Research Metood

8/14/2019 Research Metood

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/research-metood 1/117

س ر م د ا ن د: ا ص ت ق ق ا ي ق ح ش ت و ر

ي ل ا ع ه ت م س ب

س ر د م م ا ن ي: ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د



ل ص ف ر سس ر ي د ا ه

ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و سر ر ي د ا ل ه ص ف ر س

ق-۲ ي ق ح د ت ن ي آ ر ف

م-۱ ي ه ا ف ف و م ي ر ا ع ت



م-۱ ي ه ا ف ف و م ي ر ا ع تق-۱-۱ ي ق ح ت ف ي ر ع ت

ن-۱-۲ ع آ ا و ن ق و ا ي ق ح ت ف ا د ه اي-۱-۳ ع ا م ت ج م ا و ل ر ع ق د ي ق ح ت ي-۱-۴ د ا ص ت ق ت ا ا ق ي ق ح ت

ي-۱-۵ د ا ص ت ق ت ا ا ق ي ق ح ت م ز ا و ر و ل ا ز ب ان-۱-۶ ا ر ي ر ا ي د د ا ص ت ق ت ا ا ق ي ق ح ت

ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و مر ي ه ا ف ف و م ي ر ا ع ت



ق-۲ ي ق ح د ت ن ي آ ر فق-۲-۱ ي ق ح ت ع و ض و ب م ا خ ت ن اق-۲-۲ ي ق ح ت ح ر ش ط ر ا گن

ق-۲-۳ ي ق ح ت م ا ج ن اج-۲-۴ ي ا ت ش ن ر ا ق( گن ي ق ح ت ش ر ا ز ) گة-۲-۵ ئ ا ر ج ا ي ا ت ر(ن ا ن ي م )س

ه-۲-۶ ل ا ق ش م ر ا گن

ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و قر ي ق ح د ت ن ي ا ر ف



ق-۲-۱ ي ق ح ع ت و ض و ب م ا خ ت ن ه-۱-۱-۲ ا ز و ب ح ا خ ت ن ق ا ي ق ح ت ي م و م ي ع ا ه

ه-۲-۱-۲ ل أ س ت م ر و ي ص ل ف ک ي ر ع ت

ع-۲-۱-۳ و ض و ت م خ ا ن ي ش ا ر ه ب ي ل و ي ا و ج ت س جة-۲-۱-۴ ي ل و ف ا ي ر ع ت ق ي ق ح ت ت ال ا ؤ ن و س ا و ن عذ-۲-۱-۵ خ آ ي م و ج ت س ي« ج ب ر ج ت ط» ب ت ر ر م ب ت ع م

ج-۲-۱-۶ ا ت ن ت س ط و ا ب ت ر ي م ر ا م ي آ ا ه د ن و ة ر ع ل ا ط ي م ر ا م ة آ ي ل و ي ا ا هق-۲-۱-۷ ي ق ح ت ت ال ا ؤ ن و س ا و ن ف ع ي ر ع ت




ق-۲-۲ ي ق ح ح ت ر ش ط ر ا گن

ي-۲-۲-۱ ر ظ ذ ن خ آ ي م و ج ت س ع-۲-۲-۲ ج و ض و ه م ف ب ل ت خ ي م ر ظ ي ن ا ه د ر کي و ي ر د ن ه ب ت س دق-۲-۲-۳ ي ق ح ت ي ر ا م ي آ ج ن ن س ا کم اي-۲-۲-۴ ب ر ج ت ذ خ آ ي م و ج ت س جه-۲-۲-۵ ت س ق د ي ق ح ت ع و ض و ه م ي ب ب ر ج ت ف ل ت خ ي م ا ه د ر کي و ي ر د ن ب

ق-۲-۲-۶ ي ق ح ت ي ر ظ د ن ر کي و ب ر ا خ ت ن اق-۲-۲-۷ ي ق ح ت ي ر ظ ش ن خ ش ب ر ا گنق-۲-۲-۸ ي ق ح ت ي ب ر ج ت ل د ب م ا خ ت ن اق-۲-۲-۹ ي ق ح ت ي ب ر ج ت ش خ ش ب ر ا ن( گن ا ر گي ي د ا ه ر ا ) ک۲-۲-۱ ق-۰ ي ق ح ت ي ب ر ج ت ل د ي م ژو ل د ت ب م ا خ ت ن ا۲-۲-۱ ي-۱ ب ر ج ت ل د ي م ژو ل د ت ش م ر ا گن۲-۲-۱ ق-۲ ي ق ح ت ت ال ا ؤ ن و س ا و ن ن ع د ر ي ک ي ا ه ن۲-۲-۱ ق-۳ ي ق ح ت ح ر ش ط ر ا )Proposal( گن




ق-۲-۳ ي ق ح م ت ا ج ن ات-۲-۳-۱ ا ع ال ط ر و ا ا م ي آ ر و ع آ م جل-۲-۳-۲ د ي م ل ي ص ف ت ح ر ه ط ي ه ت

ل-۲-۳-۳ د ي م ا ر ج ن( ا ي م خ ت م ا ج ن اا )هن-۲-۳-۴ و م ز م آ ا ج ن ج ا ي ا ت ن ن د ر ي ک ي ا ه ا و ن هي-۲-۳-۵ ر ظ ث ن ح ا ب ا م ق ب ا ب ط ن ر ا ج د ي ا ت ر ن ي س ف ت

ق-۲-۳-۶ ي ق ح ت ي ل ص ت ا ال ا ؤ ه س خ ب س ا پ




۲

-۴

-ق ي ق ح ت

ش ر ا گن

ل-۲-۴-۱ ص ب ف ل ا ط ي م د ن ب

ق-۲-۴-۲ ي ق ح ت ي ل ص ة ا ن د ش ب ر ا گن

ه-۲-۴-۳ ج ي ت ي ن ر ي ه-۴-۴-۲ گ م د ق مه-۲-۴-۵ د ي کچ

ه -۲-۴-۶ د ا ف ت س د ا ر و ذ م خ آ ه م ع ب ا ج ر اذ-۲-۴-۷ خ آ ع و م ب ا ن ت م س ر ه ف




ج-۲-۵ ي ا ت ن ة ئ ا ر ر( ا ا ن ي م )س

ة-۲-۵-۱ ئ ا ر ط ا ب ت ر ي م ر ا م ي آ ا ه د ن و )Stylized Facts(رق-۲-۵-۲ ي ق ح ت ي ل ص ت ا ال ا ؤ سق-۲-۵-۳ ي ق ح ت ع و ض و ا م ط ب ب ت ر ي م ر ظ ف ن ل ت خ ي م ا ه د ر کي و ر

ه-۲-۵-۴ د م ش ا ج ن ي ا ب ر ج ت ي ا ه ر ا کق-۲-۵-۵ ي ق ح ت ل د ي م ف ر ع مل-۲-۵-۶ د ر م ه د د ه ش ت ف ر گر ا ي کب ژو ل د ت ي م ف ر ع م

ه-۲-۵-۷ د ه ش د ا ف ت س ي ا ر ا م ع آ ب ا ن ي م ف ر ع مة-۲-۵-۸ ئ ا ر ج ا ي ا ت نق-۲-۵-۹ ي ق ح ت ت ال ا ؤ ه س خ ب س ا ج و پ ي ا ت ر ن ي س ف ت

۲-۵-۱ ه-۰ ج ي ت ي ن ر ي گ




ه-۲-۶ ل ا ق ش م ر ا گن




ي ل ي ن د و ع س م ق ي ق ح ش ت و ر

٣ ر٠ ي ت ١ ٣% ر-٨ ا ن ي م ه س ئ ا ر ا

٣ د٠ ا د ر ١ خ ٠%

ل-٧ د ، م ق ي ق ح ت ق ي ق ن د ا و ن ي ع ف ر ع م

ة ي د ا ه ن ش ي س پ ي و ش ن ي ة پ ي ه ت ق و ي ق ح ه ت م ا ن ن ا ي ا پ

١ د٥ ا د ر ١ خ ٠% ي-٦ ر ا م ي آ ج ن ن س ا ك م ١ ا د٠ ا د ر ١ خ ٥% ي-٥ ب ر ج ت ت ا ي ب د ر ا و ر ن م ت ش و ن

١ ت٥ ش ه ب ي د ر ٢ ا ٠% ي-٤ ر ظ ت ن ا ي ب د ر ا و ر ة م ي ل و ن ا ت ن م ت ش و ن

٢ ن٠ ي د ر و ر ١ ف ٢% ي-٣ ل ص ت ا ال ا ق ر م و ر م

٢ د٧ ن ف س ١ ا ٠% ط-٢ ب ت ر ت م ال ا ق ن م د ر ك ا د ي پ

١ د٥ ن ف س ١ ا ٠% ق-١ ي ق ح ت ن ا و ن ة ع ي ل و ف ا ي ر ع ت ت ي ل ا ع ر ف ي ه ي ا ه ت ن ن ا ا م ز ه ر م ن ت ي

ل م ا س ش ر ه د ر م :ن



ي ا ج ه ا ت ن ت س ا

ه ي ل و ي ا ر ا م آي ا ه د ن و ة ر ع ل ا ط م

ط ب ت ر ي م ر ا م آ

د ن ن چ د ر ا ک د ي پر ب ت ع ي م ب ر ج ة ت ل ا ق م

ع و ض و ا م ط ب ب ت ر م

ة ع ل ا ط م

د ن ي چ ل ا م ج ا

ط ب ت ر ة م ل ا ق م

و ج ت س ج

ر و ح ل م و ح

ي د ي ل ت ک ا م ل ک

ي ل ف ک ي ر ع ت

ه ل ئ س ت م ر و ص

ة ز و ب ح ا خ ت ن ا

ق ي ق ح ت

ي م و م ع

ه و ي ز ج ت ي ن ه ذ

ل ي ل ح ت

ر ظ ب ن س کن ا ر گي د

ق ئ ال ع

ي ص خ ش

ن و ا و ن ف ع ي ر ع ت

ق ي ق ح ت ت ال ا و س

ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و ر



ي ا ج ه ا ت ن ت س ا

ه ي ل و ي ا ر ا م آ

ن و ا و ن ف ع ي ر ع ت

ق ي ق ح ت ت ال ا و س

ي و ر ا د ر ت ب ش ا د ا ي ي ا ه ل د ي م د ن ه ب ت س د

ي ب ر ج ف ت ل ت خ م

ي ج ن ن س ا کم ا

ق ي ق ح ي ت ر ا م آ

ي و ج ت س ج

ذ خ آ م

ط ب ت ر ي م ب ر ج ت

ب ا خ ت ن اد ر کي و ر

ق ي ق ح ي ت ر ظ ن

ذ خ آ ي م و ج ت س ج

ط ب ت ر م

ي ر ظ ن

ي و ر ا د ر ت ب ش ا د ا ي ي د ن ه ب ت س د

ف ل ت خ ي م ا ه د ر کي و ر

ع و ض و ه م ب”

ي ر ظ ن”

ش خ ش ب ر ا گن

ق ي ق ح ي ت ر ظ ن

ل د ب م ا خ ت ن ق ا ي ق ح ي ت ب ر ج ت




ث ح ا ب ه م ع ل ا ط م

ي ژو ل د ت ن م ا ب ي ت ش پ

ي و( ج ن د س ا ص ت ق ...)ا

ي ژو ل د ت ب م ا خ ت ن ا

ي ب ر ج ل ت د م

ل د ي م ا ر ج اا( ن ه ي م خ م ت ا ج ن )ا

ل د ب م ا خ ت ن ا

ق ي ق ح ي ت ب ر ج ت

ش ر ا يگن ژو ل د ت م

ي ب ر ج ل ت د م

ي ر و ع آ م ج

ر و ا م آ

ت ا ع ال ط اد ر کي و ب ر ا خ ت ن اق ي ق ح ي ت ر ظ ن

ي ج ن ن س ا کم ا

ق ي ق ح ي ت ر ا م آ

ي ر ا د ر ت ب ش ا د ا يي د ن ه ب ت س و د

“

ي ا ه ل د م”

ي ب ر ج ف ت ل ت خ م

ش خ ش ب ر ا گن

ق ي ق ح ي ت ب ر ج ت




ل د ي م ا ر ج ار ج د ي ا ت ر ن ي س ف ت

ي ر ظ ث ن ح ا ب ا م ق ب ا ب ط ن ا

ر و ا ن ي م ه س ئ ا ر ا ج ي ا ت ن

ز ا

ع ا ف د

ي ي ا ه ش ن ر ا گن

ق ي ق ح ت

ا و ه ن و م ز م آ ا ج ن اج ي ا ت ن ن د ر ي ک ي ا ه ن

ل د ر م ت د ا ر ي ي غ م ت ا ج ن ا

ت ر و ر ت ض ر و ر ص د

ه ل ا ق ش م ر ا گن





د ش ر ي ا س ا ن ش ر ا ك ة م ا ن ن ا ي ا ة پ ي د ا ه ن ش ي م پ ر ف




ي گد ا و ن ا م خ ا ن م و ا ن ي : ي و ج ش ن ا ه د ر ا م : ش

ي ل ي ص ح ة ت ت ش :ر

ه م ا ن ن ا ي ا ن پ ا و ن :ع

ه ز و طح ب ت ر ي م ا :ه

ا م ن ه ا ر :د

ا م ن ه ا ر د ا :ت

ل ا ز و پر م پ ر ف




ق)۱ ي ق ح ي ت ه ي ج و ل ت ي ال ت و د ر و ر ، ض ع و ض و م

ن( ا ي ه ب ك ع و ض و ز م ي ا ح ر ل وش ك ش ك م ه ي د ن ن ك د/ ش ا ه ب ن ي م ن ز ي ر ا د د و ج و ت م ا م ا ه ب ا ا )ي

ي)۲ ب ر ج ي و ت ر ظ ن ت ا ي ب د ه ا ي ل و ر ا و ر م

د( ن د ر ر گ ك ن ذ ي ت ي و ال س ر ا ت ف ر و ه ص ي ب د ي ل ك ت ا م ل ك ا د ت ب ر ا )د





ه)٣ ي ض ر ، ف ق ي ق ح ت ت ال ا و قس ي ق ح ي ت ا ف ه د ا و ه ه

د( ن ر ي ي گ ل م ك ر ش گش ه و ن ژپ ه ر ذ ه د ك د ن ت س ي ه ت ال ا و ق س ي ق ح ت ت ال ا و ر _ س ث ك ا د ل٦ح ا و سي ل ص ن ن _ ا ا ي ا م پ ا ج ن ا ا ت و ب ي ا ه ر ن ه د ك ا ه ر چن د آ ي ا ق ب ي ق ح ت ي ا ه ف د ا ه ف ي د ل ه ص ا ه ح م ا

د ن ه ن د ا ش د ن د ش ه ا و د.خ ن ن ك ف ي ص و ت ا ق ر ي ق ح ت ي ل ص ج ا ي ا ت د ن ي ا ه ب م ا ن ن ا ي ا ي پ ا ه ف د ا ه ف ي د د ه ن ش ا ل ب و ص ل ح ب ا ك و ق ر ل د ب ا ، ق ن ش و ، ر ي ب ا ي ز ر ل ا ب ا ، ق ش ج ن ل س ب ا .)و ق

ق)٤ ي ق ح ل ت د م





ي)٥ ر و آ د ر ي گ گن و ز و گچ ا ي ن د ر و ت م ا ع ال ط ا

ن)٧ ا م ز ا قس ي ق ح ج ت ي ا ت ن ز ه ا د ن ن ك ه د ا ف ت س ي ا ا ه

ج)٦ ي ا ت ن ه ئ ا ر ل و ا ي ل ح ش ت و ر





١ ٢ ١ ١ ١ ٠ ٩ ٨ ٧ ٦ ٥ ٤ ٣ ٢ ١

ه م ب ز ن ال ا م (...)ز

ي ل ص ي ا ا ت ه ي ل ا ع ن ف ا و ن عه ر ا م شه ل ح ر م

ه)٨ م ا ن ن ا ي ا م پ ا ج ن ي ا د ن ب ن ا م ز

ل ( ا ع ا و ف ه ن م آ ا ج ن ل ا ح ا ر ك م ي ك ف ت ه ق ب ي ق ح ت م ا ج ن ي ا د ن ب ن ا م ، ز د ن ن ب ي ا ر رد ه د ل ح ر ر م ي ه ل ص ي ا ا ت ه ي د و ه ش ئ ا ر ت ا ن ا ر گ ا د و م ب ن ل ا ).ق





ذ)٩ خ آ ت م س ر ه ف

ن( ي ت ي و ال س ر ا ك ف ي ك ف ت ه ن ب ت ر م ه د د ه ش د ا ف ت س ي ا م ل ع ع ب ا ن ه م ي ل ك ت س ر ه يف ه م ئ ا ر دا ن و .)ش





م ن ا ة خ ي د ا ه ي /ن ا ق آ

ن ا و ن ت ع ح ت خ ر و ة م س ل ر ج دد ا ص ت ق ه ا و ر ح و گ ر ط ف م ي ر ي ش ت ع ن ه ص ا گش ن ا د د ا ص ت ق ا ت و ي ر ي د ة م د ك ش ن ا د

ن م آ ا ج ن ا ا :بد ت ش ق ف ا و .م

د ش ت ن ق ف ا و .مل ي ال ن د ي ر ت :م

د ت ش ق ف ا و م ر ي ت ز ا ح ال ص م ا ا ج ن ط ا ر ه ش ب۱(۲(

د ا ص ت ق ه ا و ر ر گ ي د ء م ا ض خم ي ر ا ت

ا م ن ه ا د ر ا ت س ء ا ا ض :م

و ج ش ن ا ة د م ا ن ن ا ي ا ة پ د ن و ر ر پ ي د ن ا گي ا ة ب خ س ن





ي د ا ص ت ق ق ا ي ق ح ي ت ا ض ا ق ه و ت ض ر ع



ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و ير د ا ص ت ق ق ا ي ق ح ي ت ا ض ا ق ه و ت ض ر ع

ن• ا ر ب ه ج ن ب ش آ ن ك ا ة و و ح ي و ن ن ا س ن ة ا ي ا م ر اً س ت د م ا ع ق ر ي ق ح ت ة ض ر ف ع ر ةط ن ي ز ه

ن ي ق ق ح ت م ص ر ت(ف د ه م ا ت و ك ر ي و)د ش ز و م م آ ا ظ ه ن ن ب ي آ ه ت د م ال د و ع ن ك ي ن م ي ي ع ت د ن ك ي ن م ي ي ع ت ا ن ر ت آ د د م ن ل د ب ع ي ب ن ا س ن ع ا ب ا ن ص م ي ص خ .ت

د• ن ه ي د ل م ي ك ش ت ي د ا ص ت ق ي ا ا ه ه ا گن ت و ب ل و ا د ق ر ي ق ح ت ي ا ض ا ق ت ف ر ه.ط ن ي ز ت ه ب س ن

م ي ق ت س ي م ط ا ب ت ر ف ا ل ت خ ي م ا ه ر و ش ك ي ل خ ا ص د ل ا خ ا د ن ي ل و ت ه ي ب ت ا ق ي ق ي ح ا حه ط ا س بد ر ا ا د ه ن ي آ گت ف ا ه ي ع س و ل.ت ئ ا س ل م ر ح ق د ي ق ح ت ت ي م ه ة ا د ن ن ك س ع ك ن ، م ت ب س ن ن ي ا

ا ق ت ت ي ع ض ي و گن و ز گچ ي ا ب و ص خ خ ا ه ش ج ي ت ر ن ي و د ه ا گن ي و ب ر ا د ، ا ي ع ا م يت ا ض

ق ي ق ح ن(ت ة آ ض ر ه ع ت)و ن س .ا




ه • ه ا گن ، ب د ش ا ر ب ت ك ي د ز ي ن ر ا ص ح ن ط ا ي ا ر ه ش د ب ي ل و ت م ا ظ ه ن ر چ ، ه ل ب ا ق ر م لد ي ل ه د ا ب ق ي ق ح ت ة ن ي ز ف ه ر ي ص ا ر ي ب ر ت م ك ة ز ي گن ، ا ر ا ص ح ن ز ا ل ا ص ا ت ح ن ا ه ر ي ب س ر ت يس ت ا

ت س ي ر ن ا د ر و خ ر ي ب ف ا ك ه ي ج و ت ز ي ا ي ا ر ا ك ي ا ق ت ر ي ا ا ر ق ب ي ق ح ت د و ن ر ا .د

ر• ت ك ي د ز ي ن ت ب ا ق ط ر ي ا ر ه ش ه ب ك ي ن ا ز ي ه م ، ب ي د ا ص ت ق ي ا ر ا د ه ا گن ة ب ز و ر ح رد م و د ي ش ا ا ب ب ق ب ر ن ا ز ج د ا ي د ه ت ض ر ع ر م ا د ه ه ا گن ت ب ا ي م ح و ا د ت ه ك ي ن ا ز ي ه م ه ب ج ي ت ان ه ن ه و آ د و بن ش ا ي ب ي ا ر ا ك ش ي ا ز ف ا و ا ه ه ن ي ز ل ه ر ت ن ك ر ظ ز ن د ا ر ك ل م د ع و ب ه ه ب ر ب ا چا هن ن ي ز ف ه ر ، ص د

ي ر ي ذ ه پ ي ج و ت ز ت ا ب ا ق ت ر ر د ش ق ي ا ز ف د و ا ر ك ل م ء ع ا ق ت ر ر ا ي د ت ا ق ي ق ي ح ا ره ا د ر و خ ر بد و ي ش .م




ت• ب ا ق ر و ر ت ش ي ي ب ي و گخ س ا ت پ ه ر ج ر د ا ش ه ف ر چ ز ه ي ي ن ت ل و ش د خ ر ب يد س ا ي ي س ا ه

ه د ر ش ي ق ف ب ا ي ز ر د ا ر و ي م ر ت ش ي ت ب ي س ا س ا ح ا ب ه ت ل و د د ر ك ل م ه ع ج ي ت ر ن د و د ش ا ر ب ت ر ا ر د و د ب ه ا و ه خ ي ج و ت ي ا ر ا د د ر ك ل م ت ع ي ف ي ك ء ا ق ت ر ي ا ا ر ه ب ن ي ز ف ه ر ، ص د ر ي . گ




ي د ا ص ت ق ت ا ا ق ي ق ح ع ت ا و ن ا

ه-۱ ژو ر ق پ ي ق ح ت ي ه(ا د ه ش د ا ش د ر ا ف )س

ك-۲ ي م د ا ك ي آ ه ا ف ر ق ح ي ق ح ت )Professional(

ي-۳ ي و ج ش ن ا ق د ي ق ح ت ن( ا ي ا ه پ م ا )ن



ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و ير د ا ص ت ق ت ا ا ق ي ق ح ع ت ا و ن ا

ه-۱ ژو ر ق پ ي ق ح ي ت ا

ت س ص ا خ ش ر م ا ك ش ر ا ف ر س ي ب ن ت ب ق م ي ق ح ت ع و ن ن ي .اه ژو ر ق پ ي ق يح ي م ا ط ر ر ي ل ز ح ا ر ن م ن آ ر د ل م ك ر ش ي د دا ن ك :

ف ل ا- ا ه د ا ه ن ش ي ي پ ب ا ي ز ر ه و ا ل أ س ت م ر و ف ص ي ر ع ت ي ا ر ر ب و ا ش ك م ب ي ا خ ت ن ا

ن- ب ت ش و ي)RFP)Request For Proposal ن و ز س ن ا م آ ال ع ر و ا و ا ش ة م ل ي س ه و با م ر ف ر ا ك

ج ة- ي د ا ه ن ش ي ن پ ت ش و ن)Proposal( ن ا ي ض ا ق ت ة م ل ي س ه و ت.ب ي ل ا ع ح ف ر ل ش م ا ي ش د ن ب ن ا م ، ز ا ه

ه ن ي ز ا و ه ه ن قآ ي ق ح ت م ا ج ن ي ا ا هق- د ي ق ح ت م ا ج ن ي و ا ر ج ب م ا خ ت ن ان- ه ا م ز ا ة س ل ي س و ا ب م ر ف ر ا ك ب ن ا ز ج ل ا ر ت ن ك ت و ر ا ظ ل ن ا م ع ص ا ص خ ت ي م ا )QCوQA(ه




ه-۲ ف ر ق ح ي ق ح ك ت ي م د ا ك ي آ ا

ا ي پ ر پ ق د ق ح ه م ك ي ت ال ا و ه و س د ف ش ي ر ع ت ه ل أ س ت م ر و ق ص ي ق ح ت ع و ن ن ي ر ا هد خ ب ست س ص ا خ ش الً م م ا ك ت س ا ه .ن





ه ف ر ق ح ي ق ح ي ت ا م ع كم ي م د ا ك ي آ ا

ن ا م ه و ز د ي چي ت پ س ي ا ر ا ك م ل ز ع ر ر م ت د ك ر ي ح ن ع ه م ك ب ي م د ا ك ق آ ي ق ح ت ر ر و د بال ا ي ب ر ك ي و ف م ل ي ع د ن م ن ا و ت ا ي ب د ا ر ف ي و ا ف ك ت م ق ف و ر م ص ز ل ت س ه م ج ي ت ا.ن م ا

ال د ا ت ب ص ر ة ف ن ي ز ، ه ب و ل ط ي م د ن م ن ا و ت ز ي ا ر ا د ر و خ ر ت ب ر و ر ص د د ا ر ف ن ا ي اا ذ د و ل ن ر ت ا د ن ك ي ن ا ب ي ت ش ا پ ه ن ز آ ي ا و ي ق ف ا ك ة ز ا د ن ه ا ي ب ش ز ي گن م ا ا ظ ت ن س ي ا ر و ر دض ن ا و ت ا ب ه ف ر ك ح ي م د ا ك ق آ ي ق ح ت ، ي ل ا ة م ز ي گن ز ا غ ا ر ا ي ف ف د ا ص ت ه ن ا ب ل ط و ا م د ا د ق ك ا ز ي ا ا ي ر ا

ن ا م ز ا م س ا د ق ك ا ه ي دب ن ك ل ي د ب ت ت ا ب ا ث ة ب ت ف ا . ي




ي ل ي ن د و ع س ر م ت ك د ق ي ق ح ش ت و ير د ا ص ت ق ت ا ا ق ي ق ح ع ت ا و ن ا

ي-۳ ي و ج ش ن ا ق د ي ق ح ت

د ن ي آ ر ر ف ه و د ت ش ا د ق ن ي ق ح ت ة ز و ه ح ل ب م ا ك ف ا ر ش ه ا ك ي ط ي ا ر ر ش و د ج ش رن ا ر ق ق ي ق ح ت ه ل أ س ت م ر و ف ص ي ر ع ت ه د ب ي ا ه ب ت ف ر ل گن ك و ش ي ا ا ر ي ب ص خ ش ت م ال ا و د و س ر ا قد ي ق ح ت

د ز ا د .ر



Writing

The principles of good writing- simplicity, clarity, unity- areuniversal.

Clear exposition requires revising, revising, and revisingagain. Undoubtedly, you will spend many months perfectingyour first papers, but this work is one of the wisest investmentsyou will ever make.

Do not assume that if your ideas are interesting, you will beread whether or not you write well.

1- Writing1- Writing

Dr. Masoud Nili Research M ethod



If they cannot see at a glance they will gain something from

reading it, they will not even start.

Putting your results on paper is not subsidiary to producing

them. The process of writing itself always leads to newknowledge. Learn to write but also write to learn.

Make your paper inviting and convey your messageefficiently.

WritingDr. Masoud Nil i Research M ethod



1-1- Write So That You Will Not Have to Be Read1-1- Write So That You Will Not Have to Be Read

Think about the way you read a paper do not proceed in alinear way. Scan it for the result and look around them for an

explanation of any notation and terminology you do notrecognize or cannot guess. You do not like hunting for theinformation. Your readers have better thing to do too.


k



1-2- Don’t Forget How You Make Your Discoveries1-2- Don’t Forget How You Make Your Discoveries

In presenting your work, draw lessons from the process that ledyou to your discoveries. You do not have to reproduce this

process in your paper, but it is sometimes worth telling your readers a little about it. In a seminar presentation especially,you can sometimes do more because of the informality of theseoccasions and because a didactic tone is more acceptable there

than in a journal article. An explanation of how you arrived atthe formulation of your problem and at your results should not,however, be a license to present a rambling discussion mixing

notation, definitions, assumptions, and goals like theingredients of a big salad.




Even worse is adding some semiformal algebraic manipulations

(tossing the salad?), and suddenly confronting us with: "Wetherefore established the following result…" As a reader, I feelas if I've been mugged when that happens.

When finished, your paper will cover an arbitrary number of

goods and agents, production possibilities, uncertainty, and soforth- and nobody will understand it. If you read it severalmonths later, you will not understand it either.




You arrived at your main theorem in small steps- by firstworking it out for two agents, two goods, and linear technologies, with no uncertainty and by drawing lots of

diagrams. It is also by looking at simple versions of your model that your readers will understand the central ideas. Mostlikely it is these central ideas, not the details of your proofsthat will help them in their own work.


1 2 D ’t F g t Y E



1-2- Don’t Forget Your Errors1-2- Don’t Forget Your Errors

You cannot claim to understand something completely untilyou very thoroughly understand the various ways in which it

can be misunderstood.


1 4 D h O i i li d Si ifi f Y



1-4- Demonstrate the Originality and Significance of YourContribution1-4- Demonstrate the Originality and Significance of YourContribution

Show that what you did has not been done before and that

your conclusions are not direct consequences of knownresults. Explain how your assumptions differ from thoseused in related literature and why these are importantdifferences, conceptually and technically. Cite the relevantarticles and tell readers how they pertain to your subject.




Explain what motivated you in your investigation, but do notover explain or your readers will become suspicious.

Make your reasoning appear simple, even trivial. It will help

you prove your results at the next level of generality.

It is unfortunate that the trade-off between the space devoted toan article in a journal and the time readers need to understand itis so routinely resolved in favor of saving space.




You may think that if your article does not contain at least onedifficult- looking result it is not ready for submission. Of course, you are rightly proud of the sophisticated reasoning thathas led you to your findings. Nevertheless. Work hard to makethem look simple


1 5 U d t d th F ti f E h C t f Y

1-5- Understand the Function of Each Component of Your



1-5- Understand the Function of Each Component of YourPaper

1-5- Understand the Function of Each Component of YourPaper

Think carefully about how each part of your paper fits with theothers. Your title should be as descriptive of your content as

possible. Although most titles simply announce the subject,sometimes a title may also describe the result.

"On the Number of Competitive Equilibria"

"The Number of Competitive Equilibria Is Odd" It is alwaysworth trying to do so.




Devote attention to your abstract, as many potential readers or listeners will decide whether to become actual readers or attendyour presentation on the basis of the abstract. Keep in mind thatabstract are also meant to be published and read separately fromthe paper itself. They appear in the Journal of EconomicLiterature and may be reproduced in the book of abstracts given

to the conference participants, on the web page of theconference, or in the proceeding volume.


Li k d f h i d f d li i



If they do not all appear in your abstract, something is wrong:

you need to revise the list, or rewrite your abstract, or both.Also, if the first three or four keywords are not part of your title, there should be good reasons for their absent.

In writing your acknowledgments, be generous.

List keywords for the paper in order of decliningimportance.




The introduction to paper should place your work in thecontext of the existing literature on the topic and describeyour principal findings. Do not, however, start with a two- or three- page survey of the field: your reader will want to knowabout your own contribution sooner than that. Your languageshould be as plain as possible, and you should skip the detailsat this point.




If you have to refer to an important concept whose formaldefinition is too technical for an introduction, put the term

between quotation marks. This conventions signal readersthey need not worry if there are not acquainted with it asyou've used it and that you will explain it later.




Your review of literature on which you build should not be a

mere enumeration of earlier articles. Give priority to thedevelopment of the ideas rather than describing the history of your subject, although who did what and when should be

included, and it should be unambiguously clear where youstepped in

The body of the paper need not repeat all the points youmade in the introduction, but some reiteration is unavoidable.




Your conclusion should not be a rehash of the introduction. Acompact summary of your results a statement of the mainlessons to be drawn from your analysis, however, are a good

lead in to a general discussion of promising directions for future work and, perhaps, a list of specific questions to beexplored. A table summarizing your result, or, moregenerally, comparing the critical assumptions and mainconclusions of your work and earlier papers on the subjectmay be useful.




The structure of your paper should be clear, as should thestructure of each section, subsection, and paragraph. A goodway to see how your paragraph fit together is to summarize

each one in a sentence. Does the string of these sentencesmake sense? It should. Perform this exercise also at the levelof subsections, and then sections. But remember that readers

will not have the benefit of these summaries. Make sure thatthe structure of the paper is clear to them from what they seeon the page.


1-6- In the literature Review, Tell a Story- Don't Enumerate

1-6- In the literature Review, Tell a Story- Don't Enumerate



, y

Enumerate : Author 1 shows that on the domain of all gamessatisfying Condition 1, Nash equilibrium is not guaranteed toexist. Author 2 shows that on the domain of games satisfyingCondition 2, existence may not hold either. On the domain of games satisfying Condition 3 and in the two- player case,Author 3 shows existence. Here, we investigate the case of threeor more players under Condition 3.






Don’t Be Shy About Explaining Very Simple Things

Don’t Be Shy About Explaining Very Simple Things



y p g y p g

To ensure that everything is clear to everyone, you maysometimes have to take time and space to explain things thatseem very simple to you. This is especially true in a seminar,as you will not have time to explain the complicated issues inany detail, and especially at the beginning. Indeed, if youlose your audience then you may have hard time getting it

back.





To most of us, a sentence such as “Agent 1s marginal rateof substitution at is greater than agent 2s “ only meansthat the two agents indifference curves through havedifferent slopes at .We can only hope that it will be clear

which one of them is steeper when we really need to know.Of course, we would never admit confusion by asking

publicly, and I certainly would never put such a confession

in writing for fear of being forever shunned by my collage.To prevent this situation, compare the agents marginal ratesof substitution of good 2 for good 1 at the point , even

better, simply talk about their indifference curves beingmore or less steep at .

0 Z

0 Z

0 Z 0 Z

0 Z



Illustrating a general phenomenon with a perhaps incompletelyspecified geometric example is more informative than using acomplete argument based on a particular numerical example.

This is because it may not be obvious which features of thenumerical example are essential to the phenomenon. To provethat in an Edgeworth box economy there could be severalWalrasian equilibria, it suffices to use an example in which

preferences are suggested by means of a few indifference curvesfor each of the two agents .


Use One Enumeration for Each Object Category

Use One Enumeration for Each Object Category



j g y

Number each category of objects, definition, propositions,theorems, and so on separately. Some authors use a signal list

for all numbered items: Definition 15, which is the tenthdefinition, is followed by Theorem 16, which is the thirdtheorem.


State Assumptions in Order of Decreasing Plausibility or

State Assumptions in Order of Decreasing Plausibility orG li



When introducing your assumptions, start with the most naturalones and proceed to those that are increasingly restrictive anddecreasingly plausible. You should always postpone as long as

possible the moment when a reader may not be entirelycomfortable with some aspects of your argument. When you

refer to the assumptions again, of course, use the same order, for the same reasons.


GeneralityGenerality

For utility functions do not write




For utility functions, do not write

A1: is strictly concave,A2: is bounded,A3: is continuous.

Instead (and here I do not attempt to give names to theconditions), write

A1: is continuousA2: is bounded,A3: is strictly concave

An enumeration should be logical: proceeding from small tolarge, easy to difficult, particular to general, and so on.

iu

iu

iu

iuiu

iu

Group Assumptions by Gategory

Group Assumptions by Gategory



Introduce your assumptions in related groups.For a general equilibrium model,

A1-A5 pertain to consumers,B1-B6 pertain to firms.

For a game,A1-A3 pertain to the structure of the game,

B1-B2 pertain to the behavior of the players.


Figure Out and Indicate Logical Relations amongA i

Figure Out and Indicate Logical Relations amongAssumptions



Find out how your conditions are logically related. If theserelations are complex, present them in the form of diagrams. In

a seminar, show diagrams of implications even if relationsamong them are not complex.You can also use a diagram of arrows, each indicating an

implication, and crossed arrows, each indicating a lack of implication.


AssumptionsAssumptions

Use a Common Format of Formal Statements of Resultsd Si il P t f f

Use a Common Format of Formal Statements of Resultsand Similar Parts of proofs



If you have several results that are variants of each other, present them in the same format so as to make their relations toeach other immediately apparent.


and Similar Parts of proofsand Similar Parts of proofs

If you first state.




THEOREM 1 If A, B, and C, then D and E.Do not write your next theorem, which differs from Theorem 1 in thatC is replaced by and E is replaced by , as

THEOREM 2 Suppose A and B. In addition, consider the class of

economies satisfying . Then D. Also, holds.Instead, use a paralell format.

THEOREM 2 If A, B, and , then D and

C ′

C ′

E ~

C ′

E ~

E ~




Theorems and proofsTheorems and proofs





The theorems themselves, however, should be stated in thesimplest English possible. The reader who wants to knowmore than the usually informal description of the resultsgiven in the introduction may be able to spare only few moreminutes for reading the paper.


Divide Proofs into Clearly Identified Steps or Cases

Divide Proofs into Clearly Identified Steps or Cases



Step 1 . The domain of the correspondence is compact. To provethis, we will establish two claims:

Claim 1 . The domain is bounded. To see this …Claim 2 . The domain is closed. This follows from Lemma 1.

Step2 . The correspondence is upper semicontinuous.





Gather in Front of a Conclusion All the ConditionsNeeded to Reach It

Gather in Front of a Conclusion All the ConditionsNeeded to Reach It

Specify Precisely the Assumptions, or Particular Part of Them Used in Each Step

Specify Precisely the Assumptions, or Particular Part of Them, Used in Each Step




Them, Used in Each Step, p

Do not write “The above assumptions imply that f isincreasing” if you need only some of those assumptions to

prove that f is increasing. It should be clear whether you meanall of the assumptions stated so far or only those discussed inthe preceding paragraph. Write “Assumptions 3 and 4 imply

that f is increasing." Even better, if you do not need Part (i) of Assumption 4, write “Assumption 4 together imply that f isincreasing.

Do not write “A and B imply C and D,” if in fact “ A implies C




and D. “With a very small additional effort, you can be muchmore precise.

When you cite an earlier result, be as exact as possible. For classic theorems, refer to a textbook your readers are likely to befamiliar with.



Use a Consistent Writing Style

Use a Consistent Writing Style




First, in a proof do not switch back and forth between first- person singular, third- person singular, first person plural, and passive forms. If you summarize your paper as follows:” In

show that an equilibrium exists. In section 4, we establishuniqueness. To prove these results, it is assumed that preference relations are strictly convex. For the proof of themain theorem, one appeals to the Brouwer fixed – pointtheorem. Section 5 concludes.” your reader will think you need

psychiatric help. Are you I or we?




Is it because these assumptions are embarrassing that yousuddenly hide behind the passive form? Believe me, we all

make embarrassing assumptions. And why do you letsection 5 conclude when you did all the work? The passiveform is found awkward by me, and our advice here is to

have it replaced. I is perhaps too personal, between I andwe, I usually choose I, we will respect your choice.




Similarly, do not travel back and forth between the present and future tenses. Don’t write :” First, I prove

existence. Then I will apply the theorem to exchangeeconomics. I conclude with open question. “In mostcases, using the present tense throughout, event when

describing past literature, is just fine.




Don’t Use Quantifiers in an EnglishSentence

Don’t Use Quantifiers in an EnglishSentence

If You Think a Step Is Obvious, Look Again

If You Think a Step Is Obvious, Look Again




Do not think that your own errors necessarily occur in the hard parts of your proofs (I should say, in what you think are thehard parts of your proofs). They may well have hidden in (what

you think are) the easy parts, talking advantage of your overconfidence. After completing your paper, search for thewords clearly and obviously and make sure that what you call

clear and obvious is, if not clear and obvious, at least true.

Don ′ t deduce from this suggestion, however, that simplydeleting every clearly and obviously will eliminate all your errors.

Use Picture

Use Picture




Even simple pictures can be of considerable help in makingyour paper easily understandable and you seminar

presentation more vivid. Of course, a picture is not a

substitute for a proof, and the proof should be (in general)understandable without one. But an illustration may conveythe main idea of the proof and, thereby, cut down by half (probably much more) the time needed for readers tounderstand it.




In addition to illustrating definition and steps of proofs,figures also provide relief from long verbal or algebraicdevelopments. Altogether, they make a paper more inviting.

Conclusion

Conclusion




If you follow all the above recommendations, you will be pleased with yourself, your seminar audiences will beenlightened, your classmates will me impressed, your parents

will be proud.

I readily, admit that each of the points I make dose notamount to much, and you could ask “What's the big deal if Iignore it? You are right about any one of them individually .






If you are used to certain notational conventions, or terminology, or ways of structuring a proof, they almostcertainly seem to you the best- and perhaps the only ones

worth considering. Yet, you should be open –mindedenough to experiment with other formulations. Only after giving them a genuine test can you decide which one istruly best.




Let some time elapse between revisions. If your paper is sofamiliar to you that you essentially know it by heart, you will

never discover your mistakes. Let it sit in a drawer for a while,when you pick it up again, you will see immediately how itcan be improved. You certainly should not sent to a journal on

Monday a paper you spent the whole weekend revising. OnTuesday you will discover several imperfections.




On Wednesday, you will spot additional problems and begin to wish you had looked it over once more beforemailing it. On Thursday, you will come across an error in a

proof and send an e-mail asking the editor to please waitfor a revised version. Not the best way to again an editorstrust. If, on the other hand, your last two round of revisions

were separated by a week and you found only two typos inthe latest one, go ahead. Correct the typos and submit the

paper.

2- Notation

2- Notation



Notation

One of your first professional choices will be what typesettingsoftware to use. I strongly endorse LATEX (or TEX, or Scientific Word, whichever one you handle best). LATEX

makes plain text look beautiful and, because it” understand”the structure of mathematical expressions, it has immeasurable

benefits for the writing of proofs.

Dr. Masoud Nil i Research M ethod

2-1- Learn LATEX or a Related Program2-1- Learn LATEX or a Related Program

2-2- Choose Easily Recognizable Notation

2-2- Choose Easily Recognizable Notation



People in your field may use certain letters to designatesomething so commonly that their interpretation mayinterfere with the way you want to use those letters. In thatcase, it is probably better to accept tradition.

Dr. Masoud Nil i Research M ethodNotation

2-3- Choose Mnemonic Abbreviations for Assumptions andProperties

2-3- Choose Mnemonic Abbreviations for Assumptions andProperties



Do not refer to your assumption and properties by number,letters, or letter- number combinations.

If you describe Assumption A1-A3 and B1-B4 on page 2, butdon’t state your first theorem until page 10, it will be virtuallyimpossible for readers to remember them. But the fact that

Assumption Diff, Mon, and Cont refer differentiability,monotonicity, and continuity will be obvious even to a reader starting there. Choose your abbreviations carefully: if youwrite Con, it may not be clear whether you mean continuity or convexity, so write Cont or Conv.

Dr. Masoud Nil i Research M ethodNotation

2-4- Use Only Notation You Can Easily Pronounce orDraw on the Board

2-4- Use Only Notation You Can Easily Pronounce orDraw on the Board




If choosing notation, keep in mind that you will give oral

presentations of your work and may want to write on a board. It is not immediately clear how to read the sentence “I assume and to be continuous and monotonic”.And how do you pronounce the special symbol you justcreated with your newly acquired computer skills?

i≥ i ′≥

Notation



2-7- Choose Notation Resulting in UnclutteredMathematical Expressions

2-7- Choose Notation Resulting in UnclutteredMathematical Expressions




Avoid unnecessary symbols.Do not use multiple subscripts and subscripts if you canavoid them. If you have only two agents, call their consumption bundles x and y, with generic coordinates

and (instead of and , with coordinates

and )k x1

k x 2 xk y

k x2

1 x

Notation

3 2 M k I Cl Wh Y A D fi i N T

3- Definitions

3- Definitions



When you first use a term, make it immediately clear that it isindeed new. Do not let readers think they might have missed adefinition given earlier, or that you assume they know thedefinition.


3-2- Make It Clear When You Are Defining a New Term3-2- Make It Clear When You Are Defining a New Term

Definition

3-4- Give Examples Illustrating Novel Definitions

3-4- Give Examples Illustrating Novel Definitions



Provide illustrative examples with your definitions,especially those likely to be unfamiliar to readers, as goodexposition usually goes back and forth between the generaland the particular.


Definition



3-8- Don’t Collapse Two or Three Similar Statement intoOne

3-8- Don’t Collapse Two or Three Similar Statement intoOne

d f b d b d h




Compact definitions obtained by indicating the variantsin parentheses may save space, but it does so at the costof readers time. Consider for example: “The function

is decreasing (increasing , nondecreasing) if for all with, (respectively

). The only way to be really surewe understand this triple definition is to read it threetimes (once for decreasing once for increasing, and oncefor nondecreasing). Yet the definition itself is actuallyfairly simple.I also have a lot of trouble with and/or (or is it or/and)

R R f →: R y x ∈, ( ) ( ) y f x f y x <> ,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) y f x f y f x f ≥> ,

Definition

3-16- Clean Up Your Text

3-16- Clean Up Your Text

Go over your paper word by word and ask yourself whether




Go over your paper word by word and ask yourself whether each one is the best you can use and whether it fits with itsneighbors. Ask whether you need it at all. You will find that

many words can be deleted with no loss of meaning or clarity. The goal is not to shorten your paper, however, but tomake it cleaner.

Definition

Here are some illustration of ways to lighten your prose.Instead of speaking of “the agents in the economy,” refer toh ” h ” If l d




them as” the agents”. If consumers are your only agent, do notwrite that “consumers preferences are assumed to be convex.“in such a case, preferences can only be consumers

preferences. “Preferences are assumed to be convex” is better.Better still – convexity being only one of the manyassumptions that you make in specifying your model –

simplify the sentence to “preferences are convex.” Applyingthe same idea to firms, replace “ The technologies of the firmsin the economy are assumed to be convex” with “Technologies are convex”.

Definition

4 1 Understand the Role of Models

4 1 Understand the Role of Models

4- Models

4- Models



Your Model is a tool, not reality. You specified it in order tostudy a phenomenon of interest. You should, therefore, notget carried away when drawing conclusions about the realworld from your results. On the other hand, you do not have

to defend the model as an accurate and completerepresentation of the world. We know it is not. It only needsto include all the essential elements for describing and

studying the target problem.


4-1- Understand the Role of Models4-1- Understand the Role of Models

Models

4-2- Introduce Your Model by Moving from Infrastructureto Superstructure

4-2- Introduce Your Model by Moving from Infrastructureto Superstructure




In specifying an economy, introduce and describe each actor category separately before bringing them together. For

instance, in a general equilibrium problem, describeconsumers first- their endowments, their preferences, andwhat they know. Next, introduce the producers and specifytechnologies. Then bring all these actors together to composethe economy.

Models

4-3- Avoid Long Sentences

4-3- Avoid Long Sentences




A good way to prevent ambiguities is to write mostly one-clause sentences. If English is not your native language,doing so will also greatly help you avoid grammatical errors.Finally, limiting yourself to such sentences will force you to

put them down in logical sequences.

Models

4-4- Redundancy Is Useful, But Don’t Overdo It

4-4- Redundancy Is Useful, But Don’t Overdo It

Another circumstance under which redundancy is not only




Another circumstance under which redundancy is not onlyacceptable but probably desirable is in facilitating transitionsfrom one section to the next. Transitions should make sense

to readers even if they do not read the section heading. Thusyou may have to begin each section with a sentence thatessentially repeats the heading, which, unlike the headings of this essay (which I wrote as injunctions), is often not acomplete sentence. Often you can simply convert the headinginto a sentence, at other times you will have to express itscontent in a slightly different way.

Models

When stating a difficult definition assist us by giving an




When stating a difficult definition, assist us by giving aninformal explanation in addition to the formal statement.Here, too, such an explanation should come before the

formal statement, to prepare readers for it and save themfrom frustration. It is annoying to spend time struggling tounderstand a complicated concept when it is first given,only to discover that two paragraphs down the author waswilling to help after all.

Models

The same comment applies to figures. If you provided afi ill f h k h b h




The same comment applies to figures. If you provided afigure to illustrate a proof, thank you very much, but whydidn’t you say so ahead of time, so that readers can identifyon it the variables as you introduced them and use it to followyour argument? Warning us that one exists is especiallyimpotent because the constraints of typesetting make it hardto control a figure s exact placement in text and a figure

illustrating a proof may very well appear on the pagefollowing the proof instead of next to the proof.

Models



Giving Talks




Giving Talks

If you are giving your first talk and feel nervous, this essaymay help a little.




•You also have choices in formatting, structuring,summarizing, showing logical relations, and suggesting

connections that are not available or are less effectivelyimplemented in print



Giving Talks

yimplemented in print.


•You can be informal in your tone and style of delivery.

• The chance to interact with the audience is another major advantage of the oral presentation.

•You choose the pace of your presentation and control whatyour audience knows at every point. In a printed paper, by

contrast, individual readers will work their way around it intheir own particular fashion over which you have no control



Giving TalksDr. Masoud Nil i Research M ethod

ytheir own particular fashion, over which you have no control.

•The possibility of talking a little about the personal historyof your work, recounting how your thinking evolved over time and how your results gained in generality, is one of the

benefits of a talk over a paper.

•The standards of mathematical rigor in an oral presentation

are some what more relaxed than those applied to a journalarticle.

•If English is not your native language, oral presentationsi bili i

Difficulties of Oral Presentations

Difficulties of Oral Presentations



Giving Talks

may strain your abilities.

•You cannot possibly present as much information in aseminar as you can in a paper.

•People understand at different rates, and reader proceed attheir own individual pace. When speaking you will have tochoose a speed to accommodate everyone. Inevitably, you

will be too slow for some and too fast for others.


•Time is experienced very differently by a speaker and theaudience . You may think your presentation is going veryquickly, but it is likely that when you are only halfway



Giving Talks

q y, y y y ythrough it, many people will have already looked discreetlyat the clock.

•Facing an audience requires you to be psychologically prepared and calls on completely different resources thanthose you relied on to write your paper.




Giving Talks

Preparing yourself Preparing yourself


Facing the Audience

Facing the Audience

• In preparing your talk, think about, how to interest them in a




p p g ytopic that in most cases bears no relation to what they areworking on, and how to sustain that interest throughout your talk.

•A talk is not a paper. The organization of your presentation,in particular, need not be that of your paper.

Looking Backward and Forward

Looking Backward and Forward

• Think of the opening shots of a movie: the camera starts high




p g gabove the city, descends to a neighborhood, approaches a

building, and miraculously moves through a wall and into theroom where two characters are having a conversation-thussetting the stage for the drama that will unfold. Thissuccessive narrowing of frames is how you should introduce

your paper and explain how it fits into existing literature. Atthe end of your presentation, smoothly pull the camera back away again and conclude with some comments of a general

nature.

•Short introductions are preferable.

•Do not promise too much.




• Having been engaged for several months by a specific problem and buried in its technical details, you are indanger of losing perspective and forgetting how marginal it

is to other people’s interests.

•You need, therefore, to think about how to convince suchindividuals that your findings are significant.

Digressing

Digressing

•Nothing is wrong with digressing from main point once in a




Nothing is wrong with digressing from main point once in awhile-that is one more way in which a talk differs from a

paper.

Making Jokes

Making Jokes

• If you can amuse listeners occasionally with jokes, cartoons,



Giving TalksDr. Masoud Nili Research M ethod

If you can amuse listeners occasionally with jokes, cartoons,or anecdotes, do it.

Being Flexible

Being Flexible

•An interactions with the audience may require you to depart




•An interactions with the audience may require you to departfrom your intended plan, you should be ready to do so.

• You need to be flexible enough to accommodate some of the

wishes of your audience. But it is your presentation.

Surprising Your Audience

Surprising Your Audience

• Many speakers feel obligated to surprise their audience with



Giving TalksDr. Masoud Nili Research M ethod

y p g pcounterintuitive results.

• However, there is danger in overemphasizing the element of surprise in your findings. When fully understood, nothing is

really surprising.

Interacting with the Audience

Interacting with the Audience

Answering Questions

Answering Questions




• Before answering any question, make sure you have fullyunderstood it. If not, request the person to restate or rephraseit.

• You should expect some misunderstandings-and not justmisunderstandings of the difficult parts of your paper. Treateveryone with respect, including someone who did not get a

point that is obvious to you.

Research Metood

Documents