:65) compared lnquiry method with Expository method. He said that +
lnquiry method is the opposite of Expository method. Expository method is the
method whereby the teacher tells the students what they are supposed to know.
Clark maintained that this process of telling does not stimulate students to think
for themselves. Expository method is called lecture method or telling method.
Ogunsanya (1 984:63) referred to lecture method as talk-and chalk method. The
name implies that the teacher could write on the chalkboard as he talks. He said
that lecture or Expository method is the easiest, cheapest and most familiar but
most abused and least effective method. Lecture method should not be the
principal method of teaching because it is not really very effective for most
instructional purposes (Clark, 1973:64). Students do not learn much from lecture.
According to Alcorn, Kinder and Schumert (Clark, 1973:84), people remember:
10 percent of what they READ
20 percent of what they HEAR
30 percent of what they HEAR and SEE
70 percent of what they SAY
90 percent of what they SAY and DO
Lecture tends to be boring and leads to inattentiveness (Clark, 1973). Ogunsanya
(1 984) supports Clark's view that lecture method makes the students dull and lazy. b
The lesson is uninteresting while students look blank and empty, suspended and
gloomy. He regretted that in spite of the serious limitations of this method, its
popularity is still high. He gave the following reasons for the growing popularity
of lecture method.
persistent and remarkable expansion in school enrolment at all levels of
education system.
acute shortage of classroom accommodation, teaching aids, facilities and
equipment.
One advantage of lecture method is that it is able to cope with large
classes and faster teaching though at the expense of much depth. But this
advantage is nothing compared with the resultant loss in quality and standard
(Ogunsanya, 1984). All these claims made for lecture and inquiry came as a result
of researches in other disciplines and non in history of education.
Lecture And Discussion Methods
The two methods which constitute an independent variable in this study are
operationally defined.
Lecture Method
The word lecture is derived from the Latin word "Legere" meaning "to read". +
This is why in lecture method, the teacher reads out a prepared note. It involves
teaching students collectively as a class while teacher is guided by a prepared
note. As the teacher lectures students are allowed to jot down points or copy the
teachers note at the end of the lesson. There may be time for evaluation or
question when the teacher asks students challenging questions on the topic of the
lesson. He may also allow them to ask questions on aspects of the lesson not
understood.
Discussion Method
This is one of the methods recommended for teaching this subject but
rarely used. Teachers are usually involved in one form of discussion or the other
but hardly use this in their lessons.
This involves breaking a class into small groups or arranging students in 2
groups of 10 or fewer members for effective as well as easy discussion of lesson
topics. A discussion group should be knowledgeable in order to be able to make
useful contribution in the discussion process. In discussion method students are d
given what to do unlike in lecture method where no tasks are assigned to
students before the lesson.
The discussion method involves re-arrangement of the sitting positions in b
the class into a circle or semi-circle. Some students are elected to perform some
i m p o r t a n t r o l e d u r i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n . For examp le a
moderator/chairman/recorder/secretary is appointed or selected by each group
to direct the discussion and record important points raised in the lesson. One
advantage of this method is that it promotes an active pattern of classroom
interact~on in which the interaction between teacher and students and among
students is lively, purposeful and sustained. Lecture method tends to promote
lukewarm type of classroom interaction or a low level interaction learning situation
in which interaction is parochial and personalised. Lecture hardly stimulates a
wide variety of learning modalities. The only modality of learning stimulated by
lecture is hearing.
Activity Method
There are certain topics which call for actual doing in order to bring their
message home to learners. Such issues like values, democracy, truthfulness,
cooperation require practical demonstration. These are best taught using Activity
Method. Techniques that can be use in this method are as follows: Simulation,
Role playing, Discussion, Dramatization, Field Trips (Aina, et a1,1982:90). Dubey , ~ - , \
and Birth (1980:99) defined simulation as a selective representation of reality 4
containing only those elements that are relevant for that purpose. Aina et al
(1982:92) defined simulation as a teaching technique for creating a game like
atmosphere to demonstrate some principles which a teacher wants to make real
for learners. Its advantage is that it involves the learner directly and totally in
effective problem solving. Its disadvantage is that it is time consuming (Aina, et
al (1 982:92-93).
From available literature on teaching methods in general history it is seen
that not much is done to determine the effects of instructional strategies on
achievement and retention in history of education. Whichever method used, the
teacher must ensure active student participation and involvement otherwise
teaching might take place with very limited learning arising from it (Estvan,
59
1968:229), Ogunsanya, (1984). Method and strategies must be chosen on the
basis of their ability to implement the curriculum and to facilitate teaching and
learning process.
Empirical Literature on Methods of Teaching General History
Special researches on methods of history teaching in general both within
and outside Nigeria have earlier been discussed. But now a summary of those
research efforts is given. b
Akubue (1993:30) reported that in the 1950s the United States of America
voted several millions of dollars for postgraduate training programme for teachers
of History, Geography and Civics to impzrt on them improved skills for their I '*
subjects. Dubey and Barth (1980) reported that these category of teachers after
their in-service training continued with their pre-in-service training teaching
methods. The purpose of the in-service training was to help them become better
teachers. The teachers shunned Inquiry Method and continued to use the time d
honoured lecture method. Many of them were aware of the lnquiry method but
refuged to use it. Dubey and Barth (1980:23) came to the conclusion that these
teachers were not convinced of the need to change their old methods.
quality and content of History, Geography and Civics instruction from primary to
secondary schools in U.S. The researchers embarked on analysis of a sample of
widely used textbooks basing their analysis on the extent textbooks facilitated
growth in the skills of critical inquiry. The group was not satisfied with the result
yielded by the research.
The essence of this present study is to find out what the situation is at
present in our colleges of education. Area of focus are the following: #
Use of intearated .ap~roach in history of education lesson - a process of
teaching whereby teachers impress on learners oneness and common
destiny of humanity. This purpose of teaching can only be achieved
through discussion method.
Use of new philosophy of history teaching; - process of producing good
citizens.
Holistic approach; enlarging or widening circles of friendship using history
in general and history of education in particular.
This can only be achieved by Discussion method.
6 1
Available literature revealed that very limited empirical research has been
done focussing on the above three areas.
In conclusion of this section of the review; empirical literature revealed that
all the teaching methods adopted by history teachers can be divided into two
namely:
The traditional teacher centred lecture method and the student' centred
Activity method. Ukaegbu (1973) stated that child centred Activity method is #
impossible in Nigeria because of the following reasons:
Many schools and colleges have no good libraries where students can find
relevant materials for project.
Means of transport are not available for far away field trips.
Instructional (audio visual) materials are not available in many schools and
colleges. The present study through the use of "Discussion Method" hopes
to eliminate the above defects/problems of Activity Methods.
Researches by Nnadozie (1 982) and Osokoya (1988) which have relevance to this
study are reported below in details. Details of Nnadozie's (1982) experiment:-
Details of Nnadozie's (1 982) Experiment
Purpose
To find out how history syllabus can be modified to meet students needs.
To determined the methods which can help to improve teaching of history.
To explore methods of improving evaluation of history students.
Methodology
Two research questions and two null hypotheses were used in the study. b
Questionnaire items were administered to 536 students and 84 history teachers
sampled randomly from 42 secondary schools.
An experiment was carried out in 15 schools. Before the experiment, pre-
test was conducted in four schools using 25 students from each school. After the
pre-test the experiment started. Four classes of 20 students each were taught
using four different methods-lecture, Discovery, Discussion, and Debate. The
researcher performed all the experiments himself. It took six terms to complete the
experiment. At the end of the experiment post-test was administered to the four
experimental groups on the topics in which they received instruction. Their scores
on the post test served as a basis for comparing the effectiveness of the various
methods.
Data Analysis
Three statistical methods of analysis were used.
Simple Percentages
Chi-square test of significance
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Simple percentages were used for research questions. Chi-square was
used for the test of significance. ANOVA was use to know if the four experimental
conditions could produce a different amobnt of achievement as measured by a
post experimental assessment.
Findings: That none of the four methods of instruction experimented upon proved
better than the other.
Remarks: This work suffered from design shortcomings:-
1. non compliance with research blue print,
2. use of ANOVA in the treatment of experimental data involving a pre-test
instead of ANCOVA (Analysis of covariance) which possesses: higher quality
characteristics expected in a high quality psychometric instrument; and which of
course would have yielded more reliable results.
Osokoya (1988) conducted a similar but not identical study and had a
64
similar design problem. Details of Osokoya's (1 988) work were given below:
Purpose
To make a comparative analysis of the effects of lecture method and
small group discussion on students achievement in history
To determine whether teaching students by lecture method will result in
greater learning than teaching them by means of small group discussion.
Methodology +
Three null hypotheses were tested. Eighty students took part in the
experiment.
Instrumentation: History Achievement Test made up of 50 item objective test. I ... \
Six week history programme was drawn. Topics taught were those from the
syllabus.
Research Design
Design 4 was used - ~retesi-post test Experimental Design. The 80
students were randomly assigned into two groups. These were given pre-test.
Treatment
The two groups used separate classrooms during sixweek duration of the
experiment. For the Experimental Group, students were given topics for discussion
65
in advance. For the Control Group, the researcher gave a lecture.
Results
Small group discussion method could improve the performance of students
in history.
Remarks
Design 4 used in this study has been criticised as totally unapplicable in
education and social science research because of overwhelming intervening +
variables outside the control of the researcher. Design 4 is only applicable in
physical sciences (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). A True Experiment has no pre-
test. Pre test is an internal validity threat arising from reactive arrangement
between Pre-test and post test.
However, recently better and more rigorous research designs
compensating for pre test post test reactive effect have been introduced by
Solomon (1 98O), Tuckey (1 982) and APA (1 985). These compensatory designs
were not used in Osokoya's work. Experts in educational research have been ~>,\
bordered by the question about whether True Experiments and the conditions
imposed by true experiments can be attained in a school setting. In the final
analysis general consensus was that experiments in a school setting are not
I
attainable (Ali,
Another design shortcoming in Osokoya's work was that a researcher I
should be neutral in a true experiment, instead of being actively involved. Osokoya
(1988) was actively involved in the experiment. This is the most serious aspect of
external validity threat to his experiment. This made his experimental study
parochial and inconsequential. In true experiments, use research assistants. Some
degree of neutrality is essential for the success of the study. b
There is therefore serious design short-comings in Osokoya's work. In his
data analysis only mean and standard deviation were used to show the variability
of the two groups in the pre test post test achievement in history. Statistics
employed were inappropriate since only a high quality psychometric instrument
like ANCOVA with high quality characteristics could be capable of controlling the
overwhelming intervening variables usually encountered in true experiments
(Campbell and Stanley, 1963; Ali, 1980; Agwagah; 1993).
Instructional Materials for Teaching History of Education
Ogunsanya (1984:75) defined instructional materials as "objects, events,
etc. that promote teaching and learning". The national Council for Social Studies
(NCSS) in U.S. stated that the classroom should be a learning laboratory (NCSS,
1979). Ogunsanya (1 984:75) mentioned that when children are allowed to learn
through more senses instead of one they learn faster and more easily and
remember the materials learnt for a long time. Clark (1973:271) and Ogunsanya
(1984:75) listed a number of instructional materials as follows: Films and slides, , , ' 4
Pictures, Resource persons, Diagrams, Cartoons, Stamps, Mass media
(newspapers, Radio and Television), Maps, Globes and Textbooks. Clark (1973)
went further to show their uses: +
Mass Media: Consists of print and ndn print media. This can be used in teaching
History in General, Political science, Sociology and current affairs.
The Print Media: Newspapers and Magazines, books and journals, periodicals,
Tracts. Collections should include local and national dailies. Newspapers and
Magazines should be basis for discussing current events.
Non Print Media: Radio and Television, Films, Motion Pictures, (Electronic Media)
Talking drum (Ekwe) Town crying, metal gongs, (Ogene) Personal conversation.
There are four types of television programmes suitable for teaching History
of Education:
Instructional Programmes designed for class use
Special events such as party conventions, Presidential campaign,
Inauguration of Parties, Party Manifesto
Standard commercial programmes/courses
Maps and Globes
Maps are used to show locations. Training in the use of maps should be
done early in the secondary school years to ensure effective use in later years
(Clark, 1973:279) at tertiary level.
Textbooks b
Textbooks are important tools for teaching and learning. Teachers should
not use only one textbook to teach their subjects. No single history of education I \
-',. textbook will do. In Nigeria instructional materials are scarce. Where they are
available they are under utilized. In developed countries instructional materials are
available in large quantities. Their problem is not lack of materials but how to
make the best use of the available materials. Nigerian situation is different. 4
Famwang (1 989:53) reported a study conducted by Adewoye (1 987) on the use
of instructional materials in Nigerian schools. The studies showed that instructional
materials are lacking in Nigerian schools. Of the available instructional materials
in schools, the report stated that 89 percent of the teachers improvised while 57
percent had no instructional materials. Fawoye (1987) and Famwang (1989)
69
concluded that instructional materials are grossly inadequate in Nigeria schools
and colleges. Similar studles were carried out in other states of the Federation. In
Sokoto State, lsmalia (1 986) reported that out of 144 subjects used in his study,
124 (86.1 percent) indicated that instructional materials were lacking in their.
schools. Only 8(5.6%) agreed that instructional materials were adequately supplied
in their schools.
In Adamawa and Taraba States (former Gongola State), Akafa (1986) b
conducted a similar study and reported that there was scarcity of both printed and
audio visual materials in most of the schools and colleges. Famwang (1989:54)
reported that the few colleges in which instructional materials were available
indicated that these materials were rather in poor condition. In a closely related
study carried out by Pwajok in Plateau State, it was found that a large percentage
of students (61.3 percent) and teachers (77.5 percent) agreed that lack of
textbooks made students lose interest in their studies.
The above findings on instructional strategies and instructional support services I 2
need to be strengthened or reinforced by studying their effects on attainment and
retention of learned materials.
Retenttom - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
This review of retention is divided tinto the following five subheadings:
Definition of retent~on
Methods of Measuring Retention
Process of Forgetting
Attributes of Memory
Review of Empirical Research on Retention
Definition of Retention
Underwood (1949) defined Retention as the positive aspects of memory.
b To him forgetting refers to negative aspects of memory.
Ausubel and Robmson (1969) defined retention in terms of learning and
forgetting. According to them, retention is a process of maintaining the available
new meanings or some parts thereof. The co-authors defined forgetting as a
decrease in acquired meaning. This means that forgetting is a loss that occurs
between the original meaning and its later reproduction. This loss proceeds in
stages. Ausubel (1963) defined retention as maintaining the availability of newly
acquired meanings or concepts and forgetting as a diminution in availability of
newly acquired concepts.
Methods of Measuring Retention
Three methods used in measuring Hetention are as follows:
The recall Method
The Recognition Method
The Re-learning or Saving Method (Mkpa, 1981)
The Recall Method
This is the most popular method of measuring retention. The learner recalls b
as much as possible the skills he has earlier acquired.
Measurement of vocabulary in a foreign language like French or German
may be carried out by a recall test. In this test foreign words are given and the
learner is asked to give the English equivalent/translation. Essay test calls for
recall skills (Mkpa, 1981).
The Recognition Method
This method is used in measurement of cognitive skills. Objective type of
examination is the best example of this method of measuring retention.
The Re-learning or Saving Method
This is a very sensitive technique used in laboratories. In this method the
student learns the material to certain level of perfection. For instance; a student
p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~
72
learning a list of words has to continue learning it until he has reached a point
where he can repeat the list perfectly well on three successive trials. It happens
that if 25 repetitions are required in the beginning to reach a point of perfect recall
only 5 - repetitions may be required at this latter time to reach the same point of
perfect recall. Since 5 instead of 25 repetitions are required there is a saving of
eighty percent. In this way this method got its name (Mkpa, 1981)
It is necessary to relate the ~deas gained from the three methods of b
measuring retention to the procedure adopted in this study. The recall and the
recognition methods are used in this study. Each of the tests administered in this
research involves retention. The pretest involves a recall or recognition of the
lessons taught (or both) in the previous term. The HAT and HlRET required recall
and recognition of items learnt.
Curves of Retention
Teaching activity is undertaken on the assumption that what is learned will , , . =,-
be retained. However, many teachers are more concerned with immediate
retention. than with long time retention. Immediate retention is not a sufficient
evidence to prove that retention over a long period of time will take place.
Retention is the continued ability to keep what has been learned without loss or p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - -
-
F i g 1.
Fig. 1. Elapsed Time - Days
Kate of Retention For Ketely Learned Material.
Source: Mkpa, A.M. (1981). "l'he Effects of Behavioural Objectives on Achievement and Retention in History." Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis IJNN.
Explanations of Forgetting
Psychologists have propounded rrmny tneories in an attempt to explain the I \ 4
process of forgetting. Five of such psychological explanations are as follows:
1. Disuse
2. Interference
3. Reorganisation 4
4. Obliterative subsumption . , 5. Motivated Forgetting
Disuse Theory
This theory holds that practice makes perfect. If an idea or skill that is
learned is often practised and used the learning becomes permanent. But if the
learned idea or skill is not put into use and practised, there is a progressive fading
away of the idea in the memory. Degree of fading increases with time. And this
results in forgetting.
Interference Theory
Forgetting occurs also when there is a rude interruption (interference) of
what is learned at present with what is learned in another occasion. This
interference takes place in opposite directions. This is called proactive and
76
retroactive inhibitions depending on the direction (Mkpa, 1981 :51).
Retroactive inhibition takes place when what is learnt at present interferes
with earlier learning.
Proactive inhibition occurs when what is learnt earlier interferes with what is learnt ,
at present.
Reorganisation Theory of Forgetting , \
4,
Process of reorganisation occurs when certain materials are not properly +
learnt and are not used for some time now. As soon as the need for that poorly
learnt skill or idea arises, we recall and quickly
previously learned into a new pattern no matter I
re-organise whatever we have
how incoherent it may be. For
instance, a student learned the spelling of receive but has not used the word for
a long t~me. Now, he needs the word to reply a letter, so he reorganises what he
knows before and writes down "receive". In his effort to re-organise to meet the
present challenge; a wrong spelling is accepted (Mkpa, 1981).
Obliterative Subsumption Theory
Subsumption theory states that forgetting occurs as soon as materials
learnt earlier lose their identity and so become obliterated from memory.
Motivated Forgetting/Repression
According to Klausmeier and Godwin (1975) motivated forgetting and
repression occurs when we have in our lives sad and unpleasant events which we
do not like to remember. We always want to purposely push them out of our
memory. Events such as deaths, loss of property and position are sources of
discomfort whenever they are remembered. Because of this, one always
purposely wants to forget such things. This is called motivated forgetting or b
repression.
Klausmeier and Godwin (1975) put forward the five theories of forgetting but
Underwood (1 969) analysed the attributes of memory.
The Attributes of Memory
Underwood (1969) defined memory as an organism's record of event.
Underwood's classification of Attributes of memory:
Temporal Attributes d
Examples:
Recalling of past events.
Remembering what happened in the past.
Special Attribute
Examples:
Recalling a figure and where it appeared in a page.
Remembering a word and its position on a page.
Frequency Attribute:
Examples:
Recognizing that the letter "e" occurs more frequently in words than "z" +
Recognising that the word "the" appears more frequency on a page than
the word "page"
Modality Attribute
Examples:
Recalling an event by associating it with auditory experience. I heard him
say he would travel to Lagos
Recalling an event by associating it with visual experience I" saw it in a I + .
television screen".
Acoustic Attribute
Recalling the form of a letter word or phrase because of its sound.
Remembering a word when a rhymingtword is associated with it.
Visual Attribute
Examples:
Recalling the form or sound of a letter word or phrase because of its
appearance. Recalling a word or phrase because of what the word or 'phrase ,
represents.
Affective Attribute
Example: b
Recalling the pleasant or unpleasant feelings associated with words even
though the words themselves may not be recalled.
Context Attribute
Example:
Recalling the context in which "their" and "there" were learnt initially makes
recall of the correct spelling easy.
Verbal Attribute
Example:
If the word "strong" is associated with the word "powerful" during initial
learning it becomes a memory attribute for the recall of the word "powerful".
80
Curves of Retention
Theoretical curves can be produced to describe rates of forgetting and
retention. Klausmeier and Godwin (1975) produced such curves (see Fig. 2).
The curve shows that concepts and principles are remembered for longer periods..
For instance, the concept of time though acquired at a low level of mastery in
childhood becomes stronger ad remain stronger as the child grows up. Facts are
easily forgotten. Concepts are difficult to forget. In fact, facts are rapidly forgotten $
especially when such information is less meaningful to us. The less meaningful
it is the more rapidly it is forgotten.
Mkpa (1 981) quoting Dennise (1 977) and Maddox (1 963) presented a curve
which describes forgetting of different kinds of materials: Concepts and principles,
poetry, prose and nonsense syllables (See Fig. 3). Research has shown that these
various degrees of retention are present in actual school situation.
Fig. 2
- -
Time Since Learning
Fig. 2. Traditional Hypothetical Retention Curves for Different Classes of Materials.
Source: Mkpa, A.M. (1981), "The Effects of Behavioural Objectives on Achievement and Retention in History." Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis U.N.N.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
concepts & principles
5 10 15 20 25 30
Days since learning.
Poetry
Prose
Nonsense syllables
. Fig. 3 Curves of Forgetting of Different Types of Material.
Source: Mkpa, A.M. (1981) "The Effects of Behavioural Objectives on Achievement and Retention in history" Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis UNN.
Retention of Subject Matter by Primary School/Secondary and College Students
Sterrett and Davis (1954) studied the retention of school subjects by
different categories of learners and pointed to different retention of various.
subjects by learners.
Retention of Elementary School Subjects
Studies reported by Klausmeier (1 971) on primary school subjects in U.S.A. b
show that there is a difference in the rate of forgetting different types of historical
materials and a total loss in the case of difficult historical materials.
Arithmetical studies show that advanced materials are more easily lost and
forgotten than simple ones. Degree of difficulty and complexity of the material
affects the rate and amount of loss (Mkpa, 1981).
Retention of Secondary and College Subjects
Studies were conducted only in Mathematics and Science. None was
reported in history. Studies in Mathematics show that some items were retained
by 100% of the class while other items showed a loss of 100%. Studies in
sciences show varying degrees of loss depending on the type of materials
presented. Retention is higher in general information and application of facts and
lower in ability to recall and write equations. For instance in a study of college
Chemistry, students showed a loss of 42% of information after 3 months and after
5 years they were able to recall 19% of the information on school Chemistry
(Mkpa, 1981). 4
Studies in science subjects show there is definite loss over time intervals. The loss
varies from 50% after 4 months to 94% after one year. The greatest loss is in
technical subjects (Mkpa, 1981). Retention after 4 years was highest in the area +
of United States history while lowest retention was in Physics and Chemistry
(Mkpa, 1981).
Review of Empirical Research on Retention
With the publication of Ebbinghaus (1885) work; a number of studies on
Retention and forgetting was undertaken by psychologists. This review intends to
examine related literature in this area. The works of Luh (1922) and Williams
(1 926) supported the forgetting curves. Levine and Murphy (1 943) reported that
attitude was an important variable, in determining forgetting rate. Resenweigh
(1 943) stated that "pleasantness and unpleasantness" of learning materials are
factors in retention. McGeoch and lrion (1952) reported that retention is affected
by the following factors.
1. Conditions under which retention is measured.
2. Conditions in which learning took place. , -,-
3. Conditions of interference which have occurred between the time of original
learning and later testing.
4. Physical and mental states of the individual.
Pressey, Robinson and Harrocks (1959) stated that at the end of a course d
students retain 75% of the facts covered and then a continuing progressive falling
off follows.
Opposing this view Stephens (1956) held that if the material is sufficiently
meaningful no forgetting occurs. Bruene (1928) carried out an experiment to
determine the effect of 3 month holidays on achievement levels of classes 4 to 6
students. Using the Standford Achievement Test, he found out that children -
remembered what they leant in Reading and Science but forgot what they learnt
in spelling, history and literature. The high ability group of 110 I.Q. and above
showed the greatest loss in Mathematics and reasoning. The lower ability group
showed increase in Mathematical reasoning. lrmina (1920) and Bruene (1928)
therefore concluded that ~bbinghaus curve of- forgetting-was not -atways truer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Retention studies were also conducted by Lahey (1 941), Meltz (1 956) in the area
86
of science and concluded that I.Q. and achievement were factors affecting
retention. Dowling and Brown (1957) investigated the relationship between
meaningfulness of learned material and retention. Retention Test was administered
first after one day and then after seven days. It was discovered that the more
meaningful the material, the greater the retention whether it is one day after
learning or seven days after learning. Effect of "meaningfulness" on retention is
significant beyond 0.01 level of significance. Dowling pnd Brown (1957) finding
has great implication for retention studies. It shows that %me lapse" is not a
significant factor in retention tests.
Another curious finding is the effect of note taking and revision on retention.
Matre and Carter (1975) used 172 undergraduate psychology students to carry
out an experiment on the effects of note taking and revision on retention of
information presented by lecture. The students listened to a lecture, copied notes
and revised them. Retention test was given immediately and again one week after.
( - 3 Results showed that taking and revising notes yielded maximum retention.
Listening only without revision of any note results in poor performance. The result
of retention test in this study will confirm or deny this assertion.
Gender Effects on Students Achievement
This review is necessitated by the fact that the effects which discussion and
lecture methods have on students achievement and retention depending on the
gender of the individual was also determined.
The study is organ~sed under three subheadings:
- Disparity in achievement due to male superiority.
- Disparity in achievement due to female superiority.
- Parity in achievement between both gender.
Disparity due to Male Superiority in Achievement
Empirical studies exist on how gender or gender differences affect students
academic ach~evement. The standardised Mathematics Achievement Test (SMAT)
administered by Russell (1982) showed that gender differences attect stlrirerlt
p~rbrr-nance In Mathemat~cs in favour of boys. Baja (1979) carried out a study in
lbadan in Chemistry achievement test and concluded that boys vr/+ ;- >I tl-l-l : I J
girls in Chemistry achievement test. Ohuche and Obioma (1981) conducted a
study on the gender differences or its effects on Mathematics achievement and
came out with a fmding that males performed better than girls. Obioma (1982)
I
carried out another study In Benue on Diagnostic Mathematics Achievement Test "
88
and concluded that males performed better than females. lbeme (1975) studied
the pattern of performance of boys and girls in primary Mathematics. The study
concluded that male performed better than females. Kostic (1954) quoted by
Obioma (1985) studied gender differences in reasoning ability of students and
found out that males performed better than females. Mitchelmore (1973) carried
out a study in Ghana to ascertain gender differences in performance of students
in Modern Mathematics and concluded that boys performed better than girls.
Disparity in Achievement due to Female Superiority
Nigeriama (1974) carried out a study on motivation among others using
cumulative Grade Point Average of 1970 to 1973 graduates and discovered that
females performed better than males.
Barrick (1980) carried out a study on students attitude to Mathematics and
concluded that girls performed better than boys. Mansary (1988) studied gender
differences in verbal concepts achievement in social studies in lbadan and , \ &
discovered that girls performed better than boys.
Parity in Achievement Between both gender
Osokoya (1988) conducted a study in lbadan on effects of gender
differences on history achievement test (H.A.T.) and discovered that there was no
89
gender differences in achievement; thereby maintaining neutral stand in gender
relationship to performance. lnomiesa (1985) carried out a study on relationship
between performance of males and females in Primary Science in former Bendel.
His findings showed no significant difference between both sexes. Ezike and
Nwana (1 981) carried out an opinion study in Mathematics in Nsukka to ascertain
the opinion of students on the use of lgbo Language in teaching Mathematics.
They came out with a finding that there was no significant difference in the + performance of both sexes. Different conclusions by researchers on the effect of
gender on academic attainment calls for further investigations. Moreover, most of
the studies were conducted in Science and Mathematics and very few in history.
The present study is a response to this need. The work intends to fill a gap in this
direction.
Summary
Related available literature showed that history of education is a discipline
for producing good citizens. It is of crucial importance in the education, political
socialization and conscientization of youths. But history in general as well as
history of education is no more taken seriously by most students in colleges of
education. This resulted in poor performance by students in history of education
90
examinations. Since this downward trend a lot of studies on teaching methods has
been undertaken by investigators in an effort to find solutions to the problem. One
of such research efforts in recent times is Nnadozie's (1982) study on the "Future
of History as a School Subject" in which he carried out an experiment using four
teaching methods to determine the best method for teaching general history. His
work suffered from design shortcomings one of which is non compliance with his
research blue print. Another worrisome aspect of his design is the use of ANOVA
in the treatment of experimental data involving a pretest instead of ANCOVA which
would have yielded more reliable results. Details of Nnadozie's experiment were
given at page 61. Osokoya (1988) carried out a similar study and had the same
design problem. Details of Osokoya's experiment were given at page 63. The
weaknesses and contradictions found in the two studies confounded their findings
and rendered their works parochial and inconsequential thereby making their
conclusions and findings unacceptable. Such findings and conclusions can no I \ --,
longer be taken seriously by a careful student of our history hence the need for -
the present study. Other research works on teaching and learning abound in
literature but none has investigated the effects of teaching methods on
achievement and retention in history of education in colleges of education.
91
Retention studies also abound in literature with a preponderance of such works
in natural sciences and psychology. However, available literature in retention
studies was reviewed with profit. The review afforded an opportunity to have a
better conceptualisation of the problem under investigation. For instance, available'
literature revealed that time lag is not a significant factor in retention test. Another
curious finding is that note taking and revision given with a lecture method yield
maximum retention. These views will be confirmed or rejected by the present
study.
Also, gender as a factor form an aspect of this review. It is an important
factor every teacher has to be conscious of when selecting teaching methods.
Finally, by this study the present researcher would be in a position to
determine the extent the major conclusions and findings in this literature review
are applicable to teaching and learning of history of education in our colleges of
education today.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the researcher presents and describes the methodology
used for this study under the following headings:
Research Design
Area of Study
Population of the Study
Sample and Sampling Procedure
lnstruments for Data Collection
Reliability and Validity of lnstruments
Methods of Data Analysis
Research Design
The study is a quasi experimental research. Specifically, it is a non-
equivalent control group design. The study is quasi experimental because full
experimental control is lacking. Both the control group and the experimental group
did not have pre-experimental sampling equivalence (Campbell and Stanley,
1963), because there was no randomization of subjects. Randomization of p p p p p p - - - - - -
subjects in schools and colleges disrupts College organisation and calendar of
X - Treatment
Area of Study
The study was conducted in Anambra, Delta and Enugu States. The three
states have six colleges of education out of which three were selected. (See
Appendix G). The three states are geographically contiguous. Consideration of
geographical proximity, and administrative ease of data collection was the reason
for the selection of the three states. Moreover, Federal College of Education Asaba
93
events. For this reason, intact classes were randomly assigned to experimental
and control groups. The design is represented in Table 4.
Table 4:
Research Design
T2 - Post test
Experimental Group
Control Group
(Technical) was selected to make the study less parochial and generalisation
TI - Pretest
Pretest
T 1
T 1
Treatment
X +
Post test
T2 T2
94
easy. Furthermore, geographic restriction of the sample made it easy and simple
for the researcher to monitor successfully and effectively classroom practices
going on in the three colleges. The researcher had to shuttle around these three
colleges throughout the six week duration of the experiment.
Population of the Study
The population of the study consisted of all the nine hundred and
seventeen History of Education Students in the three,colleges of Education in
Anambra, Delta and Enugu States of Nigeria. Anambra State College of Education
Nsugbe (ASCEN) had 210 students who registered History of education at the
beginning of this research. Federal College of Education Asaba (FCEAO had 501
students offering the course at the beginning of the study. Federal College of
Education Eha-Amufu (FCEE) had 206 students who registered for the course at
the commencement of the research. These figures were obtained from school
records provided by the lecturers who taught the course.
Source: Nwigbo, P.A. and Mazi, Chira; - ASCEN; Emele, L.O., and Eya, Lawrence
- FCEE. ljeoma Richard FCEA 0.
95
Sample and Sampling Technique
The sample was made up of all the 432 History of Education students
sampled randomly from the above nine hundred and seventeen students of the
three Colleges of Education in Anambra, Delta and Enugu States. This figure
represents 47 percent of the target population.
Purposive sampling technique was used
Purposive sampling is a technique in which subjects are selected because +
of their importance in the study as well as administrative ease of data collection.
The subjects in the three colleges were grouped along subject areas - Arts,
sciences, Humanities, Business Education. From these subject grouping two intact
classes were used in each college - Arts, Humanities (including Social Studies).
These were selected because of their closeness to History of Education. By
simple balloting, experimental and control groups were selected. Pieces of paper
containing the names of the two intact classes or subject groups were folded and
mixed together. The name of the first subject area drawn was used as the
experimental group while the second sampled subject area was the control group.
On the whole 206 subjects in the experimental group and 226 in the control group
were used in the study.
Table 5: Sample Distribution of Respondents
I 1 (ASCEN) 1 35 1 43 1 78 I College
Two research instruments and lesson plans were used for the study. The
instruments are as follows:
1. History of Education Achievement Test (HAT)
2. History of Education Retention Test (HIRET).
THE HAT: This is a 22-item multiple choice history of education achievement Test.
To develop this test (HAT) topics in History of Education course outline were
used. The topics were derived from the National Commission for Colleges of
Education Minimum Standard for NCE Teachers (Education) published by the
National Commission for Colleges of Education Kaduna in August, 1990. To
ensure that experimental schools and individual students had not studied the f -,
topics selected for this study, first year students who were registering this course "
Experimental group
Total
i
Control Group Total
206 226 432
97
for the first time were used. The result of the Tests was used as part of their first
Semester Examination Result.
The topics chosen are as follows:
1. The changing. Nature of Anglo-Nigerian Relations: Educational Revolution
and Explosion (Eclipse of Indigenous and Islamic Education).
2. History of Western Education.
New Commercial Developments (Slave Trade), and their impact on +
Education: Commerce, Christianity and Colonialism or Business, Bible and
Bullet. The Ascendancy of Western Education (Fafunwa pp. 74-81).
3. Colonial Education:
British Conquest of Nigeria - The Aggressive Colonialism:
Three Civilising Agents and Pacification: Educational Developments and - .
Amalgamation.
4. Nigerian Education in the 20th Century: Early phase of British Rule - 1916
Education Code (Fafunwa pp. 92-127).
5. Decolonisation Process: Role of Nationalist Movements in Educational
Development (Fafunwa p. 1 40).
7. Constitutional Development and Education.
Western Region Breaks with the Past - UPE.
Eastern Regions Brave Attempt - UPE Attempted.
Lagos Introduced her own Scheme.
Northern Region Attempts to Bridge the Gap.
(Fafunwa pp. 167-1 73).
Validity of the Instrument b
The test items (HAT) were face-validated by lecturers in History of
Education. The validated items were used for the development of the multiple
choice test by the researcher. The developed instrument was subjected to another
validation by experts in Measurement and Evaluation. The advice of these experts
in terms of content coverage, content relevance, ambiguity and vagueness helped
to delete, modify and replace items that were too easy or too difficult or
ambiguous. Furthermore, content validation of HAT was ensured by using a Test
Blue Print or a Table of Specification as shown in Table 6 below. In preparing the
Test Blue Print, items were developed according to Lower Thinking Level
questions (LTQ) and Higher Thinking Level question (HTQ). This means that items
assessing knowledge Comprehension and Application dealt with Lower Thinking
99
processes while items assessing Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation tested higher
thinking processes. The Test Blue Print was then presented to two experts in
Measurement and Evaluation and four History of Education Lecturers for
validation. Their criticisms increased efficiency in developing the Test Blue Print.
To further develop the Test Blue Print the Topics were reorganised into 3-
units:
1. Anglo Nigeria Relations - Educational Revolution and Explosion. 4
2. Aggressive Colonialism - The Ascendancy of Western Education.
3. Decolonisation Process and Educational Developments.
Table 6: The Test Blue Print
SINo. Units
Anglo N~ger~n Relnt~ons Educat~onnl Revolut~on and Explos~on
Aggress~ve Colonlal~sm Ascendancy of Western Educat~on
Decolon~sat~on Process and Educatronal Development
I Total
LTQ HTQ Total
100
The basis for assignment of items in the test, blue print was the emphasis laid on
each aspect of the topic. Furthermore, emphasis on the scope and content
coverage of each unit was also considered.
Report on Pilot Study
A try out test of HAT was conducted using History of Education students
in Alvan lkoku College of Education Owerri (AICE). Alvan was not used in the
actual experiment. The aim of any experimental try out was to obtain data #
concerning the Test item characteristics - that is to obtain information about the
difficulty of each test item, the discriminating power of each test item and the
effectiveness of each distractor for each test item. Another aim of "try out Test"
was to obtain information about the equivalence of the test items in various forms
of the test and the adequacy of the directions, the time limits and the test format
(Agwagah, 1993:97). Since this work is not an instrumentation research, the
researcher did not gather information on test item characteristics by item analysis
of the try out test results. Moreover, there was onlv one form of the historv of
education achievement test (HAT) for pre treatment and ~ o s t treatment. The try
out test therefore helped the researcher to determine the length of time for the
pre-test and sopthey try nut test was made a poweF test. This means-tha-there
101
was no time limit. Students were allowed to write and submit their scripts at their
own time. This enabled the researcher to determine the appropriate time limit for
the HAT. In this way length of time for HAT was fixed to be one hour. The result
of the try out test also enabled the researcher to modify some items where
necessary. For example, where many students failed in one item, the item was
I
modified. Any adverse situation, hindrance or problem that might work to hamper Z1-
excellent testing conditions was controlled or redressed by the researcher. For +
instance, sitting arrangement was determined to suit the testing condition. Any
ambiguities and suspected errors in the test were discovered from students and
immediate steps taken to redress the issue.
A marking Scheme (Appendix D) prepared by the researcher and validated
by two experts in History of Education was used in scoring the Pre-test for the try
out testing.
Reliability of the Instrument
Appropriate coefficient of reliability was established for the multiple choice
history of education achievement test scores. Using the result of the pilot study
the internal consistency coefficient of the HAT scores was estimated using Kudder
Richardson 21 Formula (K - R21). The internal consistency reliability coefficient of
1 02
the Pre - HAT scores (Pre test on HAT) using K.R. 21 formula was 0.95. The K.R.
21 formula was considered appropriate and adequate because the iterns of the
history of education achievement test (HAT) were dichotomously scored.
The internal consistency reliability coefficient of the Post HAT was 0.91 (i.e. Post
test on HAT). High indices were obtained which proved that the internal
consistency reliability coefficient of students performance was improving with the
second administration of the History of Education Achievement Test. Thus, the *
consistency of the testing procedure and the consistency over different items were
determined for the pre HAT and post HAT and were found to be the same. The , , , -1.
post HAT which was an equivalent or parallel form of pre HAT followed the same
process of development and validation as in pre HAT. The test-retest (stability)
index was also determined. A stability index of 0.70 was obtained using the
person r. This index is not low. It wasttherefore quite expected considering the
time interval between the two administrations of the test. According to Gronlund,
(1 976) small reliability coefficient should be expected for longer time periods.
Conversely high indices should be expected for shorter periods of time (Agwagah,
l993:85). Only seven days elapsed before HlRET was administered. Stability
index is needed whenever a Test is administered twice at different times. A space
103
of seven days was considered adequate because research has shown that time
lag was not a significant factor in retention test. (Dowling and Brown, 1957).
THE HlERT (History of Education Retention ~ e s $
This is also referred to as the Modified HAT. This test was necessary for
determining the extent to which the experimental and control groups differed in
remembering the lesson they learnt. The test which was administered seven davs
after the achievement test was the same as the HAT. The only difference was that
b in HIRET the serial order in which the items were arranged in HAT was altered.
HIRET was therefore a modified HAT. But on the whole the items were essentially
identical. A measure of equivalence was not established for HlRET as well as the
equivalent forms index because there was only one form of the HAT. History
Retention Test (HIRET) was only a modified HAT (History Achievement Test) as
mentioned above. Considering the time lag between the two administrations of the I \
*V
Tests high reliability coefficient was satisfactory. According to Grolund (1976), for
long periods of time, small reliability coefficient would be expected. This implies
that for short periods of time high reliability coefficient should be expected.
Furthermore, once a time lag was allowed between the two tests (HAT and HIRET)
all the three well known sources of variation would have had a chance to show
1 04
their effects (Agwagah, 1993:85). The three sources of variations as identified by
Thorndike and Hagen, (1 977:79) were as follows:
Variations arising from the measurement itself;
Variation in the individual over time;
Variation due to the sample of tasks
These variations were taken care of by using multivariate analysis of covariance.
Marking scheme which was also prepared by the researcher and validated #
by 3 experts in education was used in scoring the HIRET. (See Appendix E).
The Lesson Plans
Lesson Plans developed by the researcher were used on the experiment
for weekly lessons throughout the six week duration of the experiment. Lesson
plans were the same for both groups except that the experimental Group was
taught using Discussion method while the control group was taught using lecture
method
The initial draft of the lesson plans was validated by three .experts in the
University and two history of education teachers from colleges of Education. This
was done in order to obtain advice of experts in terms of content coverage, f
content relevance and removal of vagueness and ambiguities. The validated 4
105
lesson plans were t h b trial tested in the field by using them to teach history of
education to students of Alvan Ikoku College of Education Owerri. Two history of
education teachers were used for the exercise.This trial testing of the lesson plan
was expected to help the researcher to determine the suitability of the lesson
plans - to find out whether the lesson plans were well designed such that the
stated objectives of the lessons could be achieved in a minimum time with a
maximum benefit using the plans. +
Training Programme for Teachers
Control of teacher variable was achieved by organising a training
programme for teachers used in the experiment. It was a coordination meeting.
The purpose was to share and harmonise ideas. The researcher had to make it
clear to teachers that emphasis should be on better understanding of concepts
and concretising ideas. Emphasis should be on convergent views, not divergent
thinking. This prepared them for objective test that was to follow at the end of the
experiment.
Differences between Discussion and Lecture methods were emphasised.
Lecture Method
- Involves teaching students collectively as a class.
- Students were not organised in groups.
They rnamtained their normal sitting positions in the class. Teacher gave lecture to them and they copied notes at the end of the lesson.
- Students were passive listeners
- No tasks were assigned to students before the lesson.
- Students were not elected to perform some important roles like moderation and recording during the lesson.
Discussion Method
Involves breaking the class into small groups of 10 students per group for effective discussion of lesson topics.
It involves re-arrangement of sitting positions In the class into full circle or semi- circle.
Students were active pnrtic~pants
Students were given what to do before the lesson.
Some students were elected to perform some tasks (recording and moderating) during the d~scuss~on.
For effective group work members of each group selected their own group leaders
based on democratic principles which discussion method inculcates in children.
Group leaders were also given briefing on what their roles should be. Chairman
should moderate, direct and time the discussion. Secretary should record
important facts agreed upon by the group. Discussion time in each lesson lasted
for 30 minutes. Teachers should use five minutes to re-assemble the groups for
107
general discussion. Points were awarded to correct answers. At the end of the
lesson, the teacher announced the scores for each group. The group with the
highest score was made known to them. Teacher praised the best group.
At the end of the training exercise the researcher had to watch the teachers
carry out the above instructions/guidelines in a mock classroom situation. When
the teachers started to perform according to instructions, the researcher allowed
them to teach the students. +
Through this training and coordination exercise and by following similar
instructions as well as using the same lesson plan, teacher effect was minimized.
Conduct of the Study
The intact classes that were randomly composed in the 3 colleges were
randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The 22 item multiple choice
History of Education achievement pretest - the pretreatment HAT was
administered to the subjects before the beginning of the experiment. The teaching
started after the pre-tests. The Subjects in both the experimental and control
groups were taught the same topics within the same length of time. Discussion
method was used for the experimental group while the control group received
teaching through lecture method. Each group received instruction for six weeks
of two hours per week. The lesson plans were used to minimize teacher effect.
Since no new method was used In the control group, the mstruct~on was l~ke the
normal classroom procedure. This expectation was met by using the permanent
teachers in the three colleges to teach the students.
Another factor which the researcher tried to control was the "Hawthorne
effect". Call and Waggin (1966) explained Hawthorne effect as the noticeable
difference which is likely to occur in any experimental situation where the subjects *
are aware that they are being used for an experiment. To avoid this problem, non
instructional directions given to both experimental and control groups in the three
colleges were identical. There was therefore nothing like take home assignments
or a quiz during the period of this study for the two groups in the 3 colleges. The
aim of adopting this measure according to Ali (1982) was to make the students
feel that they shared equal status - a condition that reduced to the barest
minimum the unwanted Hawthorne effect (Agwagah, 1993).
Another problem that was taken care of during the experiment was the test
effect. This problem could arise if there was testing during the experiment. The
use of test and test-like events such as projects and assignments were avoided
until the end of the experiment. Since no test, assignment or project was
109
administered to the subjects until the end of the experiment, test effect was
reduced/minimized. Seven days after the six weeks teaching, the rnodified HAT - , A ,
that is, HlRET was administered. At the end of the test the scripts were collected
and the subjects were allowed to go. The pretreatment HAT the post treatment
HAT and HlRET were scored using face validated marking schemes.
One major internal validity threat for non equivalent control group design,
which was provided by regression was controlled by the use of Covariance b
statistics. Application of analysis of covariance to the non equivalent control group
design setting involves assumptions such as that of homogeneity of regression
(Campbell and Stanley, 1963:W). The preliminary analysis of this assumption is
outside the scope of this work.
Methods of Data Analysis
Data collected by the use of the two instruments were analysed with
respect to each research question and hypothesis.
Research Questions
1. What are the effects of D~scussion and Lecture methods of teaching on
students achievement in history of education?
The mean achievement scores and standard deviation of the scores of the
subjects in H.A.T. were computed.
2. To what extent does method of teaching affect students Retention of
concepts taught in history of education?
Mean retention scores and standard deviation* of the scores of subjects in
HlRET were calculated.
3. What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught
history of education using Discussion method? I ,,.
Mean achievement scores and staAdard deviation* of achievement scores
of male and female students in HAT were computed.
4. What are the mean retention scores of rnale and female students taught
history of education using ~iscu6sion method?
Mean retention scores and standard deviation* of the retention scores of
male and female students were computed to answer this question.
* For Standard Deviation Scores See Appendices H,I, J,K,.
Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of
students taught with Discussion method and those taught with Lecture
method as measured by their history achievement test (HAT).
~ ~ ~ ~
1 1 1
2. There is no significant difference in the retention scores of students taught
with Discussion method and those taught using Lecture method as
measured by history retention test (HIRET).
3. There is no significant interaction of the teaching methods on students
achievement as measured by their mean scores in history of education
achievement test (HAT).
4. There is no significant interaction of teaching methods on students
# retention as measured by their mean scores in history of education
retention test (HIRET).
The above four hypotheses were test at P 0.05 using multivariate analysis
of covariance (ANCOVA).
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
In this chapter analysis of data and results of the study were presented.
Data were obtained by administering the pre-test (pre - HAT), post-test (Post HAT),
and Modified HAT (HIRET) to the subjects. The data were summarised and
analysed on the basis of each research question and hypothesis.
Table 7: Pearson Correlation Coefficient(r) Between the Covariates and their respective Dependent Variables ,
Covariates
I I I I
I Critical - r 1 0.20 1 0.20 1 0.20 I
Dependent
Pre-HAT Scores
Pre HlRET Scores
From Table 7 above it is observed that the value of the correlation coefficient(r)
between the covariate and its dependent variable is 0.77 for the Treatment group
Treatment
Post HAT Scores
Post HlRET Scores
and 0.75 for the control group. For the 'pooled' correlation coefficient, it is 0.55.
1
The observed (computed) value of 'r' is greater than the critical value of 'r' which .,
Control
0.91
is required for the test of significance at 0.05 level. The critical value is found to
Pooled
0.55 0.77 0.75
0.70 0.55
113
be 0.20. Therefore, the covariate shows a significant relationship with the
dependent variable. This shows that the covariate has a linear correspondence
with the dependent variable. The covariate therefore is linearly related to the
dependent variable. The linearity assumption for the use of ANCOVA is satisfied
by the data for this study. Having satisfied this requirement the data for this study
is hereby presented and analysed.
Effects of Discussion and Lecture Methods on Students Achievement b
Research Question 1 :
What are the effects of Discussion and Lecture methods of teaching on
students achievement in history of education?
This Question was answered by computing the Mean and Standard
Deviation of Scores of students in HAT as shown in Table 8 and Appendix I.
Table 8: Mean Scores of Subjects in H.A.T.
1 Control Group 1 226 1 5.23 1 7.01 I
No of Subjects
Differences in Mean of Groups
Table 8 shows that in post - HAT the Experimental Group obtained a higher mean
Pre HAT Mean
of 13.56 with standard deviation (SD) of 4.50 while the control Group obtained - - - - - - - - -
Post HAT Mean
a lower mean of 7.01 and Standard Deviation of 4.09 (See Appendix H).
This shows a difference in Mean Score of 6.55 in favour of Experimental
Group. Whereas the Experimental Group obtained a pre-test Post-test gain of 8.81
. (from 4.75 to 13.56), the control Group had a pre-test post-test gain of 1.78 (from
5.23 to 7.01). The Experimental Group therefore appears to have gained more
from Discussion method. To ascertain whether this apparent difference was
significant the following statistical Hypothesis was tested using 2 - way ANCOVA b
at P 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis I:
There is no significant difference in the mean Achievement scores of
students taught with Discussion method and those taught with Lecture method as
measured by their History Achievement Test (HAT).
115
Table 9: A Two-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) showing students
performance in HAT
Source of Variation
Covariates Pre HAT Man Effect Gender T. Method 2 Way Interaction Gender 1.. Method Explained Residual
Total
Sum of Squares Squares 7 FCV Decision
The results in Table 9 show that Treatment (Discussion Method) is a significant
factor in students achievement in history of education. The computed " F value of
78.707 exceeds the critical value of " F which is 3.02 at 0.05 level of significance.
The null hypothesis of no significant difference is therefore rejected. This means
that there is a significant difference in the mean HAT scores of students exposed
to Discussion method and those not so exposed. This means that Discussion
method results in greater learning than teaching using lecture method.
Research Question 2:
To what extent does method of teaching affect students Retention of
concepts taught in History of Education?
This question was answered by computing the mean and standard
Deviation of retention scores of students as shown in Table 10.
Table 10: Mean Scores of Subjects in HlRET (History Retention Test)
Experimental Group
Table 10 above shows that in Post - HAT the Experimental Group obtained a
higher mean Retention score of 11.63 with SD of 4.62 as seen in Appendix I, while
the control Group obtained a lower mean score of 6.50 with SD of 3.66. This
shows a difference in Mean Score of 5.13 in favour of Experimental Group.
Furthermore, the Experimental Group obtained a post HATIHIRET loss of 1.93
(from 13.56 to 11.63). The Experimental Group seems to have gained more in
Retention of concepts taught in history of education. To ascertain whether the
observed difference was significant, the following statistical hypothesis was tested
using Two - way ANCOVA at P < 0.05 level of significance.
Control Group
Otfferences In Mean of Groups
No of subjects
206
226
Post HAT Mean
13.56
HlRET Mean
11.63
7.01
6.55
6.50
5.13
117
Hypothesis 2:
There is no significant difference in the Retention scores of students taught
with Discussion Method and those taught using Lecture method as rneasured by
history retention test (HIRET).
Table 11: A 2 - way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) showing students performance in HIRET.
Covariates Post HAT Main Effects Gender T. Method 2 - Way Interaction Gender T. Met hod Explained Residual Total
Covariate
Post HAT
Square
The above results in Table 11 show that TreatmentIMain Effect (Discussion
Method) is a significant factor on students retention of concepts taught in history , , 4
of education. The computed "F" value of 56.410 is greater than the critical value
F
3.201 3.201
56.410 11.013
103.869
0.065
0.065 46.550
FCV
3.86 3.86
3.02 3.06 3.86
3.86
3.86
Result/ Decision
S S S
NS
NS
1 I 8
of F which is 3.02 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis of no
significant difference is rejected. This means that there is a significant difference
in the retention scores of students taught history of education with Discussion
method and those taught with lecture method.
Research Question 3
What are the Mean Achievement scores of male and female students taught
history of education using Discussion Method? t
To answer this question the Mean and Standard Deviation of scores of
subjects in each group due to gender were computed. The results of this
computation are displayed in Table 12.
Table 12: Mean Achievement Scores of Subjects due to Treatment and gender in HAT.
4
Group
Experimental
Table 12 shows that for post HAT the Experimental Group Male subjects obtained
Control
Type of Test ,
Pre - HAT
Post - HAT
Pre HAT
Post HAT
Gender
Mean
10.13
10.90
Male
Mean
9.94
13.56
6.50 7.01
Female
8.59 10.92
119
a higher mean score of 10.90 with Standard Deviation of 5.22 as seen from
Appendix J. The male control group has a lower score of 7.01 with standard
deviation of 4.09. (See Appendix J). The Experimental group female subjects had
a higher mean score of 13.56 with Standard Deviation of 4.50 (Appendix J) in Post
HAT. Their control group counterpart hah a lower mean of 10.92 with standard
Deviation of 5.22 (Appendix J). The Experimental group male and female
respondents seem to have performed better than their control group counterparts +
in HAT. Comparing further the Experimental Group male and females subjects
mean Achievement scores in the Post - HAT it was also observed from Table 12
that female students obtained a higher mean score of 13.56 while the male
students in the Experimental group obtained a mean score of 10.90. Furthermore,
female students had a pre-test post-test gain of 3.62 (from 9.94 to 13.56) while
their male counterparts obtained a pre-test post-test gain of 0.77 (from 10.13 to
10.90). This shows that male and female students in the Experimental group
appeared to have gained something equally from the Treatment. Considering the
control group subjects; males obtained a mean of 7.01 and female obtained a
mean score of 10.92 in post HAT.
Referring to the ANCOVA Table (Table 9) gender main effect is not
120
significant. This means that the difference in performance and achievement of
male and female students on HAT is not significant at P 5 0.05 level of
significance. This confirms the inference that male and female students equally
gained something and equally benefitted from the Treatment. However, it is
necessary to find out whether the interaction effect of Discussion method by
gender is significant. To this end Hypothesis 3 was tested at P < 0.05 using the
2 - way ANCOVA.
Hypothesis 3
There is no significant interaction of teaching methods on students
achievement as measured by their mean scores in HAT.
The result of testing this Hypothesis 3 is displayed in Table 9. The
Treatment (T. Mtd) gender-interaction was not significant as can be seen from
Table 9. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 which stated that there is no significant
interaction between the teaching methods and students achievement is not
rejected. This means that students scores on HAT due to Discussion method were
not affected by gender. This implies that the Treatment was effective equally for
both male and female students.
Research Question 4
What are the mean retention scores of male and female students taught
history of education using Discussion method?
The mean retention scores and Standard Deviation of retention scores of male
and female students in each group were computed. The results are presented in
Table 13.
Table 13: Mean Retention Scores of Subjects due to Gender and Treatment in HlRET b
Group I Type of rest Gender
I I I 1 I
Male 1 Female I
Mean Mean
I Experimental
Table 13 shows that in post HAT Experimental group males obtained a mean
1 1 I
Control
retention score of 10.90 with Standard Deviation of 5.22 (See Appendix K). The
Post HAT
Control group males obtained a mean score of 7.01 with Standard Deviation of
Post HAT
4.09 (See Appendix K). The female subjects obtained a higher mean of 13.56 with
I I I 10.90
Standard Deviation of 4.50 in the Experimental group Post Test. The control group
13 56
I I 7.01 10.92
1 22
counterparts obtained a lower mean retention score of 10.92 with Standard
I >
Deviation of 5.22. This means that both male and female students in the -.
Experimental group performed better than their counterparts in the control group.
Comparing the mean retention scores of Experimental group male and female .
students in post HAT, it is observed that females students obtained a higher mean 4
retention score of 13.56 while their male counterparts obtained a lower mean
score of 10.90. This result is confirmed by their pre-test post-test gains. While the #
experimental group female subjects obtained a pre-test post-test gain of 3.62
(from 13.56 to 8.58) in Table 12, their male counterparts obtained a pre-test post
test gain of 0.77 (See Table 12). It is also clear from Table 13 that in HIRET,
experimental group males performed better than the control group males. While
the experimental group males had a mean retention score of 10.35 with Standard
Deviation of 4.32 their control group counterparts had a lower mean of 6.49 with
Standard Deviation of 3.65. But the control group female appeared to have slightly
performed better than their experimental group counterparts by obtaining a mean
retention score of 8.94 with Standard Deviation of 4.86. The experimental group
females obtained a lower mean of 8.58 with Standard Deviation of 4.94 (See
Appendix K). p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~
123
Research Question 4 was further answered by examining the results
displayed in Table 11. From Table 11, gender as a main effect was significant at
P K 0.05. This shows that the difference in the mean retention scores of male and
female students was significant. Nevertheless, it was considered necessary to find
out the interaction effect of teaching methods on students retention as measured 1 A, \
by their mean scores in HIRET by testing Hypothesis 4.
Hypothesis 4 #
There is no significant interaction of teaching methods on students
retention as measured by their mean $cores in HIRET.
Results are presented in Table 1 1 . The interaction effect of Treatment
(T.Mtd.) is shown in the Table to be significant on students achievement and
retention at P 0.05. Therefore, hypothesis 4 is rejected. This means that there
is a significant interaction between teaching method and students performance
in retention Test.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This chapter deals with discussion of findings of the study,
recommendations based on the findings and the conclusions drawn from the
study. Implications of the study and suggestions for further research are
mentioned. The Discussion is presented under the following subheadings:
Effect of Discussion and Lecture methods of teaching on students #
achievement in history of education
Effects of teaching methods on students Retention of concepts taught in
history of education.
Effects of Discussion method on the mean achievement scores of male and
female students.
Effects of Discussion method on the mean Retention scores of male and
female students.
Conclusion.
Educational Implication of the study
Limitations of the Study.
- Recommendations.
Suggestions for further studies.
Summary
Effects of Discussion and Lecture methods on Students Achievement in History of Education
d
It was found from Table 9 that there was a significant difference in the
mean achievement scores of students taught with Discussion method and those
taught with lecture method. The difference was in favour of the Experimental
group. This shows that students exposed to Discussion method performed better
thathose taught with Lecture method. Thus, students achievement in history of
education depended on the method used in teaching them. It appears that .
instructional strategy adopted by a teacher in teaching history of education can
produce differential effects on students achievement in the subject. Therefore,
Discussion method would enhance students achievement in history of education.
This finding is not consistent with that of Nnadozie (1982) which claimed that no
one method of instruction experimented upon proved better than the other.
Nevertheless, some other closely related studies (Ebadan, 1975; Adejumobi, 1978,
Adeyinka, 1983 and Osokoya, 1988), found that students achievement in history
increased by using appropriate teaching methods.
This finding is also in agreement with earlier findings of Bining and Bining
(1 952), Standford and Standford (1 969), Gage (1 969), Marvin (1 WO), Gage and
Berling (1 975), Clark and Starr (1 981 ).
Discussion method seems to promote a democratic lifestyle while lecture
method encourages authoritarian leadership style. Discussion method while .
encouraging active pattern of classroom interaction gives opportunity for free
expression and helps students to develop better social attitudes such as spirit of
cooperation and tolerance, self rehance, democratic leadership qualities, courtesy #
and respect for other peoples opinion. Lecture method promotes low level
interaction situation and encourages lukewarm pattern of behaviour in the
classroom. Discussion method should therefore be more frequently used in
teaching history of education in colleges of education than lecture method. This
does not mean that Discussion method should be an exclusive method of
teaching history of education to avoid boredom which may arise as a result of
absence of instructional variety.
It must be noted that most of the studies on effective teaching methods
were in natural sciences. Furthermore, some of them had other variables and
factors which were not part of the present study. For instance, Nnadozie (1982)
127
teaching. This may account for the Zero correspondence between Nnadozie's
work (1 982) and the present study
It must also be mentioned that democratic atmosphere which is nurtured
by Discussion method has great implications for national development. This is true
srnce Discussion method can be used to bring about a change of heart and
attitude of mind which is necessary for national development in a plural society ' J
like Nigeria. Nigeria needs to change the spirit of the time - that is - the total #
intellectual climate prevailing at present - worship and adoration of material values
and ethnicism. During the early Middle Ages (476 AD to December 25, 800 Ad)
a period in history known as Dark ~ g e 6 , there was no meaningful national growth
and development because the spirit of the time was authoritarianism which was
nurtured by Lecture method of teaching prevalent at that period. Towards the
close of the middle ages there was a revolt of European intellectuals against
medievalism in all its facets - ecclesiastical, philosophical, political and literary.
This revolt was a reaction against medieval theology and dogmatism which
hindered progress and development. The revolt gave birth to a culture known in
history as Renaissance. Renaissance became a revolt against imperial absolutism
as represented by Feudal lords and grand monarchs of Middle Ages. It was also
127
teaching. This may account for the Zero correspondence between Nnadozie's
work (1 982) and the present study.
It must also be mentioned that democratic atmosphere which is nurtured
by Discussion method has great implications for national development. This is true
since Discussion method can be used to bring about a change of heart and
attitude of mind which is necessary for national development in a plural society -,.'
like Nigeria. Nigeria needs to change the spirit of the time - that is - the total b
intellectual climate prevailing at present - worship and adoration of material values
and ethnicism. During the early Middle Ages (476 AD to December 25, 800 Ad)
a period in history known as Dark ~ge;, there was no meaningful national growth
and development because the spirit of the time was authoritarianism which was
nurtured by Lecture method of teaching prevalent at that period. Towards the
close of the middle ages there was a revolt of European intellectuals against
medievalism in all its facets - ecclesiastical, philosophical, political and literary.
This revolt was a reaction against medieval theology and dogmatism which
hindered progress and development. The revolt gave birth to a culture known in
history as Renaissance. Renaissance became a revolt against imperial absolutism
as represented by Feudal lords and grand monarchs of Middle Ages. It was also
~ ~ ~ ~
128
a revolt against clerical absolutism as represented by the Papacy. Thomas
Aquinas was the great organising intellectual of Middle Ages, and the teacher who
formed the intellect of Christian Europe after the exit of St. Augustine - father of
Christian philosophy. He transformed early scholasticism as enunciated by St.
Augustine and set the stage for Renaissance and classical humanism. Thus,
scholars revolted against the literary spirit of Middle Ages (Scholastic Age) which
promoted the study of celebrated writings and favoured authoritarianism with its b
accompanying lecture method of instruction. The revolt produced scientific spirit
and set aside all authority and accepted nothing that did not satisfy reason. I \ ,,,
Decline of Papacy and imperial absolutism led to emergence of nation states and ,
the three great revolutions of 18th century, (Industrial, American and French
Revolutions) and development started.
Lecture method of Middle Ages hindered liberal ideas in religion, science
and scholarship. According to Gardner (1 980), there was little innovation during
the Dark Ages (Middle Ages) when the spirit of the time was authoritarian lecture
method while there was massive explosion in discoveries and inventions during
Renaissance when the moving spirit of the time was democratic discussion
method. Discussion method therefore is the instructional strategy needed in our
129
classrooms for enhancing creativity and national development. To create
awareness and cultivate creativity related behaviour in the classroom both male
and female students should be exposed to Discussion method. This is why there
was a comparison of male and female subjects performance in this study to see
whether there was significant difference. A comparison of the male and female
subjects mean scores showed no significant difference although female students
gained a little more than the male students in the Control Group (Table 12). +
The female subjects also gained a little more than males in experimental
group post test. This result showed parity in achievement between both gender.
The findings agreed with Ezike ad Nwana (1 981), and lnomesia (1 985) who found
no significant difference in the mean score of male and female students in history
achievement Test.
Hesults in Table 9, showed that gender as mainlmajor effect was not a
significant factor. This tended to prove or establish the fact that male and female
students performed equally well when taught with Discussion method. Conversely
this result was inconsistent with Nigerrama (1974), Bannick (1980), and Mansary
(1988) who found a significant difference in the attainments of male and female
subjects in history achievement test in favour of female subjects.
130
From Table 9, still, the Treatment X gender interaction was not significant.
In other words, male and female students performed equally well in history test
administered after using a Discussion method. This shows that students
performance in History Achievement Test after using Discussion Method in
teaching them was not influenced by gender resulting in gender parity in
achievement.
Effects of Teaching Method on Retention +
From Table 10, the difference in the mean retention scores of the
experimental group and control group was shown to favour the experimental
group. This result was confirmed by the findings in Table 11 which clearly
indicated that Discussion method was a significant factor on students retention of
concepts taught in history of education. The students who were exposed to
discussion method performed better in HlRET than those who were not exposed
to this teaching method. One interpretation of this is that increase in student
centred activity was carried over to an increase in students retention ability. This I \
+-
result was in agreement with the findings of Alcorn, Kinder and Schumert quoted
by Clark (1973) who stated that students remember only 20% of what they hear
(Lecture) and 90% of what they say and do (Discussion). This is true since the
experimental group did better than the control group both in post HAT and HIRET.
Results of the study therefore indicated that retention in history of educat~on would
improve if Discussion method would be used in teaching
In spite of the fact that statistically significant difference existed in the mean
retention scores of the two groups; generally the performance of both groups was
low and not very encouraging. These results were in accord with some previous
studies (Osokoya, 1988; Adeyinka, 1983; and Adejumobi, 1978), who found out
b that gain in retention ability in favour of experimental group was small even
though it was statistically significant. This low level of retention ability in history of
education is confirmed by low mean scores of 4.75 with standard Deviation of
2.38 for the experimental group in Pretest and 5.23 as mean and Standard
Deviation of 2.62 for Control Group in Pre Test (Table 9 and Appendix 1). This
shows a low relationship with the subject matter and a weak foundation in the
area. It also shows that the subjects had very low retention ability in the subject.
Thus, it can easily be deduced that the students retention ability in history of
education is very poor and that they are very weak in the subject. This situation
was hinted in previous studies particularly in the area of mastering of time
concepts in history (Osokoya, 1982; Nnadozie, 1982; Bining and Bining, (1 977).
132
In discussing areas of students problems in history of education it was stated that
concept of time had a very high difficulty index (Onwuka, 1973). This reflects the
extent of students weakness in this area of history.
It also shows the extent this topic in history of education contributes to the
low level of performance and retention in the subject.
The findings of this study also agreed with sessional examination results in history
of education in some colleges of education (FCEE, 1995, Yaba College of +
Education 1994), which showed that students performance in history of education
was generally poor. If the mean retention scores of students ranged from 6.50 to
13.56 (Table 10) then one would not be surprised that most researchers lamented
that about 90% of the students scored between Zero (0) and 30% in history
achievement tests.
Effects of Discussion Method on the Mean Achievement Scores of Male and Female Students
The fact that Discussion method as an instructional strategy has proved to
be effective in enhancing achievement and retention though to a moderate extent
implies that students problem in learning and achievement may depend on a
number of factors, one of which is instructional strategy. Other inhibiting factors
to learning and achievement in history of education may be students previous
1 33
weak foundation or poor background in general history in secondary schools.
Poor attitude and lack of interest in the subject might have also contributed
immensely to poor achievement and retention in history of education.
Results in Table 9 showed that Discussion method by gender interaction
was not significant. Therefore, no significant interaction existed between
Discussion method and gender on the students performance in history of
education. Female students achieved significantly better than the male students b
in history of education. This means that the male subjects did not achieve at the
same level in the subject as their female counterpart. The difference in
performance in favour of females is in agreement with the findings of Nigeriama
(1 974), Barrick (1 980) and Mansary (1 986) while disagreeing with Russel .(I 982),
Baja (1979), Ohuche and Obioma (1961). One possible explanation of this
difference is that male students on the average (Russel & Holmes 1940) started
life with less literary and linguistic ability than the female students and discussion
method tended to reduce the gap. This is controversial. However, the assertion
IS based on Bittingers finding that language difficulty affects learning. (Agwagah
1993:118). Another explanation for disparity in achievement due to female
superiority in this study may be that female students, having been found to
1 34
perform better in history when taught using discussion method than male students
at the ages ranging between 16 and 17 (Agwagah, 1993), the gain in performance
by female due to Discussion method increased their ability to comprehend and
retain what is learnt in history of education. (Thredgili - Sowder, J. Sower, L;
Mayer, J.C. and Mayer, M.B. 1985). Since the treatment by gender interaction was
not significant, it shows that Discussion method was responsible for the difference
in the achievement and retention tests of male and female students. b
Effects of Discussion Method on the Mean Retention Scores of Male and Female Students
Results in Table 13 showed that both male and female students taught with
Discussion method performed better than their colleagues in the control group.
It is also clear that Discussion Group males performed better in Retention Test
than the Control group counterparts. The control group females seemed to have
performed better than the experimental group counterparts. From the ANCOVA
Table 11 showing students performance in HlRET gender as a main source of
variation was significant showing that disparity due to gender differences was real.
This finding was inconsistent with the views of McGeoch and lrion (1952) who
rejected gender as a significant factor in retention. But the findings supported
Matre and Carter (1 975) who stated that active student involvement in learning
135
(Discussion Method) as opposed to passive listening (Lecture) yields maximum
retentlor\. The fmd~ngs also agreed w~th the posltlorl taken by Stephanas (1956)
who opined that if students understand the learning material very well through
active participatiorl and involvement no forgetting occurs. Dowling and Brauns
(1957) upholding this position stated that the more meaningful the inaterial, the
greater the retention. Discussion method makes learning historical materials to be
more meaningful to students and so enhances retention. The two researchers
+ therefore concluded that effects of is cuss ion method on retention is significant
beyond 0.01 level of significance (Dowling and Brauns, 1954). The present study
not only upholds this view but also strengthened it by concluding that the effect
of Discussion method on retention was significant beyond 0.05 level of
significance as presented in the 2 - Way ANCOVA, Table 11.
Conclusion
The following conclusions are made based on the results of this study.
Discussion method of teaching increases students achievement and retention in
history of education. Discussion method used in this study was effective in helping
students perform better in history achievement test and history retention test.
Secondly, the results showed that a relationship exists between teaching
I36
method and students achievement in history of education. The experimental group
in this investigation that received instruction in Discussion rnethod made a definite
gain over the control group in history achievement Test (HAT). Although, male and
female students made some gains in HAT, female subjects who had slightly more
gain achieved higher in history retention test (HIRET) than their male counterparts.
Thus, discussion method is effective in bringing about better performance in HAT.
Thirdly, Discussion method also enhanced students ability to retain b
concepts taught in history of education.
Educational Implications of the Study
The findings of this study have implications for academic historians, tertiary
institutions; curriculum designers, authors and writers of history method text
books.
The study showed that Discus,sion method resulted in greater achievement
and retention of concepts in history of education with particular reference to
Colleges of Education. This implies that Discussion method if properly used is
very effective in enhancing students achievement and retention in history of
education. Popularisation of this strategy in history lecture theatres would greatly
improve students achievement and retention in the subject. This implies that
137
history educators or academic historians in tertiary institutions should be
encouraged to adopt this strategy in teaching history of education. If by adopting
this strategy in teaching history of education. (Discussion method) instead of the
lecture method, the present low attainment in the subject can be reversed then
it follows that this has contributed immensely to human knowledge and
development. Research has shown that teachers hardly use Discussion method.
Since this method has proved very successful in teaching history of education in
Nigerian Colleges of Education it implies that Discussion method should be
included in methodology courses in history in our Coll.eges of Education.
Having proved empirically the positive effect of Discussion method on
students achievement and retention in history of education, it becomes necessary
that curriculum designers and planners s h d d endeavour to create general I >
d-L awareness in teachers of this strategy by presenting it as a model in their lesson
plans and units of work. Curriculum designers can recommend Discussion
method in history Curr~culum of Colleges of Education and other teacher
education institutions. 4
History method books contain a long list of instructional strategies without
giving the teachers guidance on the most effective method of teaching history.
1 38
The findings from this study imply that text book authors and writers of history
methodology text books should provide guidance and direction on their books as
to which methods are better and more effective in delivering the goods. In other
words, authors of history methodology text books should now boldly point to .
Discussion method as a better instructional strategy for enhancing students
achievement and retention in history.
Recommendations b
Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations are 4
made in the interest of the education system and history educators.
1. Since this research work has shown that Discussion method was effective
in enhancing students achievement and retention in history, it is recommended
that Discussion method should be used by teachers. Failure to use this method
may negate much of what history of education is intended to achieve. The
essence of discussion is to stimulate thought and enable the students form their
own views from a multiplicity of views that have been expressed with the ultimate
aim of getting at the truth. It is one of the methods that can make the students to
be well informed with a view to make them versatile academics. Lecture method
cannot do this well enough. Discussion method is purposefully cultivated and well
139
nurtured in developed countries. This may in part explain why they are well
informed economically, politically, technologically and scientifically and we are not.
For instance, it was reported that Asbestos Factory was coming to a remote
village in United States and the villagers protested for fear of cancer from
Asbestos. This is because they are well informed and profound in knowledge.
They have read from history that Asbestos Factories cause the spread of cancer.
They do not want history to repeat ~tself and so they protested against the offer. +
In an African town people will rejoice and can even mvite the Governor or , \ -,
the Head of State to perform the opening ceremony of the poisonous/cancerous
factory. This is because of ignorance. The people are not well informed due to
their educational/academic background.
Lecture method used in the up bringing of the African Scholar leaves little
scope for intellectual development, intuition and inquisitiveness. Americans are
very inquisitive - always trying to find out a better way of doing things. They are
restless, always searching for facts or information. This inquisitiveness can only
be developed through Discussion method used in the up bringing of the children.
An average American keeps thinking and finding out how to make things better.
An African is less inquisitive and less intuitive due to the nature of the academic
140
training. This is why Franz Fanon in his book "The Wretched of the Earth" and
Walter Rodney in his book 'How Europe Underdeveloped Africa', argued that
people in Third World Countries can never be free unless they learn how to find
out things for themselves. Finding out information by yourself is the first step in
Discussion method. A discussant must find out information for himself in order to
make meaningful contribution and participate actively in the Discussion. For
instance, in America there is a saying that 'what Philadelphia rejects, Campbell b
accepts'. Philadelphia and Campbell are two neighbouring cities separated by a
River. Philadelphia is a big city. Campbell is small. Philadelphia has a c* t , zenc ,
technologically literate and well informed, Philadelphia rejects industrial waste for
fear of environmental pollution and dumps it in Campbell after paying a huge sum
of money to Campbell. Campbell accepts this offer without protest from the I
general public due to the nature of academic training of its historians. If you want
our children to be Philadelphia in thought and practice and not Campbell,
Discussion method must be used in our Colleges of Education and Universities.
Discussion method is strongly recommended because it is the only known
method that is effective for teaching controversial issues in history of education
curriculum. Controversial issues in history of Education Curriculum include:
Imbalance In N~ger~an Education.
Quota Poky and Quota System.
Colonialism - bane or blessing.
The Breakup of Church of England into Anglicanism and Methodism was a
blessing to Nigeria.
Voluntary Agency Participation in Nigerian Education - etc.
2. Colleges of Education should adopt Discussion method as a viable #
alternative to the present mindless use of Lecture method. They should go a step
further to recommend it to all their pre-service and in-service teachers. "Neme dat
quod non habeo" - no man can give what he does not have. Thus, if the student
teachers are not acquainted with Discussion Method, they will neither be aware
of it nor be in a frame of mind that is favorable and conducive to its use in
teaching.
3. History method books: should be written in a manner that will encourage
free thinking and inquisitiveness. Authors should include exercises that will make
students find out things for themselves. Such books should emphasisem to I A . Discussion such as Field tripIExcursion, Project, and DiscoveryILibrary Research.
4. Federal and State Ministries of Education, Professional Associations such
Limitations of the Study b
Teacher variable rnay have rnost likely affected the study. In the three
1 42
as Historical Society of Nigeria (HSN), Curriculum Organisation of Nigeria (CON),
should organise seminars, workshops and conferences on the effective method
of teaching history in schools and Colleges of Education. The focus of such
conferences or workshops and seminars should be to educate practitioners on the
benefits of using Discussion method in teaching general history and history of
education.
Colleges of Education used for this study, different lecturers were used for the
intact classes at different times. The test iterns ought to have been prepared by
teachers who taught the lessons but this was done by the researcher.
Suggestions for Further Studies
1. Further research should be designed in which one teacher alone should
teach both the experimental and the control groups in the sample schools
to reduce the unwanted teacher effect.
2. Further investigation should be organised repeating the study but using a
larger sample in another geographical area.
3. . A similar study can also be conducted using location as a variable. In this
1 43
case the study would consider location of Colleges of Education. For
instance, colleges of education in urban centres and those in rural areas
should be used in the study
Summary of the Study
This research was conducted to ascertain whether Discussion method
would enhance students achievement and retention in history of education in
tertiary institutions. To accomplish this task quasi experimental research design b
was used. Purposive sampling and simple random sampling techniques were
used to select 432 history of education students randomly drawn from 3 Colleges
of Education in three States of the Federation namely: Anambra, Delta and Enugu
States.
Two instruments were used for data collection. These were the History of
Education Achievement Test (HAT) which was the same for the pre-treatment and
post-treatment, and History of Education Retention Test (HIRET) which was a
modified HAT and included parallel tests for pre-treatment and post treatment.
Lesson Topics used in the study were selected from the National Commission for
Colleges of Education Minimum Standard for NCE Teachers (Education)
published by the National Commission for Colleges of Education Kaduna in p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - -
August, 1990.
A table of specification guided the development of the pre-HAT post HAT
and HIRET. The pre HAT post HAT and HIRET contain 22 items. These
instruments were face validated by two experts in Measurement and Evaluation
and five experts in History of Education. The internal consistency and reliability
indices for each instrument were established. The instruments were then
administered to the subjects. #
Four research questions and four hypotheses prov~ded the frame work for
this study. To answer the research questions, mean scores ad standard deviation
were computed. To test the statistical hypotheses, two way Analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) was used.
The results of the study showed that generally Discussion method was
effective in enhancing students achievement and retention in history of education.
Female students profited more from Discussion method than their male
counterparts. This was attributed to the fact that with women there is greater
practice in verbalisation and use of words. Moreover, women use more elaborate
codes in communication than men. They are therefore likely to love a teaching
method that gave vent to uninhibited expression of these innate tendencies. With
1 45
men there is less practice in verbalisation and use of words. Moreover, men seem
to use a more restricted code in communication than wornen. These gender
differences in the psychological make up of men and women may have sparked
off the insignificant gender differences in attainment observed in this study.
Evidence from research on language development showed that the sex of a child
is related to language development and that girls are more advanced in language
development than boys (Havighurst, 1953). This assertion is further strengthened
t by another research finding which claimed that the average number of words
spoken by a man everyday is 25000 words while the average number of words
spoken by a woman everyday is 30000 words (Deeper Life Statistics, 1988). These
earlier findings tend to give credence to the results of this study. Baller and
Charles (1968) also explained that females generally have faster physical
development resulting in earlier activation of speech producing apparatus. The
proverbial claim that females are more loquacious than males seems to be borne
out by this evidence. These differences increase with age. The two researchers
that concluded that girls are consistently superior to boys in school tasks which
emphasise use of language (Baller and Charles, 1968:311) are supported by this
study. These results have implications for history teachers in tertiary institutions,
1 46
Colleges of Education, Curriculum Planners, Authors and Text book writers. The
researcher recommended interalia that Discussion method be adopted without
further delay in teaching h~story of education institutions.
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Uche, U.W. (1980): "The Nature, Objectives and Teaching of Social Studies." Social Studies Teachina, Issues and Problems, Niaerian Educatianal Research Council, (NERC), Benin: Ethiope Publishing Corporation. .--- -----
Uchegbu, 3.N. (1984): "Effects of S~mulatron Game on Academrc Performance In Soc~al Studres." Unpublished MLEd. Proiect. U. N.N.
Underwood, B. J. (1 969): "Attributes of Memory." Psvcholoaic~l Review. 76, 559-573.
Underwood, B.J. (1 957): "Inference and Forgetting." Psvcholo~ical Review. 64.
Van Matre, N., and Carter, J.F. (1 975): "The Effects of Notetaking and Heview on Retention of lnforrnation presented by a 1-ecturer " Paper presented at Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association. Washington D.C. March 30 to April 4, 1975.
Wagner, R.H. and Arnold, C.C. (1950): Handbook of Group Discussion. Houghton: IVS.
Williams, 0. (1926): "A Study of the Phenomenon of Reminiscence." J.~.u!.na.!. of Jxperimenta! Ryche!~gyl .
Zeleny, L.D. (1 940): "Experimental Appraisal of Group Learning Plan." Journal of Educational Research. 34, 37-42.
ASCEN
FCEA(T)
T E E
HAT
HIRET
6
PRE HAT
POST HAT
APPENDIX A
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Anarnbra State College of Education, Nsugbe.
Federal College of Education, Asaba (Techn~cal)
Federal College of Education, Eha-Amufu.
History of Educatlon Achwement Test.
History of Education Retention Test. #
Pre Test on HAT.
Post Test on HAT.
PRE HlRET Pre Test on HIRET.
POST HlRET Post Test on HlRET
APPENDIX B
HISTORY OF EDUCATION ACHIEVEMENT TEST (HAT)
Instruction: ( M ) - ( F Indicate as appropriate.
Answer all the Questions.
Each Question is followed by five options lettered A to E.
Find out the correct option for each Question and write it down in your answer sheet.
I --. 1. By 1800 AD the History of Educatlon in Afr~ca was determined by:
A International Trade and Christianity.
Slave Trade and Islam.
Caravan Trade and Islam.
European Trade and Islam.
Palm Oil Trade and Christianity.
Which of the following destroyed Northern Trade and took over history of education after 1800 AD?
Atlavlic Trade.
Salt Trade.
Ivory Trade.
Trade in Forest Products. b
Trade in European Salt.
For over 1600 years the predominant factor in history of education in Nigeria was:
Trans Sahara Trade.
French Trade.
American Trade.
Belgian Trade.
German Trade.
Initiative for Commerce, Christian Education and Colonialism came from one of the following countries.
America
Britain
India
China
Portugal
Northern Trade brought one .universal religion and education called:
Shinyoism and Shingal education.
Hinduism and Hindus education.
Christianity and Christian education.
Goddianism and Goddian education.
lslamism and Islamic education.
Southern Trade brought another universal religion and education called:
Goddianisrn and Goddian education.
Hinduism and Hindus education.
Christianity and Christian education.'
Shingoism and Shingal education.
lslamism and Islamic education.
Which of the following brought educational revolution:
Business, Bible and Bullet.
Cross, Crescent and Commerce.
British Commerce and Anglicanism.
Cross followed by Flag.
Flag followed by Cross.
Who among the following was the lgbo Pioneer of education that joined the Anti-Slavery Movement?
Ekwoanya or Olauda Equiano of Colonial records.
Nwenekebe or Isaac Elekebe of Colonial records.
Christopher Taylor - the famous lgbo ex-Slave.
Anyaogu - the first lgbo Bishop on the Niger.
ldigo - the first lgwe of Aguleri.
Which of the following was the home town of the ex-slave patron of education that published his autobiography in 1789?
Essaka in Aboh
lseke in Orlu
ljebu Ode in Abeokuta
Egba in Egba land
Aboh in Ossomari
Sudanese States were richer than forest States educationally and materially because of their:
Strategic position as middlemen in Trans Sahara Trade. b
Geographical position which made travel easy on grass land.
Historical pre-eminence caused by economic exploitation of their neigh bours.
Position on Trans Sahara Trade Route.
Position which did not favour easy Transport.
Sudan of West Africa assumed historical and educational leadership before 1800 AD because:
It benefitted most from Northern Trade and its educational opportunities.
It benefitted most from Southern Trade and its educational opportunities.
It benefitted most from West African Trade and its educational opportunities.
It benefitted most from Northern Industry and education.
It benefitted most from Southern Industry and education.
1 67
One of the causes of the decline of Slave Trade which was followed by educational explosion was:
Industrial Revolution in Britain.
Dynastic Disputes in Lagos.
Trade dispute in Niger Delta.
Unequal exchange rate of male and female slaves.
Break - away of Opobo from Bonny.
Schools built by Catholic Missionaries in Warri around 1571 AD were wiped out by:
Slave Trade
Northern Trade
Southern Trade
Trans Sahara Trade
Atlantic Trade
One major factor that led in September, 1842 was:
to establishment of Mis
Role of Mr& Mrs De Graft.
Role of Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman.
Role of Oba Sodeke of Abeokuta.
Role of Freed Slaves from Freetown.
Role of Samuel Adjai Growther.
Until 1930 educated Nigerians were mostly:
Hausas
lgbos
Fulanis
chools in Badagry
Yorubas
lbibios
UPE was irltroduced in Northern Region as a strategy for:
Bridging the gap in educational attainment.
Bridging the gap in political attainment.
Bridging the yap in economic attainment.
Bridging the gap in social attainment.
Bridging the gap in cultural attainment.
Which of the following was the best reason for launching UPE in Western Nigeria: b
Nationalisation
Decolonisation
Politicisation
lndigenisation
Westernisation
The era of Golden Fleece in the history of Nigeria education consisted of the following period:
1914-1918
1 842- 1 882
1 882- 1 889
1 886-1 887
1 930- 1 950
Implication of the more liberal constitution of Clifford (1922) was:
Provision for educational expansion.
Provision for educational innovation.
Provision for Islamic education
Provision for self determination in education.
Provision of morale booster for educational revolution.
The most neglected tacit implication of 1922 Constitution was:
lntroduction of Multi Party System and educational politicisation.
lntroduction of Political Campaign and Educational Blue Print.
Introduction of Newspaper Houses and educational Socialisation.
lntroduction of Chief Party Whips and educational manifestos.
lntroduction of Political Rallies and educational manifestos.
The main cause of educational explosion was:
Unholy alliance of Colonialism, Christianity and Commerce.
Unholy alliance of Reading, Writing, Arithmetic.
Unholy alliance of Flag, Cross and Crown.
Unholy alliance of Head, Heart and Hand.
Unholy alliance of Social, Ec~nomic and Political forces.
Royal Niger Company recorded many achievements. In your owil evaluation, the greatest achievement of the Company was:
It secured Northern Nigeria for Moslem education.
It kept Germany out of Nigeria and Moslem education.
It kept France out of Nigeria and Moslem education.
It stamped out Slave Trade and promoted Western education.
It fought against importation of spirits and Moslem education.
APPENDIX C
HISTORY OF EDUCATION RETENTION TEST. (HIRET).
Instruction: Tick as appropriate. ( M ) (0
Answer all the Questions.
Each Question has five options lettered A to E.
Find out the correct answer for each question and wr~ie it down in your answer sheet.
Royal Niger Company had many achievements.
In your own assessment the greatest achievement of the Company was:
Keeping Northern Nigeria for Moslem education.
Keeping Germany out of Nigeria and Moslem education.
Keeping France out of Nigeria and Moslem education.
Fighting against importation of Spirits and Moslem education.
The Main cause of educational explosion was:
Unholy alliance of Colonialism, Christianity and Commerce.
Unholy alliance of Reading, Writing and Arithmetic.
Unholy alliance of Flag, Cross and Crown.
Unholy alliance of Head, Heart and Hand.
Unholy alliance of Social, Econgmic and Political forces.
The most neglected tacit implication of 1922 Constitution was:
lntroduction of Multi-party system and educational politicisation.
lntroduction of Political campaign and educational Blue print.
lntroduction of Newspaper houses and educational socialisation.
Introduction of Chief Party Whips and educational Blue Print.
Introduction of Political rallies and educational Blue Print.
Implication of the more liberal constitution of Clifford (1922) was:
Provision of educational expansion.
Provision for educational innovation.
Provision for Islamic education.
Provision for self-determination in education.
Provision of morale booster for educational revolution.
The era of Golden Fleece in the history of Nigerian education consisted of the following period: +
1914-1918 4
1 842- 1 882
1 882- 1 889
1 886-1 887
1930-1 950
6. Which of the following arguments was the best reason for launching UPE in Western Nigeria:
A Nationalisation
I3 Decolonisation
C Politicisation
D lndigenisation
E Westernisation
UP€ was mtroduced in Northern Nigeria as a strategy for:
Bridging the yap in educational attainment.
Bridging the gap in political attainment.
Bridging the gap in economic attainment.
Bridging the gap in social attainment.
Bridging the gap in cultural attainment.
Until 1930, educated Nigerians were mostly:
Hausas
lybos
Fulanis
Yorubas
lbibios
One major factor that led to establishment of Mission Schools in Badagry in September, 1842 was:
Rote of Mr & Mrs De Graft.
Role of Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman.
Role of Oba Sodeke of Abeokut?.
Role of Freed Slaves from Freetown.
Role of Samuel Adjai Growther.
Schools built by Catholic Missionaries in Warri around 1571 A 0 were wiped out by:
Slave Trade
Northern Trade
Atlantic Trade
One of the causes of the decl~ne of Slave Trade which was followed by educational explosion was:
Industrial Hevolution in Britain
Dynastic Disputes in Lagos.
Trade dispute in Niger Delta.
Unequal exchange rate ot male and ternale slaves
Break - away of Opobo from Bonny.
West African Sudan (Anglo Eyypttar~ S u d n r ~ ) dssurnc:tl twtoncal and educational leadershrp before 1800 AD because:
b
It benefitted most from Northern 'Trade and its educational opportunities.
It benefitted most from Southern Trade and its educational opportunities.
It benefitted most from West African Trade and its educational opportunities.
It benefitted most from Northern Industries and education.
It benefitted most from Southern lndustries and education.
Sudanese States were richer than forest States educationally and materially because of their:
Strategic position as middlemen in Trans Sahara Trade.
Geographical position which made travel easy on grass land
Historical pre-eminence caused by economic exploitation of their neighbours.
Position on Trans Sahara Trade Route.
Position which did not favour easy Transport.
Which of the following was the home town of the ex-slave patron of education that published his autobiography in 1789?
Essaka in Aboh
lseke in Orlu
ljebu Ode in Abeokuta
Egba in Egba land
Aboh in Ossomari
Who among the following was the lgbo Pioneer of education that joined the Anti-Slavery Movement?
Ekwoanya or Olauda Equiano of Colonial records.
Nwenekebe or Isaac Elekebe of Colonial records.
Christopher Taylor - the faqous lgbo ex-Slave.
Anyaogu - the first igbo Bishop on the Niger.
ldigo - the first lgwe of Aguler~
Which of the follow~nq brouqht cdr~cat~onnl revo l i~ t~on
Business, Bible and Bullet.
Cross, Crescent and Commerce
British Commerce and Anglicanism.
Cross followed by Flay.
Flag followed by Cross.
Southern Trade brought one universal religion and educat~n ~9lled:
Goddianism and Goddian education.
Hinduism and Hindus education.
Christianity and Christian education.
Shingoisrn and Shingal education.
lslamism and Islamic education.
Northern Trade brought another universal religion and education called:
Shingoisrn and Stiingal t:ducation.
Hinduism and Hindus education.
Chr~::tiariity and Christ~ar~ education.
Goddianism and Goddian education.
Islarnisrn and Islamic education
Initiative for Commerce, Christian Education and Colonialism came frorn one of the following couritrios.
America
Britain
India
China
Portuy al
For over 1600 years the domnant factor in history of education i n Nigeria was:
Trans Sahara Trade.
French Trade.
American Trade.
Belgian Trade.
German Trade.
Whch of the iollowrrrg destroyt:d Nunherri rrade and took over history of educat~on after 1800 AD?
Atlantic Trade
Salt Trade.
Ivory Trade.
Trade in Forest Products
Trade in European Salt
22. By 1800 AD the History of Education in Africa was determined by:
A International Trade and Christianity.
B Slave Trade and Islam.
C Caravan Trade and Islam.
D European Trade and Islam.
E Palm Oil Trade and Christianity.
177
APPENDIX D
MARKING SCHEME FOR PRE TREATMENT AND POST TREATMENT
HISTORY ACHIEVEMENT TEST
ERRELHAT) 4% Marks each. MaxScore 190.
APPENDIX E
MARKING SCHEME FOR HISTORY RETENTION TEST
(MODIFIED HATIHIRET) 4% arks each. Maximum Score 100)
I 0
2 A
3 C
4 E
5 E
APPENDIX F
COMPUTER PROGRAMME FOR THE STUDY
JOB NKOKELONYC, C U
EXCC I'flOC S f ' S
FILE NAME NKOKELONYE C.
VARIABLE LIST GENDER METHOD PRE1 TO PRE 22
POST 1 to POST 22 RET1 TO RET1 22
INPUT FORMATFIXED (3x, 68f1 .O)
VAR LABELSTMETHOD, TEACHING ME1 HODIPRTI,
PRE TEST QUESTION/RETl , RETENTION QUESTION1
VALUE LABELSGENOER(1) MALE (2) FEMALE
TMETHOD(1) FXPERIMFNTAL (2 CONTROL/PRE 1 TO RET 22(0)
INCORRECT
ANSWER (1) CORRECT
INPUT MEDIUM CARD
N OF CASES 432
PAGE SIZE NO EJECT
CONDESCRIPTIVE HAT HlRET
STAT1 STlC S 1,5
ANOVA HA1 BY GENOER TMEIHOD ( 1 ,Z ) WITH PRE SCORE
OPTIONS 9
STATISTICS 1
SELECT 1 F TMETHOO EQ 1
CONDESCRIPTIVE HAT HlRET
STATISTICS 1,5
RECODE VALUE + LAG VAR
lF/COMPUTER OPERATIONS
SELECT IF TMETHOD EU 3
CONDESCHIPTIVE HAT, t IIHET
STAT ISTICS 1 , 5
SELECT IF (GENDEH EO 1 ) .
TRANSFORMATIONS
RECOOE VALUES + LAG VAH
IF/COMF'U I EH OPEHA 1 IONS
SELECT IF (GENDER EQ 1)
CONDESCRIP llVE HAT tiIHE1'
STATISTICS 1 , 5.
'I HANSFORMA I IONS
RECODE VALUES + LAG VAH
SELECT IF (GENDER EQ 1)
CONDESCRIPTIVE HAT HIRET
STATISTICS 1 , 5.
TRANSFORMATIONS 4
RECODE VALUES t- LAG VAR
IF/COM f3UTEn OPERATIONS
RELIABILITY VAR = PRE1 TO PRE 22 POST1 TO POST 22 SCALE (TEST) = PREl TO POST 22.
RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT CORRELATION BETWEEN FORMS
APPENDIX G
LIST OF COLLEGES USED IN THE STUDY
Anam bra State College of Education, Nsug be, Anambra State.
Federal College of Education (Technical) Asaba Delta State.
Federal College of Education Eha-Amufn, Enugu State.
APPENDIX H b
Mean Scores and Standard Deviation of HAT Scores ot Subjects.
Exper~mental Group
Control Group
No of Subjects
206
2 62
Pretest on t IAT
7 01
6.55
k
Moan
4 75
4 09
Post test on HAT
D~ffarences ' 226 I ~ I Mean of Groups
SD
2.38
Mean
13 56 PP
5 23
0 48
SD
4.50
APPENDIX I
Mean Reter~tion Scores anti Standard Deviat~on of HlnET Scores of Subjects
No. of Post test on HAT HINET Sublects Mean SD Mean SD
Expermental r; roup 206 13 1,G 4.50
APPENDIX J Mean Achievement Scores and Standard Deviat~on of Scores of Sabjects due to
Treatment and Gender in HAT.
' Group Type of Test 1 LLNDL. I { 1
Mean I I
Experimental Pretest on HAT 10.13 I
- Posttest on
Control 1 HAT 1 l o g o
Malo f er~iale
t SD .----
- 4.32 5.22
Mean - 9.94
13.56
SD
5.43
4.50
APPENDIX K
Mean he ten ti or^ Scores m d Standard Deviation of Scores of Subjects due to Gender and
Experimental I I t
Conlrol 7 01
6.49
Post test on HAT
HlRET
4 09
3.65
I
10 92
8.94
5.22
4.86
APPENDIX L
Educational F3evoIution and Expl~sion.
Duration: Two periods of 60 minutes each per week for 2 weeks
lnstructi~ngl Ob~ectiy-ew: At the end ot the lessons the students should be able to:
b a. Identify two dominant factors in history of education in Nigeria after 1800
AD. (Colonialism marked by Business .Bible Bullet)/Commerce, Cross and Crown.
I \ ,, b. Mention two chief determinants of history of education, their effects and
significance (Cross & Crescent) Cross-Xtian Education, Crescent-Islamic Education.
Entry Behaviour:
Students are expected to have studied Trans Sahara Trade and Christianity.
Ask the following questions to test their retention of the previous lessons.
1 . What was the dominant factor in history of education in Nigeria before 1800 AD. Answer: Trans Sahara Trade.
2. What was the duration of this phase of West African History?
Answer: 1600 years
3. What is the meaning of the word Maghreb?
Answer: North West Africa.
4. Mention the countries from which the initiative for Trans Sahara Trade and
Islamic education came into Nigeria.
Answer: Maghreb was made up of 3 countries narwly: Morocco, Algeria #
and Tunsia.
Instructional Materials:
Chalk, Chalk board, History of Education by Babs Fafunwa:
History of Education by Nwuzor, A. & Ocho, L.O.
Instructional Procedure: .-
Content Developmet? 1- 1 eachers Actlv~tlat;
Teacher now d~v~dtis the ddss Irrto 5 groups He tl6Llgrlb worklny plnr-s or tmners to each group Ha tells each group to holm cAwrndrl dnd suCruWry Twdcher now shows the ulp~c. of day r, lesson to the varloub group Irl the text books
Domlrmrit fadorb In hlbtory of educahon attur 1800 AD e g U~ble, ~ublntlbb lmd Bullet, Commerce. Cross and Crebcent
Students pay uttc-jrltlon to tlw ~nstrcctions
Studunts appear Irl ttwr drfterent
+ groups StuderiIb r;elecf chirlrman and secretary Group leaders pick thelr tabks and rnllro tn mall wor kmy rmrr\arh Sxrstory of each qroup rec.ortl~. kk~y lac I., on the toprcs of me lesson
Cx.h cjloul) IKJW
finds out relevnnt lrrforrrratror~ on the topla Studentl, d~bcuss t t ~ h reilovlml ~;IC~L
gathered from toplc Key concap& are ~dentrtlud and d1scus6ed
Strategy
- For mtl uxperlrnontnl group. ropm for d~uss lo r l are to bu ylverr 1r1
ntlvanca, students ,lrCt m read the rnqulld chapters ,md pages from thelr text books
1 ULM h * ~ w n only gurde students to extract currecl mfor rnatlon He acts ab faalrtator of le~~rnrng by a W n g to the~r needs when h16 anentlorl was called
Teachers' Aalvltles Studonts Actlvltles Strategy I I
the ptmple Islam reprHsented by Crewnt EtfHct Iblarr~~c. -- Eduunron slgnrf~ance lrnpobed Islarn~c rellg~on m d culture In N~gwnii
- Take note of rhe chief dotorm~nart of h/Gtory 01
the qrourv, to quwAons as the teacher qoes round
group needs and probl~n~b wtrlltt erlcourclglng everyone to be ready for ~nd~v~dual cr,nt~ lbut~on -- - --. - -.--- -
- Remarks
Each group now f~nds out relevant lnformat~on on the
Teacher can only gu~do students to extra& correct lnformatlon He acts db fuulmlor of lenrnlng by ~ttltmdlr~g to thew needs when hrs amnbon was called
Cooperatwe method that I&,
small group
c o 4
Prefxmtntron of
flndir~ys by group heads
Contunt Development
C D 5 Class Oebato and general Dtscusston Toplc That l s l m not Chnb%anlty W a c
the dominant factor In Nlgenan hstory d Mlucauon aher 1800 AD
reachers A~t lv~t~es I Teacher controls the dtscusslon He summarlas the key points made by mch group He invltFm questlons from partlcipanls
Pler~ury wxbsorl ~TIHR~K 10 \ha 69
Each group chaman presents burnrriary of tht, factb guVlcrtXl by his group after group d~scuss~ori, m t l t.t~i~ir~(] ( 1 1 ideas
Students Actlvitres
Students I~sl-lcm and tnke correcllons 11 any, students ask questlons
C D R Tea~her awilrdc Evbluet~on marks to each
yluup us in OUIL compettbon based on the rumber of pants made by rrwrflberb
C I ) 7 Tuwhur ~ ~ r r l ~ r ~ d b Summay and them about the Condus~on need 101 keeplny
occurnu recard of thu mall I pull 11b und hhowb Vlw r l Iht l
top)& lor next levson He encourages lherri by praising the groups arid lholr leaders tor thew coopernbon and team tpirlt
Chu~rrnirn ol en& ~ r o u p summaries the kt3y pOlrlpj made by h ~ s yroup
Quwuori~riy - Fwh (jroup hand ur ~tertntns qutavflori from other groups and hen goes to h ~ s -1
Remarks
Lesson Plan for 3rd And 4th Weeks -
To~ ic : British Conquest of Niaeri3:, Aggressive Colonialism and Educational
Developments.
Duration: Two periods of 60 minutes each per week for 2 weeks.
Instructional Obiectives: At the end of the lessons the students should be able to:
Identify three civilising agents and their contributions to educational
developments in Nigeria.
Identify Nigerian Pioneers and patrons of eddcztion.
Discuss the factors that brought educational revolution and explosion.
Discuss the reasons that led to establishment of mission schools in Nigeria.
Entry Behaviour.: Students are expected to have studied the following topics:
European Exploration of Interior of West Africa. Growth of legitimate trade
especially in the Niger Delta.
Christian Missions in West Africa. '
Test of Entrv Behavigur:
Ask the following questions to refresh their memory-
What were the results of European penetration of the interior of West Africa
on African Traditional Education (A.T.E.)?
What were the effects of legitimate trade on the growth and development
of education in Nigeria?
Explain what you understand by the saying that in West Africa 'The flag
followed the cross."
InsiJructional- Mater~als: Fafunwa, A.B (1 974), pp. 74-81
Corller I! Development
General lrlstructlon For the ~x~~er~rnental group, topla lor dlscusblon are qveo In advoncn Students are to rodd the requ~red chapters ond pages hurn Urulr texl b ~ ~ 3 k 6
6
Teacher now clrvldes ttlu dass lr~to five group of 10 members each He assgns worklng placea lo ex* group He tellh each gfoup to select Charman, Recoldel or Srxetary Teachel showt, the loplc of the day's lebbon to the vrulous groups In the H~story of Edumnon Ten book by A t3 Fafunwu
Teacher tells them to fmd lnlorrnatlon on the following T& Clvll~~lnq Age1116
- Chnst~an~ty - its contribubon - Westwn eduwbon & rr~xlein~saUon - Colon~al~srn 116 wr~ t r~bu t~o~ I
Pax Bntann~ra - Brnlbh Commerw IB wntrlbubon - legmmate t~ada enabhng envt for forrrld uduu i~ur~
Olduda L-quldno - Blshop Adjal Crowlher - Chr~stopher Taylor - Alvm lkoku (F~rst NUT Chalrrnan 1931)
Students appear In Uier~ d~lfufent groups Students select charman anc aec~utary or rmordaf These Mlltnrt~l gfoup l ~ d e r b plck me11 task6 and refire to therr worklng cot nf+l', %CI RL try of ecich gtoup recordc, key t a m on me topics of the,
Students l~sten to ~nstruct~on
Lecture
L.vctur t t
Development
1 C D 2 Contd
- Teachers' Act~vltres Students' AcUvlZlsS
- Nwator Orlzu - launched Orlzuntal Scheme - K 0 Mhad~we - launched Great Tomorrow Scheme
F m responstble for &imt,!lont~l Revolutm & Explodon
- Buslne66, Blble. 8 &\let - Natmmdtsm - Decolonisam - Western Regon
UP€ 1 Q55IEastem Reglone Brave Attempt at UPE n 1957 - Lagos Launching c l l U l ' t - Attempt by Northern Rey~on to Bndgs the Gap
Factors Responsible tor Eatahl~hlng M~us~on Schooln In N~genn.
- Southern trade - Industrlnl Fkwolutlon - M e ot treed daves from S~erra Lsona Royal Nlgef Company Operatrw Abdltion ot Slave Trade
Each group now finds out relevant mlorrnuoon on thebe topla whlch mnde up the leeson objmves Students dI~cu66 the r slevant tarsi gathered from t tu topc Key concepts ore denMled and dl-
Teacher can gukie student6 to extract relevant Inlormaturn. He ncts ES laalltator of leamhl bY nttendmg to thelr needs when hb ettentron wns called.
Content Dbvelopmml
C.D. 3 Supemwon.
C.D. 4 Presentanon of flndlngs by group leaders.
C D 5 Clnss Debate wd general Dcscus~~on
Cdoncal~sm was a bane, not a blwcng to the development d Education In Nlgerca
Teachers' Actrvms
Teacher goes round the groups to attend to Indrvtdual g rwp needti and problems whrle clncwraging everyone to bl-, reedy for ind~vrdual contr~bunon
Teacher acts as a moderator durrng the p r ~ n t a t l o n .
Teacher controls the dtbntr, Ha notes the key polnts rnade by each LIrouv
Students' Acl~vli~ss Strategy I Students can ask qumons as teacher goes round.
Plenary m s m me& to share ideas Each grwp charrman present5 summry of the fads gathered by his group nlter group dI6c.uhsron crr~d bharrng ol ideas
Each group leader entertnins questms kcin otha groups and then goes to hcs seat
1 Sturhrrts tnkrng Debata part 111 debate speak, others lcsten
summarcses polnta made by each group
Remarks
Content Deve:opment
C D. f3 Evaluauon based on lesson objectrves
C.D. 7 Summary and Conclusion.
- -
Teachers' Actlvlueb
Teclcher awards marks to each group based on number of points made by members
1. He encourages Umm by pralslrty ?he groups and thelr leaders for their cooperation m d team spirit
2 Twchvr rernlndb me students about the need to kwp acculate rctcord of the maln punla:
3. He shows them me toplc for w x t lesson.
Students' Actlv1t1e6: Str atey y I
Questions based on the 4 objectives of the lesson were asked:-
Identify 2_ Nigerian Pioneers and patrons of education.
ldentify 3 civilising agents and their contributions to educational development in
Nigeria.
Discuss 2 major factors that brought educational revolution and explosion.
Discuss 2 factors that led to the establishment of Mission schools in Nigeria.
Lesson Plan for 5th and 6th Weeks. .-
Topic: Nationalist Movements and Educational Develonments.
Duration: Two periods of 60 minutes each per week for two weeks.
Instructional Objectives: At the end of the lessorls students should be able to:
Identify the Governors of Nigeria and their contributions to educational
development.
Discuss constitutional developments of Nigeria and educational innovations +
resulting from them.
Mention five important reasons for the introduction of U.P.E.
(Fafunwa, B. (1 974) pp. 167-1 73).
Entrv Behaviour: Students have studied educational revolution and explosion in . -
Nigeria.
Test of Entry Behaviour: Ask the following questions to refresh their memory:
What do you understand by the term educational revolution?
What do you mean by educational explosion of the 20th century?
Explain the difference between educational revolution and explosion.
I-~s.truct10naI Materials: Babs A. Fafunwa (1 974) pp. 167-1 73. Instructiona~
Procedure:
Conbnl
G.D. 1 / GermrY mtru*on. Teacher states the o b j W e s of the leseon. Teacher wntes Wte toplc on me b.b. and introduces me new method and how II 16 golng to work.
Students pay anenton to the Inb ic tw .
# Lecture. For the
axpenmental grwp. t o p a for d~scussm are given In advancs. Students: are lo read the required chapters from thelr text books
C.D. 2 Grouping
Teacher dlv~des the class Into 5 groups of 10 member6 each He asslgns Worklng places to each group He tells each woup to selecl chaarnnn.r~rder or secretary 1 exher shows the topic of the day's l e w n to the vanous groups In the History of Educnfion l u w ~ ~ k b y A L \ Fatunwa
Teacher tells them to find inlormaton on the follow~ng- Colonlnl Governors of Nlgerla ard ttmlr amtnbutions to educabonal development.
- Sir Walter Egerton 1906:
Eserton promulgated 1909 Education 0rd1nat-w. The Code Introduced
- payment ol grants to student teachers in tronlng. - appointment oi Dm& of Educobon. Inspector0 oi Schods, Educabon Othcers: owardlng af Scholarsh~p.
secretmy 01
recorder The selecled group leaders pick thew tusks artd retire b the~r work~ng rDrfrarli Sc~etary of each group records key focts on the topic oi the ltltib0r1
Students oppear In the11 i l~tferent groups Slud~nts select cha~rman and
Lecture
Content Development
1916 Grant Gale In Apr~l 1R14, Lugard drafted educcrtion ord~nnrm end regulations for grantsinad to voluntary agenues Tho dran was adopted In 191 6 as 1018 Orwt Code
- 8 r Huqh Clitford
1922-35.
1926 Education Code Phelps - Stokes Report on educatton In Afr~ca (lam-22) IEKI to 1H25 Parl~amerrtary whlt8 paper - EducaUonrJ Pdrcy In Brlbsh Trop~al Ahca - the hrst educaUonal policy for Troptcol Afnco
- 1925 Memorandum s t u ~ mat education should be adapted to local condltrons. 1 Q'Z8 Code curbed the proltferalbn of unassisted schools.
Students' fct~vtitjes
Students listen to lecture.
Lecture.
Slr brnard -- Bourdlllon 19354.3
Unheld E R J Husseys 1930 Reorgon~mtlon necessltRted by WlOnllL depresson of 16%
Content Ceveloprnenl
Sir Arthur Rlchnrds 1 1Uws
oppolntd new Director of Educubon (1 944) In the pereon of R A MclDav~daon He ~nltIated 1948 Edumon Code The code provlded fa central Board of Education and four Reg~onul Boards of E d u d o n
Teachers' Actlvitis
Slr Arthur Rlchards 1843-46 Under tdm Elllot Commlbslon of June 15, 1M3 for B W A and Asqult Commlss~on of Augubl 1 El43 for Brmsh Cdon~m were appointed to make recommendahon on H~gher EduceUon In West Afrlca
Students' Activities
Students Ilswn to lnstructbn
Lecture.
Remarks
Content Development
Teachers' Actlvrtles
Slr John Macpherbw, 1947 lnunched me
1 Students I w n to mnlrlldrm
# 1
Students' Actlvttrss Remarks Strategy
Under him ccs Governor Dr. Kenneth Mellanby W& appointed Princtpal of h e proposed Univerwty College lbadart
Sir Jnmeb Flubarkan Fed Mlnlster of Eduwt~on under h ~ m appo~nted In April, 1959 a commlsslon on Pout School C ~ l c n l e and H~gher Educcrtlm headed by 8 r Eric Ashby whlch lent wpport to opanlng of UNN. ABU, UNllAG and upgrndlng ot Unlvcsrdty College lbadan to full fledged Unnerslty.
Opened up U N N 1m
Students llstlrn m instrudon.
191 4 Lugard~un - Cwanuuon: - brought 1916 Educabon Code.
Con~Ututtonal Developnwm of t'r~erlaRnd Educat~onal -- Innovattons'
Cl~ffords Consututm~ of 1 922 - broughi 1925 Memorandum on Educauon n BrWh Colonlal Terrttorleb (1st poky paper 166wd on Afrlcan educauon)
Students listen to invtructron
Fild7mdu Constnuurn of 1 946 -. - brought Rtyllonal~satlon of Educauon.
Content Development
Mecpherson ConuMubonA 1951 - Saw the prrrservauon of the baalc t r a m work of H~bnu l l em in educpbon Introduced by R~chards Constltwon
Ol~ver Lfletons Constrtul~ori of - 1954: S w the - launching of UPE in West, and East.
1 W0 Independence ConoUtutIwl Saw the appointment of Ashby oommls8ion which was a landmark In Nigwan Educauon.
Each group finds out relevant Lnloc fnauon on these top~cs whlch are the lesson objeaven Students dlscuw the relevnnt facts gathared from the lesson topm Key concepts are ~denuhed and d ~ b s e d
Group dlsarssron wlth moperahon and warn spmt.
Strategy
Teacher can guide the students to extrecl relevant intormafmn. He acta as facilitator of lenrnlng by nttending to thar needs when h ~ s anentm wm needed
Remarks
1963 Republlwn ConstlMion Openlng of Ife Universny 1962 ABU (1 963) Enugu Canpus of UNN (1962) UNllAG (lQ62) Appulntrrmt of comm1ss10n6 RI
rqur~r r l lavelu to lmprovw the eductrt~n system D~smantllng d the colorl~d &yew
Content development
symm to 0 year pnmary educatron sy swim.
Teachers' Acnv~Uas
- UPE 1976 - New 613 3:4 system 01 educat~on - NaDonal Poky on Education (1981).
Each group finds out relevant ~ntorrnubon on mebe Ioprcs Wtlrch are the lesson object~ves Studante d1~1166 me, relevant facts gathered from The lebson top= Key concepts are Identlt~ed or~d discussed
Teechr can gulde the students to emad relevnm ~nforrnatron He am as falltator of learnlng by attending to thew needs when hle attention was needed
Remarks Students' Act~vmw Strategy
Development
, Class Debate and
'That R~chards constrtutlon whtch lrrboduced tegtonal~sam In educatmn was a b l w l n g In
E","' Evaluabon based on Lesson ObJecUves.
- Y
Summary and Conduslon.
Teachers' Actlvlties
Teacher mntrols the Debate He summanses the key polrilb mrrdo by each group He Invrtes queetlons from pclrbupants
Teacher awards marks to each group as in QUIZ oompeMion based on number of points made by memben.
Tacfmr remlnds students about the need to keep record of main points. He encourages them by prosing the groups and their leaders for moperntml and leam 6~)lrll.
Students listen and take correcttons t i any Studants ask quab~~onb-.
Charman of each group summanses the key pants made by hts group
Queetionn based on tha 3 objectives of the leason were asked:
1. Idenbty ty twoonid Gowmaa of Ngeria and therr cmtr~blmons to educational dwelopmeot.
2. D~swss 3 -or conetihrbonal dewdopments of NQWB and educational innwatlons resulnng from *em.
3. Menbcm 5 reesoc76 for the Introduction of U.P E n Nigeria.
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