Acknowledgements: I would like to thank the University of Namibia for all the knowledge it has installed in our minds to be able to do this research project. Secondly I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Mberira for all her patients and guidance throughout this project. And lastly I would like to thank my family for their financial and emotional support, especially my sister Chireza. 1
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Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the University of Namibia for all the knowledge it has installed in our
minds to be able to do this research project. Secondly I would like to thank my supervisor Dr.
Mberira for all her patients and guidance throughout this project. And lastly I would like to
thank my family for their financial and emotional support, especially my sister Chireza.
1
Declaration:
Title of Research Paper: Does Social interaction increase the Subjective Well-being of
Undergraduate students at the University of Namibia?
Name of author: Charne Zaahl (200931695)
Address: Erf 13, Block A, Rehoboth, Namibia
Submitted for Bachelor of Arts: Clinical Psychology Honors course.
I, the above mentioned, hereby declare that the work contained in the said research paper is
my original contribution, and has not been published anywhere. I have mentioned the relevant
references within my knowledge.
XAuthor: C. P. Zaahl
XSupervisor: Dr. Mberira
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List of tables:
Table 4.1: Distribution of participants within 7 items……………………………………..Page 24
Table 4.2: Correlation between Subjective Happiness Scale and Satisfaction with Life Scale
………………………………………Page 30
Table 4.3: Correlation between SHS & MSPSS……………………………………………….Page 32
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List of figures:
Figure 4.1 Scatter plot graph for correlation between SWLS & MSPSS………………..Page 31
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Does social interaction increase the subjective well-being of
undergraduate students at the University of Namibia?
Author:Charne ZaahlBachelor of Arts DegreeFaculty of Humanities and Social SciencesUniversity of Namibia
Supervisor:Dr. Mberira
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Abstract:
This study examined whether social interactions and perceptions of social support increase
subjective well-being and whether this increase interactions with other social beings. The
sample consisted of undergraduate students at the University of Namibia.
Data was collected by means of self-report measures namely; the Sonja Lyubomirsky’s (1999)
Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS), Ed Diener’s (1985) Satisfaction with Life Scale, and Gregory D.
Zimet, Nancy W. Dahlem, Sara G. Zimet & Gordon K. Farley’s (1988) Multidimensional Scale of
Perceived Social Support. These scales measured the participant’s subjective well-being, their
quality of life and their perceived social support respectively.
The results indicated a negative linear relationship between subjective happiness and perceived
social support. It also indicated a negative linear correlation between subjective happiness and
satisfaction with life. However there was a positive linear correlation between perceived social
support and satisfaction with life.
Limitations and further recommendations of the study are discussed.
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Chapter 1
Introduction:
Orientation of the study
Human beings are considered to be social beings at heart. This is evident in the fact that so
many individuals are taking more time to interact with others, whether it’s by means of social
networking sites or by forming close attachments with other individuals that share mutual
interests. This indicates that there has to be some psychological benefits to interacting with
other human beings. Because of this various social networking sites have gained popularity
especially among university students. When we look at the increasing popularity of social
networking sites it becomes somewhat of a puzzle as to why people dedicate so much time to
these forms of social interaction. It has been reported that social networking sites provide users
with unique computer based platform where they are able to share their personal thoughts,
feelings and experiences within a circle of their peers. (Lee G., Lee J. & Kwon S., 2011) A study
done by Jeffres, Neuendorf, Brackin & Atkin (2008) on the influence of Cosmo politeness on the
quality of life perceptions indicated that more cosmopolitan people, those with more diverse
interests, those with stronger patterns of media use, and those with higher levels of community
knowledge hold stronger assessments of the quality of life available in their community. This
study therefore tries to determine whether or not social interactions does in fact increase
subjective well-being by looking at undergraduate students at the University of Namibia and
whether they perceive themselves to be subjectively happy and how this relates to their
interactions with other social beings.
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Social interaction is said to be the ability of two or more social beings to come into contact,
communicate or acknowledge one another while each being is aware of the others and keeps
them in mind when performing any action. According to Scheinkman (2014) social interactions
are particular forms of externalities, in which the actions of an orientation group affect an
individual’s preferences. The orientation group depends on the context and is typically
considered to be an individual’s family, neighbors, friends and peers. The types of social
interactions investigated in this study include family and friends interaction as well as peer
interaction. “Social interaction occurs because through learning this ideal behavior, individual
influences each other”. (Aruka, 2004, pg. 42) The study looked at ways in which students
interact with friends and family using social media or social networking sites such as Facebook,
as well as through direct contact with other people. By looking at these social interactions the
study tries to establish a relationship between social interactions and subjective well-being.
Student’s perceptions on whether or not they receive any social support from friends and
family was used to try and establish the connection between these two factors (social
interaction and subjective well-being). Subjective well-being is multifaceted/multidimensional
concept and contains various components that all play a part in contributing to the subjective
well-being of individuals. (Hampton, 2007) One of these contributing factors is people’s
satisfaction with life. Rozin & Stellar (2009) use quality of life and life-time subjective well-being
interchangeably. They believed that that it was a retrospective measure and suffered from
distortions. For the purpose of the study participants’ satisfaction with life was measured and
assessed in order to establish how subjectively well they were.
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Objectives of the study
Hongyu Ma, Yongyu Guo, Fuming Xu, Feng Yu, Zongkui Zhou (2014) stated a growing body of
empirical evidence has shown that although social support can predict subjective well-being,
the relationship between social support and subjective well-being is still unclear. Therefore the
key objectives for this study are to determine whether or not there is a positive association
between social interactions and the subjective well-being of undergraduate students at the
University of Namibia. Various research questions were addressed in this study. The key
research questions include; ‘Does social support directly contribute to the subjective well-being
of students?’; ‘Can social interaction be considered as an important variable when measuring
subjective well-being?’; ‘Does the number of friends students have on Facebook directly
correlate with their level of subjective well-being (high/low)?’; ‘Are there any differences in
findings between this study and previous studies, and if so why?’; and ‘ Are there any significant
differences between males and females regarding their results for subjective well-being and
social interaction?’.
Hypothesis
The hypothesis states; ‘There will be a positive correlation between social interaction and the
subjective well-being of undergraduate students’ as well as; ‘There will be a positive correlation
between satisfaction with life and perceived social support’.
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Significance of the study
This study is significant because it provides a local perspective (Namibian) on the effects of
social interaction on subjective well-being. By determining whether or not social interaction
increases subjective well-being it can be established how important social interaction is when
looking at the subjective well-being of individuals. Previous studies focused only on a specific
form of social interaction such as social networking sites, whereas this study looked at social
interaction in general including through the use of social networking sites as well as other forms
of interaction and will therefore provide a broader perspective on the topic.
Limitations of the study
Limitations to the research project include that it only looks at university students, more
specifically students from the University of Namibia. This causes the results of the study not to
be generalizable to the broader public. Another limitation of the study includes the fact that it
does not take into consideration other external factors (extraneous variables) that effect or
influence the subjective well-being of the participants.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review:
Since human beings are said to be social beings it seems logical that it would not be possible for
humans to live healthy lives, psychologically and physically, without any social interaction. We
interact with other social beings on a daily basis. These interactions directly and indirectly
affects our psychological well-being or rather our subjective well-being. Park (2004) considers
positive well-being important for optimal mental health. He considers subjective well-being to
be an important part in the good life, the good life being a life where people feel fulfilled and
contempt, and believes that it plays an adaptive role in human survival. And rightly so, human
beings have adapted their lives and state of mind to look for those things in life that make them
feel good, make them feel joy and happiness. People are motivated to participate in exploration
and to create ways and techniques to help them cope with life’s tragedies and stressors, if
people did not find ways to cope with life’s tragedies they would not be able to lead a happy
life. This is why it is so important to try to understand how social interaction affects the
subjective well-being of individuals as well as how perceived social support contributes to
subjective well-being. In Park’s study he found that the topic of well-being had been neglected
in light of this one can see how this study would contribute to the body of knowledge of well-
being. Park (2004) believed that mental health was not merely pathology but rather included
positive factors such as positive affect. He felt that positive indicators such as life satisfaction
had to be included in any assessment battery to capture what is meant by psychological well-
being. This is exactly what this study is trying to do by including the satisfaction with life scale in
its assessment of subjective well-being and social interactions.
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Foregaerd, Jayawickreme, Kern and Seligman (2011) however believed that well-being was a
multifaceted phenomenon that could be assessed by measuring a wide selection of subjective
and objective constructs. They proposed the Well-being theory that states well-being can be
divided into five parts namely; positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and
accomplishments. Positive emotion, similar to Park’s notion of positive affect, can be said to be
happiness whereas engagement refers to encounters or interactions with other social beings.
Through these interactions or encounters people bond and this in turn causes relationships to
develop. Relationships as products of social interaction thus contributes to the subjective well-
being of individuals in the sense that people tend to attach a lot of meaning to the relationships
they form. This proves the need for investigation into the kind of relationships individuals have
with their family and friends by enquiring into their social behavior and how they perceive the
type of support they receive from these people. How people perceive the support they receive
from family and friends tends to reflect into their subjective constructs of their personalities
and also can determine how they live their lives. Implying that the perception they have on the
support they get from their family and friends determines the state of their subjective well-
being. Foregaerd M. & et.al (2011) defined meaning as well as accomplishments as personal
aspects that refer to the individual’s meaning in life and achievements. This can be linked to
people’s satisfaction with life as it enquires into whether people believe their lives are close to
their ideal and if they have achieved all they wanted to achieve.
Zanin (2011), unlike Park and Foregaerd et. al, defines subjective well-being by using two terms
he considers measures of subjective well-being. These terms are happiness and life satisfaction.
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He considered happiness to be a state of mind that is characterized by contentment, pleasure
or joy. On the other hand he defined life satisfaction as a measure of an overall assessment of
feelings and attitudes about an individual’s life at a particular point in time. Happiness and life
satisfaction goes hand in hand when considering their contributions to subjective well-being.
These two factors are both subjectively deterministic, that is determined by the individual
rather than the society. Therefore considering these two constructs subjective well-being can
be said to be the level of happiness and the general level of life fulfilment an individual
experiences at a specific point in time. In his study Zanin examines the relationship between
subjective well-being and satisfaction in various domains of life. Some of these domains include
the satisfaction of family life, this once again leads us to the point that it is important to look
into social interactions and the perceived social support of individuals from their family and
friends. In his study he found that satisfaction with family life was one of the most important
drivers of subjective well-being. This could be explained by the fact that family plays a big part
in an individual’s life as well as the importance people attach to the roles they attain within
their families as well as among peers. Zanin also stated that subjective well-being depends on
three latent variables, these include satisfaction with personal life; satisfaction with family and
social life and satisfaction with education and work. (Zanin, 2011) This once again brings the
significance of this study forth, since all three of these variables are included in the current
study. If well-being depends on these three latent variables then one would have to measure
these variables in order to determine any kind of relationship between subjective well-being
and another variable.
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Park (2004) and Zanin (2011) are in agreement that subjective well-being includes an
individual’s satisfaction with life and can thus be used to determine how subjectively well a
person is. Whereas Zanin (2011) and Foregaerd et. al (2011) mention the importance of social
interactions when measuring subjective well-being.
Ed Diener (2013) suggested that there are three separable major components of subjective
well-being that needs to be considered. These include life satisfaction, positive experiences and
negative experiences. He also shares Zanin and Park’s notion on the importance of life
satisfaction in subjective well-being. According to Diener these components are independent
and influenced by different causes. Some of these causes could include the individual’s
satisfaction with their personal life, satisfaction with family and social life and satisfaction with
education and work. (Zanin, 2011) These constructs are not all subjectively deterministic,
indicating that subjective well-being is not always determined by the individual but also the
society and environment these individual’s find themselves in.
Lee, Lee and Kwon (2011) on the other hand defined subjective well-being as a person’s
cognitive and affective evaluations of his or her life. They did a study on social networking sites
and how self-disclosure impacts the subjective well-being of social networking sites users. Self-
disclosure means communicating personal information, thoughts, and feelings with other
people. (Lee, Lee & Kwon, 2011) They believed that, whether the experience was negative or
positive, sharing ones’ story with social ties provided a psychological benefit to people.
Therefore they predicted a positive relationship between self-disclosure and subjective well-
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being and the results of their study proved them right. Self-disclosure is directly related to
social interaction and thus it is relevant to consider the results of this previous study when
analyzing the results of this current study.
Since personality dimensions are related to behavioral tendencies, especially social behavioral
tendencies, it seems appropriate to consider the effects of these personality domains and how
they contribute to subjective well-being. Looking at a similar study as Lee & et. al’s but this time
done in China, the study looked at the relationship between self-concealment (a form of self-
disclosure) and subjective well-being but this time the study tries to assess whether personality
traits act as mediators between the two. According to Wang, Qui and Cui (2014) self-
concealment is defined as a trait that inclines people to conceal distressing or negative personal
information such as thoughts, feelings, actions, or events from others. They believed that self-
concealment hampered psychological and physical well-being. Two hundred and ninety-one
undergraduates completed the Chinese versions of the Self Concealment Scale, NEO Five-Factor
Inventory, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and General Well-Being Schedule. Their results
showed that both self-concealment and neuroticism (a type of personality trait) had negative
effects on subjective well-being, while extraversion (another type of personality trait) had a
positive effect on subjective well-being. Self-concealment affected subjective well-being
indirectly via personality traits. These findings suggested that self-concealment had both direct
and indirect effects on subjective well-being, and that personality traits were directly associated
with subjective well-being. This indicated that personality traits mediated the association
between self-concealment and subjective well-being. (Wang, Qui & Cui, 2014) In their study
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they used a mediation model to determine the effect of self-concealment on subjective well-
being. They made use of the path model for analysis, this raises the issue of limiting validation
of causal relationships. The study contained self-report measures that made the study
vulnerable to certain errors or biases. Within this former study social interaction was once
again a determinant factor in the analysis of subjective well-being. Whether people revealed a
lot to others or concealed a great deal of personal information it still affected their subjective
well-being at the end of the day. This information proves relevant to the current study because
the study revealed a correlation to how people interact with one another and their subjective
well-being indirectly.
Kim and Lee (2011) did a study on how Facebook, used as a tool for social interaction, affected
the subjective well-being of Facebook users. They found that a positive correlation existed
between the number of Facebook friends and the subjective well-being of college Facebook
users but this association was not mediated by perceived social support. This suggests that
social interaction increases the level of subjective well-being of individuals but not necessarily
perceived social support. They also looked at how individuals represent themselves on
Facebook and whether this had an effect on the level of subjective well-being of these college
Facebook users. This is similar to the studies done by Lee & et. al as well as Wang & et. al with
self-disclosure and self-concealment. In the study of Kim and Lee (2011) they found that honest
self-representation may enhance happiness rooted in in social support provided by Facebook
friends. In their methodology they made use of a computer-based survey where a recruitment
message along with a hyperlink to the survey questionnaire were emailed to undergraduate
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students registered at that particular university. This brings forth the problem of how accessible
was the survey since not all students have access to a computer as well as the fact that there is
no one (an interviewer or supervisor) to explain details of the survey if a student was to get
stuck on some elements of the survey. Kim & Lee’s study suggested that the number of
Facebook friends and positive self-representation may enhance users’ subjective well-being,
but this portion of happiness may not be included in perceived social support. They inferred
that the happiness associated with the number of Facebook friends may be due to visualization
of Facebook friends. By seeing the number of Facebook friends one has, users are reminded of
their social connections and subsequently their self-worth is enhanced. Kim and Lee looks at
Facebook friendships and consider them a meaningful source of social support, just as
traditional friendships. This is why they believed that there would be a positive correlation
between perceived social support and subjective well-being, however their study proved them
wrong. (Kim & Lee, 2011) The study contains some limitations including their use of the path
model that results in them being unable to demonstrate causality as well as the direction of
causal results. The research was done on college students only which creates a gap in research
since it does not cater to non-college-age samples. Also the fact that the study makes use of
self-report measures of subjective well-being it is subject to errors or biases. Some individuals
tend to present their most favorable image to others thus resulting in an assessment that does
not necessarily depict their precise or exact state of subjective well-being.
Another study was done in China to examine the relationship between social support and
subjective well-being among Chinese university students. Three hundred and ninety-one
university students from two different Chinese universities completed a questionnaire. The
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questionnaire consisted of the social support scale, the self-esteem scale and the subjective
happiness scale. This current study consequently made use of two of these scales namely the
social support scale and the subjective happiness scale. In the study of Feng, Jingjing & Xuqun
(2013) students with high social support reported higher scores in life satisfaction and positive
affect than those with low social support. Positive affect and life satisfaction, in this instance,
are associated with subjective well-being as with so many of the previously reviewed studies.
This indicates that, in the case of this previous study, there was a positive correlation between
social support and subjective well-being. Their methodology consisted of the hierarchical
regression analysis.
‘Loneliness and Subjective Happiness as Mediators of the Effects of Core Self-evaluations on Life
Satisfaction’ was another study conducted among Chinese college students. The primary goal of
this study was to investigate the mediator effects of loneliness and subjective happiness on the
relationship between core self-evaluations and life satisfaction in Chinese college students. A
total of three hundred and one students participated in the study and were all attending three
different Chinese colleges at the time of the study. Data was collected by means of a
questionnaire consisting of the Core Self-evaluations Scale, UCLA Loneliness Scale, Subjective
Happiness Scale and Satisfaction with Life Scale. As previously mentioned our study will also
make use of the subjective happiness scale as well as the satisfaction with life scale. The study
revealed that subjective happiness acted as a go-between for core self-evaluations and life
satisfaction. Furthermore, the relationship between core self-evaluations and life satisfaction
was not mediated by loneliness. Subjective happiness however partially mediated the
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relationship between core self-evaluations and loneliness. (Xiaofei, Jingkuan, Xia, Dan, 2013)
This indicates that there will be a good probability that our study will indicate which of our
variables (life satisfaction, perceived social support and subjective happiness) will act as a
mediator between the other two variables.
There is a clear gap in this research area since no research has been done from a local
perspective, from an African perspective. This is why this current study is so important to
provide that local perspective. Most of the studies done on subjective well-being involve a
population sample of students from universities and colleges. Also most of the definitions given
for subjective well-being in the literature include life satisfaction as one of the key elements.
There has also been a great deal of emphasis on social interactions whether in the form of
relationships with family and friends or by means of self-disclosure and self-concealment on
social networking sites. Most of the studies conducted did show a correlation between social
interaction, in its various forms, and subjective well-being. Majority of the studies conducted
used surveys that included various forms of self-reported scales that measure different aspects
of subjective well-being.
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Chapter 3
Methodology:
Research Design
A quantitative research design was used because this design is most appropriate in looking at
relationships between two or more variables. Since this study examined the relationship
between social interaction and subjective well-being the quantitative research design was
deemed more appropriate.. Quantitative approaches to research also establishes cause and
effect relationships between variables. This is useful since the study tries to determine whether
there is a causal effect r between subjective well-being and social interaction.
Sample
The sampling technique that was used is non-probability sampling. The reason is because it is
easier, quicker and cheaper to use than probability sampling. More specifically the study uses
convenience sampling to select the participants. Convenience sampling involves relatively low
costs and does not take up too much time, it is very easy to carry out and does not involve a lot
of rules and regulations (elaborate what convenience sampling is/does). This simplifies the
research process a great deal.
Participants were randomly selected according to their proximity and ease of access to the
researcher. Data was collected by means of administering questionnaires to a sample
population of 110 undergraduate students at the University of Namibia. The researcher
therefore administered questionnaires to those individuals that were closest to him/her, such
20
as classmates and other University students. Questionnaires were administered during a free
period of the researcher and his/her classmates. Questionnaires were also randomly
administered to any voluntary undergraduate student that was available. The sample therefore
consisted of undergraduate students mainly. Of the 110 questionnaires that were administered
only 98 questionnaires were usable. The sample consisted of 41 males and 57 females, with an
average age of 1.12 which means 18-25 years and a standard deviation of 0.329. 86 of the
sample population were between the ages of 18 to 25 and only 12 were above the age of 25.
The males who were between the ages of 18 and 25 consisted of 33, while only 8 of them were
above 25 years old. Females between the ages of 18 and 25 were 53, whereas only 4 of them
were above 25 years of age.
Research Instrument
The questionnaire consisted of three scales that measured the participant’s subjective well-
being, their quality of life and their perceived social support respectively. The scales included
Zimet, G.D., Dahlem, N.W., Zimet, S.G. & Farley G.K. (1998). The Multidimensional Scale of
Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30-41, doi:
10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
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Chapter 7:
Appendices:
Instrument: Questionnaire (Sample)
University of Namibia
I am doing a research project on how social interaction within the lives of students affect their
subjective well-being. Subjective well-being for the purpose of this study relates to how happy a
person is with his/her life at that current point in time. Please complete the following questions
as honestly as possible. All information gathered will be regarded as strictly confidential.
Please complete the following information first. Tick the appropriate box.
Age 18-25 25+
Gender Male Female
Do you have a Facebook
account?
(If yes move on to the next
question)
Yes No
How many friends do
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you have on Facebook? 0-100 100+
Instructions: For each of the following statements and/or questions, please circle the point on
the scale that you feel is most appropriate in describing you.
1. In general, I consider myself:
not a very happy person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a very happy person
2. Compared to most of my peers, I consider myself:
Less happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 more happy
3. Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on, getting
the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?
not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a great deal
4. Some people are generally not very happy. Although they are not depressed, they never
seem as happy as they might be. To what extent does this characterization describe you?
not at all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a great deal
Instructions: We are interested in how you feel about the following statements. Read each
statement carefully. Indicate how you feel about each statement.
Circle the “1” if you Very Strongly Disagree
Circle the “2” if you Strongly Disagree
Circle the “3” if you Mildly Disagree
Circle the “4” if you are Neutral
Circle the “5” if you Mildly Agree
Circle the “6” if you Strongly Agree
Circle the “7” if you Very Strongly Agree
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1. There is a special person around when I am in need
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. There is a special person with whom I can share my joys and sorrows
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. My family really tries to help me1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I get the emotional help and support I need from my family1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. I have a special person who is real source of comfort to me1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. My friends really try to help me1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I can count on my friends when things go wrong1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. I can talk about my problems with my family1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I have friends with whom I can share my joys and sorrows1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. There is a special person in my life who cares about my feelings1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. My family is willing to help me make decisions1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12. I can talk about my problems with my friends1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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Below are five statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item.