18
1.0 CHAPTER I - Introduction1.1 BackgroundOver the past couple
decades; there has been an increasing amount of new Gangs in
Jamaica. These gangs range from the community format, where the
members of the Gangs solely belong to the community in which they
live, to the institutions that they attend such as high school and
sometimes even colleges where the associates come from different
backgrounds but end up becoming members of Gangs. Gang membership
has been held accountable for many acts in the Jamaican Society,
these acts range from murder to rape, and also includes theft. The
issue of Gang violence is important because there needs to be
widespread knowledge to the Jamaican Society about how these gangs
are formed, as well as what are the major factors that influences
and further gang related activities and the implications to having
so much gangs in the country.The ghettos of urban Jamaica have been
seen to be the major starting point for gangs and these gangs are
said to flourish on the bad economic conditions (Sheehan, S. 2004).
These gangs are also said to be rivals because they are attached to
rival political parties mainly from the 1970s and 1980s. in 1982,
the slums of Jamaica went to war when rival gangs and police had a
battle resulting from close to 40,00 persons attending the funeral
for a man said to be member of prominent gang. Almost a dozen
persons died that day, and ever since, the government has tried to
implement measures to put a stop to the violence, starting in 2001
where Minister Patterson sent over 3000 troops into the area to
control violence and a more recent being the retrieval of one of
the Dons known as Christopher Dudus Coke, who is said to be
involved at the highest level of gang violence in and around the
Kingston area. Lately things are starting to heat up again, since
the arrest of the leader to the Klansman Gang who are seemingly
having some disputes within the gang causing them to kill each
other. This research paper will expound on the details surrounding
gang affiliations to political parties and what influences these
gang activities, as well as the negative implications to being in a
gang or a victim of gang violence.1.2 Purpose of the study To
obtain information and knowledge about the bases upon which gang
violence originates, as well as the influencers and implications of
the act.1.3 Statement of the problem Gang violence has become a
prevalent act in the Jamaican society; the act takes up residence
in both rural and urban Jamaicans causing the infliction of pain on
their hearts through murders, and robberies among other violent
crimes that gangs partake in.1.4 Research Questions In order to aid
in the data collection process, subsequent questions were
formulated from the predominant topic:1. What are the implications
of Gang violence?2. What/who are the influencers in Gang
violence?3. How is a gang formed?4. How is gang membership
obtained?5. Why is gang membership so important?6. Why is a Gang
formed?1.5 Significance of the study This study is aimed at
educating the general public about gang violence and the effects it
has on the Jamaican populous, as well as the roots from which gang
violence stem. This study will also serve to inform the general
public of the influences of the gang violence so that possible
measures could be put in place to stop gangs from being formed.1.6
key definitionsGang - Agangis a group of recurrently associating
individuals or close friends or family with identifiable leadership
and internal organization, identifying with or claiming control
over territory in a community, and engaging either individually or
collectively in violent or other forms of illegal behavior.[Some
criminal gang members are "jumped in" or have to prove their
loyalty by committing acts such as theft or violence. Although
gangs exist internationally, there is a greater level of study and
knowledgeable information of gangs specifically in the United
States. A member of a gang may be called agangster.
Influencers - Anything or persons with the capacity to have an
effect on the character, development, or behavior of someone or
something, or the effect itself.
Implications - The action or state of being involved in
something. It also speaks to the effects resulting from an act.
Society- It is defined as the aggregate of people living
together in a more or less ordered community.2.0CHAPTER II
Literature Review2.1Introduction Returning violence for violence
multiples adding deeper darkness to a night already devoid of stars
hate cannot drive out hate: only love can do that. Martin Luther
King Jr. Gang violence affects all segments of the Jamaican
society. This is a fact that is well known worldwide to the extent
that Jamaica is categorized as a criminal pool. (Anthony 2013). It
is with this in mind that this literature review was done to
highlight and determine the influences and implications of gang
violence on the Jamaican Society.
2.2 Implications of Gang ViolenceGangs can be seen as a
prevalent situation in many societies and gang members are
predominantly in every community. In cities like Chicago, Boston,
Detriot, Los Angeles, St Louis and Pittsburgh gang violence is
related to 20 to 50 percentages of all homicides, (Papachristos et
al. 2013). Correspondingly, members of gangs inflict friends,
parents and relatives great fear of their own safety and well-being
and fear for survival of their relatives who are gang members, (Los
Angeles Police Department, 2015). To demonstrate for instance,
Larry Mckay, according to Cruz (2014), a 16 year old teenager whom
was troubled in his self by the effects of gang violence and had
later become a victim of it; Mckay would read and watch documentary
about gang violence and make comments on facebook social media that
gang violence are immoral, later on, Mckay died by the actions of a
gang member in his community. Furthermore, exposure of violence can
have an impact on adolescents mental health and being victimized by
gang violence means a person is witnessing and being a victim of
the violence, according to Kelly et al. (2012), which is leading to
depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress. Additionally, Kelly
et al. (2012) stated that the outcomes of adolescents exposure to
gang violence consist of some displaying externalizing behaviors
that includes the use of violence, aggression and participation in
gang activities and that studies have shown that violence exposure
to adolescents increases the chance of more intent to engage in
gang violence and become a member of gangs, however, a study was
done in South Africa on the development of antisocial behaviors in
78 adolescents that had been exposed to community violence and
discovered no substantial relation between the exposure to violence
and the development of antisocial behaviors. On the other hand,
gangs have a supporting side that serves as a means of protecting
and defending their neighborhoods and ethnic boundaries, but in
accomplishing those, gangs also re-establish larger community
conflicts, (Papachristos et al. 2013). In addition, individuals
that became a member of a gang in adolescence were three times more
likely between ages 27 and 33 to report committing a crime, to
obtain money from illegal sources and more than twice as likely to
have been imprisoned the previous year, (Armstrong, 2014).
Similarly, according to a study that was done by Gilman et al.
(2013), it was discovered that in comparison with members of a gang
and their non-gang peers, members of gang who had been matched on
23 confounding risk variables known to be related to selection into
gang membership, those who had joined a gang in adolescence had
poorer outcomes in multiple areas of adult functioning, including
higher rates of self-reported crime, receipt of illegal income,
imprisonment, drug abuse or dependence, welfare receipt, and poor
general health and lower rates of high school graduation. Carlie
(2002) and Benedict (2011), describes how gang violence depleted
the economic benefits in a community in Chicago; many grocery
stores were closed down, schools faced serious issues in terms of
students safety going and coming from school and the community was
unsafe to simply continue live in. Also, in the United States, many
communities are facing escalating gang violence that increase
public health concerns and the impacts it has on healthcare
organizations; it has been reported that annual treatment of
gunshot victims caused by gang violence ranges from US$100 to
US$126 billion annually, (DiLuca, 2010).According to Leslie (2010),
gangs have increasingly contributed to crime rates in Jamaica;
particularly, statistics suggested that gang murders increase from
three percentages in t983 to 52 percentages in 2009, however, it is
stated by the Jamaica Constabulary Force that gang violence
accounts for approximately 80 percent of violent crimes in Jamaica
which is more than what official statistics have shown.
Additionally, the World Health Organization stated that the direct
cost to medical care for gang violence related incidents at public
hospitals was USD 29 million which is 12 percent of Jamaicas total
health budget; furthermore, the approximately USD 398 million
losses in productivity are due to gang related violence which is
also equivalent to four percent of Jamaicas gross domestic product,
(Leslie, 2010). Dramatically, gang violence in Jamaica caused the
educated people to migrate out of the country and the accesses to
social service are reduced along with an overall climate of fear
from gang violence, (Leslie, 2010). In summary, gang violence has
major effects on individuals lives, the social, health and economic
aspect of a country.
2.3 Influences of Gang ViolenceIn the Jamaican society there is
a wide spread of gangs and clans in certain parts of the country.
The many different reasons for such actions vary from peer pressure
to high exposure of gang related activities. According to Gang Free
(2008), there are six major risk factors that contribute to gang
involvement in urban environments. These include lack of jobs for
youth, poverty compounded by social isolation, domestic violence,
negative peer networks, lack of parental supervision and early
academic failure and lack of school attachment. As it relates to
the lack of jobs, it is evident that when one is not earning an
income, then will try to earn money by any means necessary. Gangs
may present themselves as a means of survival to youth who lack
basic essentials such as food, clothing and shelter. More and more,
gang members use their affiliation to make a profit through illegal
activities, such as selling drugs and auto theft (Gangfree, 2008).
In certain communities there are different social backgrounds that
will prevent youths living in these communities, like Tivoli
Gardens, from being able to receive a job. This is one of the major
influences and has been proven to lead to gang robbery and other
such gang related activities. Also not earning an income also shows
signs of poverty which is one of the influential reasons for gang
violence.Kruk underlines the behavioral problems. Fatherless
children have more difficulties with social adjustment, and are
more likely to report problems with friendships, and manifest
behavior problems; many develop a swaggering, intimidating persona
in an attempt to disguise their underlying fears, resentments,
anxieties and unhappiness. Gangs and violence and the adoration of
the gun as power spring out of this condition (Henry, 2013). The
lack of parental supervision and also the absence of a parent in
the lives of many gang members resulted in the violence they create
in the Jamaican society. Not only does the influence lay on the
absence of parents but also it may have been passed down in the
family and intensely entrenched in family traditions. It is really
hard to escape from a generational curse especially when it runs in
the family and due to pressure and exposure by family members. One
juvenile detained at the Hilltop Juvenile Correctional Centre from
a Kingston inner-city community said that he and his mother
witnessed his father killed by police. His father was a gunman and
most of his brothers, one of whom is in prison, and his cousins are
involved in criminal activity. He said that his father had as many
as 20 children, two of whom were with his mother. Another juvenile
detainee and gang member from the Portmore area near Kingston lived
with his father and stepmother. His mother lives overseas. His
friends at school are not involved in gang activity, and he said
his role model is his older brother who nuh watch nuh face [doesnt
care about anyone or anything] (Mogensen, 2004).The political gang
violence in Jamaica is prevalent in the society and is well known
by many Jamaicans as the trigger for territorial gang violence. It
focuses on one community who is on one political partys side (for
example, the PNP) fighting against another community who is on the
opposing partys side (the JLP). Therefore, these gang related
activities are rooted on political affairs. In an article by Henry
(2011), published by The Gleaner, Henry made a quote by Anthony
Harriott, professor of Criminology at the University of the West
Indies, which states This raises the issue of the political parties
being criminal organizations. They are, of course, not criminal
organizations in the same sense as organized-crime networks, that
is, their raison d'tre is not criminal engagement. On the contrary,
their primary objective is to form the government of the country,
and both major political parties have a record of developmental
achievements. They went on to say that, Nevertheless, the resort to
criminal means of gaining office, and the alliances with criminals
that are used for this purpose, give criminal networks considerable
leverage on the parties, and lead to the use of criminal means to
systematically plunder the resources of the state once office is
acquired. These events of the political parties in Jamaica have
intense associations in gang violence, so as to make it seem, in
the eyes of the society, that they are able to implement measures
that will look good in their speech. However in recent times,
political gang violence has become dormant since there have not
been any general government elections.Among a numberof issues,
dancehall music has been known to be a contributing factor to gang
violence in Jamaica. With the violent lyrics that Dancehall artiste
portrays in their music, it resonates in the minds of individuals
who are easily influenced or have it hard in life or lives in
poverty. This will then create the idea of turning to violent
measures to get what they want. According to Robinson (2013), in an
article he wrote called Dancehall Pushing Crime, Security Minister
Peter Bunting, made a quote from a song by the now incarcerated
Vybz Kartel, and making the point that this contributed to the
increased development in lottery scam. As long as dem naah buy nuh
gun, dem naah support nuh war, big up the man dem star from near
and far. Dem call it scam but we call it reparation," quoted the
minister This he said used this as evidence of the social
'dysfunctionality' behind criminality in Jamaica.However, Tourism
State Minister Damion Crawford, in an article by The Gleaner
entitled Anti-Gang Bill May Seriously Impact Music Industry, stated
that It starts from the premise that there is no research, which
shows that the consumption of violent media leads to criminal
activities. It is merely an assumption, and it is also an
assumption that a reduction of violent media will reduce criminal
activity. Also, in the article, according to Crawford, many people
tune in to media with violent content, yet they are not impacted,
which is an indication that saying violent media leads to violent
behavior is illogical (Campbell, 2013). Therefore, it is evident
that there is no one set scientific research that denotes dancehall
to be a contributor to gang violence. Many are the influences of
gang violence and the part takers in the ever unchanging nature of
the development of gang violence are widespread.2.4 Why is
involvement in gangs so important? It is postulated that the roots
of organized violence in Jamaica trace back to the heated electoral
disputes of the late 1940s between the founders of Jamaicas two
political parties Norman Manley of the Peoples National Party and
Alexander Bustamante of The Jamaica Labour Party.(Leslie 2010).
This is what gave raise to what (Harriot, 2004; Mongenser, 2005)
described as the antecedent, by twenty years, of violent,
politically controlled housing divisions that were labeled
garrisons. Jamaica is strongly divided into garrison communities
popularly known as ghettos, and these communities are predominantly
gang affiliated as within the Jamaican society there is and persist
to be gangs. Despite the fact that most of these political crimes
have lessened new rationale for the formulation of gangs has
emerged. As there are corner gangs which are more informal gangs
that may not be connected to politically motivated violence, these
gangs may have youths and children involved in activities and may
exist in communities dominated by area gangs (Mongenser, 2005).
There are many reasons as to why gangs tend to flourish and
proliferate but is must be noted that without the recruitment of
gang members gangs would be as extinct as dinosaurs. It is asserted
that when the fundamental needs of youth are not being met; many
youth will seek to develop their own strategies to meet their basic
needs. There is an abundance of gang-specific literature that have
identified key factors in the decision to join a gang, research
indicated that there is usually multiple factors associated in a
youths decision to join (Decker & Curry, 2000). Studies have
cited numerous reasons for gang membership, including status and
respect (Decker & Curry, 2000), safety and protection (Decker
& Curry, 2000), family connections (Decker & Curry, 2000),
school connectedness (Ezarik, 2002), love and belonging (Ezarik,
2002) and community factors (Ezarik, 2002). Other researchers gave
credit to the economic situation in Jamaica as a factor for gang
involvement. Jamaica has experienced double digit inflation,
financial meltdown , structural adjustment, the cost associated
with structural adjustment, mistrust , low confidence in soci-
political institutions , financial reform and financial crises
(PIOJ and Statin, 2007:Powell 2007;Atkin, 2005; Kirpatrick and
Tennant, 2002). Researchers have shown that these are amongst
reasons why gang membership is important as these create the basis
for much gang related activities in the ghettos such a robbery and
other violent crimes as gang members adhere to a system of survival
of the fittest. In support of this theory the Interactional theory
(Thomberry, 1987; Thronberry and Krohn, 2001) posits that gang
membership results from a reciprocal relationship between the
individual and; peer groups social structures (i.e poor
neighbourhood, school and family environs). Other researchers gave
support to this theory as it is hypothesized and trends. Researches
reveal that besides economic factors there is the focus on
community risk factors. Community factors associated with gang
membership is the most frequently studied risk domain (Esbensen,
2000). Communities that have been identified as high drug
trafficking areas show an increased risk for gang involvement
(Howell, 2000). Many researchers have argued that gangs are the
result of a lack of access to resources within particular
geographic locations, primarily inner city neighbourhoods (Klein,
1995; Spergel, 1995). A study conducted by David Eitle, Steven
Gunkel and Karen Van Gundy (2004) explored risk factors associated
to gang membership, focussing specifically on stressful life
events. Financial difficulties and hardship, most often created by
blocked opportunity, were deemed significant to adolescent
ganging.Studies in the United States Seattle Social Development
project shared similar views as the interactional theory as they
found that learning disabilities, negative labelling by teachers,
low achievement, and lack of commitment were predictive of gang
membership (Hill, Howell, Hawkin, Battin, 1999). Similar research
carried out by (Howell, 2000; Huff, 1998) yield the same results.
Though some of these researches are applicable to Jamaica most of
the gang members who are in Jamaica are drop outs or doesnt possess
primary education. Other researches that are similar to those in
Jamaica (Rizzo, 2003; Spergel 1995) whose research asserts that
gang members in the US and UK are overwhelmingly young on entry of
gang with 12- 18 years old. This makes them more vulnerable to peer
pressure as they are easily influenced and controllable. Other
researches states family factors as reasons for membership in
gangs. There are several family risk factors that have been
identified as contributing to delinquency and gang membership. Li,
Stanton, Pack, Harris, Cottrell and Burns (2002) reported that
youth who were exposed to violence and emotional distress in their
childhood were more likely to become involved with gangs. These
findings have been supported through earlier studies (Maxson,
Whitlock & Klein, 1998; Eitle, Gunkel & Van Gundy, 2004).
Overall, youth with gang involvement (current to former), compared
with non-gang youth showed significantly lower social
problem-solving skills, lower family involvement, lower open family
communication, and diminished parental monitoring (Li et al., 2002,
p. 183). The level of parental monitoring and involvement has also
been identified as a significant factor in predicting gang
membership. Thornberry, Huizinga and Loeber (2004) reported that
low levels of parental monitoring and supervision are factors
contributing to gang membership. These findings have been supported
in previous research (Lahey et al., 1999).
2.5 How is Gang membership obtained?The onset of gangs in
Jamaica began as early as the 1970s; its formation of gangs began
in the ghettos of Kingston. Since the 1970s era, it has stemmed
into a big tree, branching off into other parishes and was no
longer limited to just grown men or adults. As time went by, the
violent gang activities were beginning to branch off to the younger
minority of the Jamaican populous. School children, more so,
teenagers who were attempting to mimic those actions of the gang
members that they deemed as role models. Moreover, joining a gang
was not as easy as it was assumed to be, there were rules and
legislations, sort of like a mini community where membership in the
gang relied on certain key aspects or actions. According to Duffy
(2004), gang membership has been obtained through mainly political
affiliation in the Jamaican society. She states that since the
early 1970s both political parties, them being the Peoples National
Party (PNP) and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). These parties were
seen as the base for gang operations back in the early days, and up
to now in this current decade. The political parties, according to
Duffy, hired gangs of armed street youths to intimidate their
opponents. Therefore, political ties to a specific party guaranteed
that a side was taken and hence leading to gang formation.
Manwaring (2006), while agreeing with Duffy (2010) on the instance
that political ties have played a major effect on gang membership,
which leads to some level of immunity for gangs towards the law,
had a different perspective on how gang membership is obtained, he
states that membership can be obtained through recruitment. This is
where lower members in the gangs hierarchy hire outsiders as
opposed to their own, to operate as mules and street-level dealers.
African Americans, Trinidadians, Guyanese, and even Chinese
immigrants are given tasks at the worker-level. They are kept
ignorant of gang structure and members identities. If outsiders are
caught, the posse is not compromised; if they are not, the revenue
continues to come in. Arguing from a positive standpoint, Hazen
(2010) believes that rather than labeling all groups as gangs, they
should base them on how they structure. She argues that persons
view gangs based on two characteristics, one of which revolves
around motivational characteristics, purpose, strength and
contribution to society. The other involves key aspects like
membership (recruitment) and logistics (food and weapons). She also
states that how a group is viewed is based on its relation to the
government and its capacity to perpetrate wide scale violence. She
also mentioned that gangs or armed groups membership could be
formed through friendship and were seen as harmless in earlier
years as they dissolved as the members aged. Another way in which
gang membership was obtained was through criminal acts. Densely
(2012) mentioned the fact that gangs began as social groups through
which friends from communities hang out, but over time it evolved
into a much bigger thing, where violence and drugs got involved.
According to densely boys, who represent the majority of gang
members, were doing petty crimes such as stealing and smoking to
gain membership into a gang, but a rapidly evolving cycle saw entry
into a gang as prospective members killing and raping persons in
order to enter, especially in Jamaica.Dancehall music and artistes
also play a very key role in obtaining gang membership. Jackman
(2012) provided some information that gave insight into the fact
that dancehall artistes have an impact on gang membership. In 2009,
the famed artistes, David Brooks (Movado) and Adijah Palmer (Vybz
Kartel) had a musical dispute which escalated from the music
industry into the Jamaican populous causing rival gangs of the two
artistes to be in conflict. Jackman noted that this feud between
the two artistes allowed for a turf war and borderlines between two
sides. The Gully posse which belonged to Movado and the Gaza
belonging to Kartel often did not have any problems outside of
musical confrontation with each other but fans of both parties as
far away as even Trinidad and Tobago labelling themselves on behalf
of both artistes. Meaning any student that identified themselves as
a Gully fan was seen as the enemy to Gaza fans and vice versa. In
agreement with Hazen (2010), Rogers (2010) believes that gangs are
sometimes misunderstood; he believes gangs are not always violent
groups but are sometimes just a group of friends that hang out and
keep themselves out of trouble. He however acknowledges that there
is also a certain level of dangerousness associated with gangs, and
with the various contents of youth, it makes leaving the gang
inevitable.2.6 Conclusion In summation gangs continue to flourish
in Jamaica and wider parts of the world, gang membership has become
somewhat of a subculture in todays society of Jamaica and is deemed
to be taking over as a result of the numerous reasons presented in
this review. This review amongst previous literatures has brought
these reasons to the fore front. These factors range from internal
such as a sense of belongingness, protection and love to external
factors such as the wider community, parents involvement, school
and the economic situation of the country in which these gangs and
gangs activities take place in most instances the economic
situation tend to have a spin off effect on their immediate
communities, in Jamaica these communities are popularly known as
ghettos. However based on the review as the writer it is suggested
that future researchers that embark on literature reviews of
similar content focus more on in- depth reasons rather than just
economic, community, school, and family but get more familiar with
the youths as new reason, more personal may have emerged. This
review topic have generated much literatures however they are not
current hence my suggestion for new reviews which may yield
additional and different finding in 2015.
3.0 CHAPTERIII Methodology3.1 Overview This section presents an
overview of the methods to be used in the study. 3.2 Study
Design
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