Research Methodology Rev 1 June10 2007

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

K. Narasimhan

Regional Advisor (India)

The Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK

by

Aim of the Session

• To prepare participants to undertake dissertation or project

• To inform them of issues involved in 4-Ds of research projects

• Define, • Design • Do • Describe

RM: Outcomes of the session

On successful completion of this module participants will be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:

• the process of creating and disseminating knowledge

• how and where such knowledge is published

Defining your Research

Key Challenges:

– Understanding the research process

– Taking a systematic approach

– Generating and clarifying ideas

– Using the library and internet.

Assessing prior knowledge of participants

• Why Conduct Research?

• What is Research?

• What are the two main approaches?

• Participants’ experience in writing research proposals

• Are conceptual models/frameworks important?

Why Conduct Research?

– To complete an assigned task

– To improve

– understanding of the problem

– our competence in doing research

– the ability to manage research

– on others’ research

– To increase credibility of ones work

– To discover new things/ test ideas

– To Make sense of world around us.

Definition of Research for RAE 2008

"...original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding."

What is Research? (1)

Queen's University Belfast (2007),

What Research is Not?

It is Not

– Mere information gathering

– Mere transportation of facts from one location to another

– Merely rummaging for information

– A catchword to get attention

Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p.2)

A Research’s Distinct Characteristics

• Research originates with a question or problem.

• It is guided by the specific problem/hypothesis.

• It requires clear articulation of a goal/sub-goals.

• It requires a specific plan for proceeding.

• It accepts certain critical assumptions.

• It requires collection and interpretation of data.

• It is helical.

Types of Research

Basic Commercial

Scholarly Student

Interest-driven Assigned

Primary Secondary

Individual Group

Single discipline Interdisciplinary

Key Stakeholders

• Co-researchers (if applicable)

• Supervisors

• Examiners

• Sponsors (if applicable)

• Others (?)

Research Methodology Hierarchy

Approach

Philosophy

Perspective

Methodology

Design

Methods

Tools and Techniques

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005), p. 155

Research Approaches

Objectivist

Subjectivist

Ontology Epistemology

Positivism

Realism

Critical realism

Interpretivism

Constructionism

Subjectivism

Derived from philosophy of science.

Derived from philosophy of social science.

Comparison of Two Broad Approaches

Characteristics QualitativeQuantitative

Philosophy

Subjectivism ..Perspective Positivism …

Science

Objectives

Underlying assumptions

Social science

To describe and explain

To explore and interpret

To understand meaning to generate theory

To explain and predict

To confirm and validate

To find patterns to test theory

World is real & knowable

We can be objective

Phenomena can be reduced to numbers

World is complex

Knowable only through interaction with the social system that it contains

Characteristics QualitativeQuantitative

Questions

Starting point

Data analysis

Quality issue

What and how

Theory-led

Through rules

Validity, reliability…

Why, how

Data-led

Through intuition

Neutrality and transparency

Comparison of Two Broad Approaches

Nature of the research process

Focussed

Known variables

Established guidelines

Pre-determined methods

Somewhat context-free

Detached view

Holistic

Unknown variables

Flexible guidelines

Emergent methods

Context-bound

Personal view

Revise Framework

Collect data

Analyse data

The SA Research ProcessD

efin

eD

esig

nD

oD

escr

ibe

Topic

Questions

Identify Conceptual Framework

Literature Review

Data collection & analysis & report

Interpret results

Finalise Data collection and analysis

Pilot study

Report findings

Project report

A Qualitative Research Process

Interpret data

Interim findings

Literature Review

Design Report

Revise CF

Slides 15 and 16 adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005), p. 149

Def

ine

Des

ign

Do

Des

crib

e

Topic

Questions

Identify Conceptual Framework (CF)

Literature Review

Collect data

Analyse data

Questions answered or out of time

Managing the Research Process

Choose a topic: unanswered question & plan.

1

Develop concepts, framework and theories, form research hypotheses, & design studies

3

Gather evidence, analyse, interpret findings, and draw inferences.

5

4

6

Form arguments, identify limitations and ideas for further research. Write up the dissertation.

Get work published.

Write a critical literature review

2

Structure of a Research proposal• Statement of problem

• Research questions

– Sub-objectives

• Research approach

• Methodology

– Measures

– Data analysis approach

– Samples

• Schedule and budget

Statement of Problem

• Choose or identify Problem

• State the problem & Divide it into sub-problems

• State the hypotheses and limitations of the research

• State assumptions & why the study is important.

• Define key terms and jargons

Benefits of Writing Literature Review

• Answers if the field is worth studying.

• Can offer new ideas, etc and provides useful contacts.

• Shows how others have handled similar issues and dealt with potential difficulties.

• Can reveal sources of data, and tools effectively used.

• Helps link our findings to those of previous studies’.

Conducting a Literature Search

• Write clearly the problem and sub-problems

• Identify key terms from them

• Specify topics that need to be studied further

• Identify articles, books, websites, etc for reading

• Keep track and record of searches undertaken and all basic/important information

Ex1: Evaluating Research Articles• Was the article published in a refereed journal?• Are the objectives clearly stated?

• Is it primary research or secondary research?

• Is its structure logical?

• Is the problem chosen based on previous work?

• Can the method used be repeated by others?

• Is the method of data collection sound?

• Do you agree with the inferences drawn?

• What are its strength & weaknesses?

Writing a Critical Review (1)

Adapted from Pechenik, Jan. (1993).Cited in Hillsborough Community College (no date),

Read

Evaluate Understand

Write Digest

Interactively and for depth

Summarise the article

Rely on paraphrasing

Establish linkagesLook for arguments & counter arguments

Writing a Critical Review (2)

• Provide an overview of the chosen literature

• Use a “funnel” approach:

– Start with broad scope of the field and present an argument for narrowing the field to specific topic

• Identify the gaps in existing research and explain how the research to be undertaken will fill the void.

• Provide a critical account: emphasise relatedness; don’t just reproduce

Writing a Critical Review (3)

• Cite the major experts in the filed

• Cite the most recent and important literature

• Cite works that take a different viewpoint

• Give credit where it is due (do not plagiarise)

• Evaluate other’s work objectively

• Explain and justify the use of the chosen theories, concepts, frameworks, techniques, etc.

• Include a conceptual model showing all relevant variables/constructs and their relationships

Guidelines for Reviewing an Article

• Identify the main points and ‘inference indicators’

• Assess the context of the argument

• Identify the premises for conclusions

• Check if the premises are supported by sound evidence (reliable citations)

• Are the conclusions strong and logically based?

• Could counter conclusions be drawn?

Adapted from Fisher (2004, p. 77)

General Guidelines for Writing Reviews

• Be clear about the goal

• Draw a plan: moving from general to specific

• Emphasise relatedness

• Summarise what does it all mean

• Remember first draft is not the final draft

• Critically read your draft after a few days

• Seek advise and feedback

Adapted from Leedy and Ormrod (2005, pp. 79-80)

Conceptual Frameworks (1)

• Concepts are key terms used in the research.

• Frameworks illustrate the connections and relationships amongst the concepts.

• CFs provide a ‘map’ for the filed of study

• CFs Provide structure and coherence

Types of Relationships

• Cause and effect (Expectancy Model)

• Cyclical or stages in a process (Kolb’s)

• Hierarchical (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs)

• Matrices (BCG Matrix)

• Pairs of opposites (Force-Field Analysis)

• Exchange and equilibrium (Balanced Scorecard)

• Similarity (McKinsey’s ‘7 S’ Model)

Conceptual Frameworks (2)

Quantitative Research Designs

• Descriptive Research

– Observation studies

– Correlational research

– Developmental designs

– Survey research

– Interviews: face-to-face, telephone, voicemail

• Experimental and Ex post-facto designs

Observation Studies

Purpose : Quantify behaviour in an objective way.

Focus : A particular aspect of behaviour.

Data used: Recorded observations by researchers.

Methods ofAnalysis : Statistical analysis

Correlational Studies

Purpose : Assess relationship between variables

Focus : Ratings assigned or frequencies of behaviour

Data used : Numbers reflecting specific measurements of characteristics being studied.

Methods of

Analysis : Regression analysis

Developmental Designs

Purpose : Assess how variables change over time

Focus : Ratings assigned or frequencies of behaviour

Data used : Numbers reflecting specific measurements of characteristics being studied.

Methods of

Analysis : Cross-sectional or Longitudinal study

Survey Research

Purpose : To learn about a large population by acquiring information of its sample.

Focus : Ratings assigned or frequencies of behaviour, opinions, attitudes, experiences

Data used : Self-report data of specific measurements of characteristics being studied, using interviews and/or questionnaires.

Methods ofAnalysis : Statistical analysis

Experimental and Ex Post-facto Designs

Purpose : To identify possible cause and effect relationships /eliminate some alternative explanations for an observed change

Focus : Independent, dependent, and extraneous variables

Data used : Measurements of characteristics being studied,

Methods ofAnalysis : Statistical analysis

To get a complete understanding of the problem under study methods employed are:

– Case study

– Ethnography

– Phenomenological study

– Grounded theory study

– Content analysis

– Historical research

Qualitative Research Designs

Case Study

Purpose : To gain an in-depth understanding of a person/situation (dept,

organisation)

Focus : Case(s) in the natural setting.

Data used : Participant observations, interviews,

written documents, audio visual material

Methods of

Analysis : Clustering into meaningful groups and interpreting based on themes;

overall synthesis and generalisation

Ethnography

Purpose : To understanding how behaviours reflect group cultural norms, beliefs, etc

Focus : A site with a common culture.

Data used : Participant observations, interviews, written documents

Methods ofAnalysis : Organising in a chronological order

Clustering into meaningful groups Focussing on critical events Inferring general nature of culture

Phenomenological study

Purpose : Understand people’s perceptions, perspectives and understandings

Focus : A particular phenomena

Data used : Lengthy unstructured interviews with selected participants Cues from participants’ expressions, etc.

Methods of

Analysis : Identifying common themes;

Grouping them into meaningful experiences

Grounded Theory Study

Purpose : To derive a theory from data collected in a natural setting

Focus : A Process of actions and interactions related to a topic: people based

Data used : Observations, interviews, written documents,

audio visual materialMethods ofAnalysis : Systematically coding data into

categories and identifying relationships

Continual interweaving of data collection and data analysis

Constructing theory from categories & interrelationships

Content analysis

Purpose : To identify patterns, themes, or biases

Focus : Any form of communication (verbal, visual or behavioural)

Data used : material from books, newspapers, films, videotapes of human interactions, etc.

Methods of

Analysis : Tabulation of frequency of each characteristic

Statistical analysis to answer questions

EX2: Group Exercise – Part 1

Objective: To study the teaching style of academics

1. Find a partner. Decide who will be the Researcher.

2. The researcher now has 10 minutes to find out and record information about the interviewee’s teaching style whilst at the institution

3. Swap roles and repeat step 2.

Group Exercise – Part 2

• Merge with at least 2 other groups (you will need at least 3 sets of data per group)

• Reduce your data (What categories have you formed and why? How have you organised your data chunks and why?)

• Analyse your data (e.g. What patterns have been identified? What issues have been identified?)

• Identify key discussion themes.

The Sampling Process

• Define the target population.

• Choose the sampling frame.

• Select the sampling method.

• Determine the ample size.

• Implement the sampling plan.

Hair, Jr., J. F., et al. (2007, p. 171),

Sampling Designs

• Theoretical sampling: Data sources for developing a theory

• Discriminant sampling: Data sources useful for validating

theory• Probability

sampling: Choosing a sample in such a way that each member has an equal chance of being selected

• Non-Probability sampling: No way of forecasting or guaranteeing

that each element of the population will be represented in the sample

Probability Sampling

• Simple random selection

• Simple Stratified random sampling

• Proportional Stratified random sampling

• Cluster sampling

• Systematic sampling (e.g. Picking every 10th customer)

Non-Probability Sampling

• Convenience sampling: Sample based on what/ who is available

• Quota sampling: Sample based on what/who is available but maintaining population’s proportions

• Purposive sampling: Sample chosen for the research purpose

• Snowball sampling: Initial respondents are used to help identify other

respondents

NOTE: Always explain why a certain sampling method was chosen.

Bias in Research

Bias is anything that distorts data, and thus attacks the integrity of facts. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005)

Sources of Bias:– Sponsoring organisation– Researcher– Sampling– Non-respondents to a survey– Surveyor or interviewer– Gathering of data– Analysis and presentation of data

Researchers’ Ethical Obligations

• Maintain scientific rigour

• Keep findings confidential (if required)

• Do not ‘massage’ findings

• Present findings clearly

• Admit limitations

Questionnaire Design: points to watch

• Attractive design

• Keep it short and simple (KISS)

• Logical and sequential: easy questions first

• Clear instructions and questions

• Watch out for implicit assumptions

• Avoid leading questions

• Decide how to code responses for analysis

• Ask personal questions at the end

Questionnaire Design:• Closed-ended questions

– Dichotomous

– Multiple choice/Check lists

– Ranking questions

– Rating scales: verbal, numerical and (Behaviourally anchored)

– Likert scale (measures the amount of agreement)

– Semantic differential scales

• Open-ended questions– Unstructured

– Word association

– Sentence completion

Rating Scales Exercise

Give a numerical value between 1 and 10 (where 10 = greatest frequency) to indicate the frequency suggested by the following words.

– Almost always - Quite often

– Always - Rarely

– Frequently - Seldom

– Most of the time - Sometimes

– Never - Often

– Occasionally - Usually

Adapted from Fisher (1999, p. 164)

Maximising Returns of Mailed Questionnaires

• Timing of the mail-shot

• Ensure good first impression.

• Say why the survey should interest the respondent.

• Include self-addressed & stamped envelop.

• Offer the results/summary of the study.

• Send follow up reminders.

Pilot Survey Purposes

• Testing questionnaire• wording• sequencing• layout

• Testing

• sensitivity of respondents

• fieldwork arrangements

• analysis procedures

• Estimating

• response rates

• completion times

• Training and testing field workers

Assessing Practicability of Projects (1)

• In what area is the problem?

• Are data easily accessible?

• What expertise does the researcher have?

• How will data be collected?

• Are special equipments or conditions required for gathering and analysing data?

• What is the estimated time and cost?

• Will the data collected be valid and reliable?

Assessing Practicability of Projects (2)

• Have the following criteria been built into the project ?– Universality

– Repeatability

– Measurement

– Control or isolating

Common Weaknesses in Proposals (1)

Not able to demonstrate the ability to:

– Think clearly and logically

– To express concisely and cogently

– To discriminate between the significant and inconsequential

– To display technical ability

– To handle abstract thought

– To analyse data objectively and accurately

– To interpret results confidently and conservativelyLeedy and Ormrod (2005, pp. 126-7)

Common Weaknesses in Proposals (2)

• Related to Research Problem– Unclear, unfocussed, unsound,

– more complex, limited relevance, unimportant

• Research Design and Methodology

– Vague and unfocussed,

– inappropriate data, equipments, methods/ controls,

– unlikely to yield accurate results.

Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p. 127)

Common Weaknesses in Proposals (3)

• Related to the Researcher– Insufficient training/experience,

– Unfamiliar with the relevant literature

– Insufficient time to devote to the research

• Related to Resources– Unfavourable institutional setting

– Insufficient equipment and support staff

Evaluating a Research Proposal

• Is the research project worth it?

– Does it contribute to knowledge?

– Has an expert’s view been obtained?

– What is good about it?

– What are the drawbacks?

• What procedure will be adopted for:

– Literature review, data collection and analysis, and interpretation

• Are the necessary research tools available?

• What do peers think about the proposal?

Conclusions

Thank you all for giving me this opportunity to present my thoughts. If you want further

information do get in touch with me.

I would much appreciate it, if one of you or some of you combined would summarise

what has been learnt in this session.

References/Bibliography

Cambridge Theological Federation , AG430022 (A422) - Postgraduate Research Methods (MA) http://www.theofed.cam.ac.uk/ma_modules/AG430022.html

Fisher, C. (2004), Researching and Writing Dissertation for Business Students, Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall

Hair, Jr., J. F., et al. (2007), Research Methods for Business, Hoboken, NJ: John WileyHammersley, M. and Gomm, R.(1997) 'Bias in Social Research‘, Sociological Research Online, vol.

2, no. 1, <http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/2/1/2.html> accessed on 04/05/07Leedy, P. D., and Ormrod, J. E. (2005), Practical Research Planning and Design, 8 th Ed., New

Jersey: Pearson Merril Prentice HallLesser, L. I., et al. (2007) Relationship between Funding Source and Conclusion among Nutrition-

Related Scientific Articles, Veterinary Medical Library News, Vol. 4 Issue 1, PLoS Medicine, found at http://www.vetmed.lib.umn.edu/news/funding/bias, accessed on 19/05/07

Maylor, H., and Blackmon, K. (2005), Researching Business and Management, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

McQueen, R. A., and Knussen, C. (1999), Research Methods in Psychology: A practical Introduction, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall Europe

Pechenik, Jan. (1993). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology, 2nd ed. New York: Harper Collins cited in Hillsborough Community College (no date), How to Write a Critical Review, found at   http://www.hccfl.edu/adjunct/darren_smith/bbs-gwcr.htm accessed on 5/05/07

Queens university Belfast (2007), Definition of Research for RAE 2008, found at http://www.qub.ac.uk/home/Research/ResearchPolicyOffice/RAE2008/PUBLIC/ExternalRAEdocumentation/DefinitionofResearchforRAE2008/ accessed on 04/05/07