Research Methodology PPT-3

DATA ORGANIZATIONResearch in English

LanguageCaroline V. Katemba Tobing, PhD

Four types of scales1.Nominal Scales

2.Ordinal Scales

3.Interval Scales

4.Ratio Scales

Nominal ScalesNominal scales are used for naming and categorizing data in a variable usually in the form of identifying groups into which people fall (sex or nationality).

The essence of the nominal scale is that it names categories into which people fall, naturally or artificially.

Ordinal ScalesAn ordinal scale is used to order, or rank data. For example in ranking your students from best to worst on the basis of their final examination scores.

In an ordinal scale, each point on the scale is ranked as “more than” and “less than” the other points on the scale. The points are the lined up and numbered first, second, third, and so on.

Interval ScalesInterval scales also represent the ordering of things. In addition, they reflect the interval, or distance, between points in the ranking. An interval scale gives more information than does an ordinal scale.

Ratio ScalesRatio scales are not generally applied to the behavioral sciences, for two reasons:1. A ratio scale has a zero value2. It can be said that points on the scale are precise multiples of other points on the scale.

Critiquing Statistical StudiesIt is important to remember that the word criticism has both a positive and negative connotation. If the author does something well, make a note of it in your mind. If something seems weak or wrong, keep track of that as well. It is the balance of positive and negative elements that must be weighed to judge a study intelligently.

Critiquing Statistical Studies

Indeed, when you make such judgments about statistical studies, you are contributing to the field as a whole. So please start actively critiquing statistical studies.

A sophisticated and critical audience can only help to improve statistical research in the field. And of course there is always room for improvement. Remember, if you are not given enough information to replicate a study, the author has not explained it adequately.

ABSTRACTThe purpose of an abstract is to summarize the article.

It appears first and usually contains 100-300 words.

ABSTRACTAn abstract should contain at least the following information:1. A clears statement of the topic and

purpose of the article.2. A brief description of the

participants and materials used in the study.

3. An explanation of the procedures followed and the statistical analyses used.

4. A summary of the results and their implications for the field.

INTRODUCTIONThe introduction generally tells you which area of the field is involved and then narrows to the specific specialization and topic was investigated.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATUREThis section should be a discussion of the previous research that is relevant to the study. Such a discussion should, at a minimum, provide:1. The background or rationale for the study2. A demonstration of how previous research is related to the study3. A framework for viewing the study

STATEMENT OF PURPOSEThis section follows the literature review and further narrows the introduction to the exact topic under consideration.

1. Stating the purpose in such a way that you know precisely what the author was looking for in he study

2. Presenting precise research questions that clarify what was being investigated

3. Including specific research hypotheses that are stated in such a way that you know exactly what was being tested or studied

METHODThe purpose of this section is to describe what happened in the study. And should answer most of the whole questions.

This section should tell you:1. Who participated in the study, including

when and where2. What type of materials were used

(materials)3. What the participants were asked to do

(procedures)4. How the analyses were performed (analyses)

SUBJECTSEach person or participant, in the study is considered a subject.

The subjects should be described in this section.

It is also important that the author explain how the subjects were selected

MATERIALSThis section gives the author the opportunity to describe any materials that were used in the study. These materials are also sometimes included in appendixes.

Teaching materials, questionnaires, rating scales, tests, and so forth should be described in detail unless they are well know.

PROCEDURESThis section should tell you exactly how the materials and equipment were used.

ANALYSESSometimes, this section also headed Data Analysis, Statistical Procedures, or Design.

Its basic purpose is to describe how the data were arranged and analyzed in the study.

RESULTSThe purpose of the results section is to summarize the grouped data and the results of the analyses.

The summary is often done through the use of tables or figures.

Tables usually take the form of labeled columns of numbers, while figures are usually graphs or diagrams.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONSAlthough the results section is a technical report of what happened in the study, the discussion section usually reflects on these results in nontechnical terms.

Remember that the author should have clarified the purpose or research questions in the introduction.

It is in the discussion section that you should expect to find direct answers to those original issues.

APPENDIXESThis section is sometimes used to present information that would not properly fit into the text.

The information provided should be necessary and complete.

It might include copies of the scales or measures used in the study.

Appendixes often clarify what the study was all about.