Research Methodology

Shashikant S Kulkarni

Research is Search for Knowledge It is an Art of Scientific Investigation According to Redman and Mory, Research

is a “Systematized effort to gain new knowledge”

Research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to it’s further advancement

In sum, Research is the search for knowledge, using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem

To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon

To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation

To analyze the frequency with which something occurs

To examine the Hypothesis of a casual relationship between two variables

Research Methods are the methods that the researcher adopts for conducting the research Studies

Research Methodology is the way in which research problems are solved systematically.

It is the Science of studying how research is conducted Scientifically

Quantitative Approach(Uses experimental, inferential and

simulation approaches to research)Qualitative Approach(Uses techniques like in-depth

interview, focus group interviews)

DescriptiveAnalyticalAppliedFundamentalQuantitativeQualitativeConceptualEmpiricalOther Types

In Descriptive Research, the Researcher has to only report what is happening or what has happened.

In Analytical Research, the Researcher has to use the already available facts or information, and analyse them to make a critical evaluation of the subject

An attempt to find solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an Industry, a business organization, or the Society is known as Applied Research

Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is ‘Pure’ or ‘Basic’ or ‘Fundamental’ Research

Quantitative Research involves the measurement of quantity or amount. (ex: Economic & Statistical methods)

Qualitative Research is concerned with the aspects related to or involving quality or Kind.(ex: Motivational Research involving behavioural Sciences)

The Research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research. (Ex: Philosophers and Thinkers using this to developing new concepts)

Empirical Research relies on the observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system.

One-time or Longitudinal Research (On the basis time)

Laboratory Research or Field-setting or Simulational Research (On the basis of environment)

Historical Research

Helps Researcher to develop disciplined thinking

The Researcher will confidently evaluate and utilize the Research Findings

Helps the Research consumer to evaluate Research and make rational decisions

The Researcher will be equipped with knowledge of different tools to conduct scientific Research

Desire for accuracy of observation & precision of statement

An alert mind.Must practice “The art of enduring

intellectual hardships”Making statements cautiously

According to Hudson Maxim “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”

1. Formulating the Research Problem 2. Extensive Literature Survey 3. Developing Hypothesis 4. Preparing the Research Design 5. Determining Sample Design 6. Collecting Data 7. Execution of the Project 8. Analysis of the Data 9. Hypothesis Testing 10. Generalization and Interpretation 11. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of

the Results

Research Problem is an unanswered question that a researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation

There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem

There should be some objective to be pursued (A person or an organization who wants nothing cannot have a problem)

There should be more than one alternative means available to the Researcher.

There should be some doubt in the mind of the Researcher about the choice of alternative means

X- an individual or an organization (to whom the problem is attributed)

Y-the environment where X is situated Z-the uncontrolled variables which

control Y A1 & A2 two courses of action B1 & B2 two possible outcomes of the

said course (One outcome should be what Researcher Wants)

It highlights decisions which include1. The Name of the Study2. The Purpose of the Study3. The Location where the study would be

conducted4. The Nature of Data Required5. From where the required Data can be collected6. What time period the study would cover7. The Type of Sample Design8. The Techniques of Data Collection9. The Methods of Data Analysis

A magnitude that varies is known as a variable (ex: income, height, weight..)

When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable (s), it is known as dependent variable (ex: If Demand depends on Price, then Demand is a dependent variable, price is independent variable)

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as Extraneous Variables. (ex: Relationship between children’s school performance (dependent

variable) and their Parent’s Income (Independent Variable). In this case Intelligence may also influence the school performance (Extraneous Variable)

Exploratory Research DesignDescriptive and Diagnostic Research

DesignHypothesis-testing Research Design

To formulate a Research Problem for an in-depth or more precise investigation

To discover new ideas and insights Three methods considered for such

Research Designa) a Survey of related Literatureb) experience surveyc) analysis of insight-stimulating instances

Descriptive Research Design is Concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or a group.

Diagnostic Research Design is determines the frequency with which a variable occurs or it’s relationship with other.

Both Descriptive & Diagnostic Research design have common requirements

The Researcher tests the Hypothesis of casual relationship between two or more variables

These studies require unbiased attitude of the Researcher

It facilitates smooth conduct of the various stages of Research.

Makes Research Efficient to yield maximum information with minimum effort, time, expenditure

Plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained.

Flexible, Suitable, Efficient and Economical

Minimizes bias and Maximizes Reliability

No Experimental ErrorYields Maximum Information

The method of exploring and analyzing the life or functioning of a social or economic unit, such as a person, a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an industry is called Case Study Research

Through this research the Researcher understands the complex behaviour and situations in specific detail

It is a Predictive statementMust be tested by scientific methodsA hypothesis is a proposed

explanation for an observable phenomenon

Example:“Students who take tuitions perform

better than the others who do not receive tuitions”

Precise and clearCapable of being put to testMust be stated in simple languageResearcher must be able to test it

within a stipulated periodA Hypothesis should explain what it

actually wants to explain.A Hypothesis must be derived from

known facts

The statistical hypothesis that states that there are no differences between observed and expected data.

For example, imagine flipping a coin three times

The null Hypothesis is expresses as H0

The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis used in hypothesis testing that is contrary to the null hypothesis. It is usually taken to be that the observations are the result of a real effect (with some amount of chance variation superposed).

An example might be where water quality in a stream has been observed over many years and a test is made of the null hypothesis that there is no change in quality between the first and second halves of the data against the alternative hypothesis that the quality is poorer in the second half of the record.

Very important concept If for example, the significance level

is taken 5 percent, then it means that 5 % level of significance implies that the researcher is willing to take a risk of 5 % of rejecting the null hypothesis, when (H0) is actually true.

Type I Error Researcher rejects H0 when it is true ( Rejection of the Hypothesis when it

must have been accepted) Type II Error Researcher accepts H0 when it is not

true (Acceptance of the Hypothesis which

must have been rejected)

The two-tailed test is a statistical test used in inference, in which a given statistical hypothesis , H0 (null hypothesis)will be rejected when the value of the statistic is either sufficiently small or sufficiently large.

Making a formal StatementSelecting a Significance LevelDeciding the distribution to UseSelection of a Random Sample &

Computing an Appropriate ValueCalculation of the ProbabilityComparing the Probability

To begin with a formal Statement of Null Hypothesis (H0) and Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) is

Usually 5% or 1 % Significance level is chosen for the Hypothesis Testing

The divergence of the Result from expectation (Probability) when Null Hypothesis is True is calculated

Probability is compared with Significance Level later on

State H0 as Well as Ha

Specify the Level of Significance

Decide the Correct Sampling Distribution

Sample a random Sample and workout an appropriate Value

Calculate the Probability that Sample Result would diverge as widely as it has

from expectations, if H0 were true

Sample is a certain portion of the population

A Researcher adopts a Technique to select the items of the Sample from the Population and that is called as Sampling Design.

Sample design must be done before Data Collection.

Type of InterviewSampling UnitSource ListSize of SampleParameters of InterestBudgetary ConstraintSampling Procedure

Define the Universe to be studied(Finite Universe: Population of a City,

No. of Workers in a factory)(Infinite Universe: Stars in the Sky)Sampling Unit:(Geographical Area: State, District,

Village)(Social Unit: Family, School, Religious

Community)

Source List is nothing but Sample Frame from which the Sample is to be selected.(For example, in an opinion poll, possible sampling frames include:Electoral registerTelephone directory)

No. of Units to be chosen from the Universe to form a Sample is Size of the Sample

Two Costs control the Selection of a Sampling Procedure

1.Cost of Data Collection2.Cost of drawing incorrect inference

from the selected Data

Small Sampling ErrorSample Design must fit into the

BudgetControllable BiasResults of the Sample Study must be

applicable to the Universe, with confidence

Non-probability SamplingNo probability sampling techniques cannot be used to infer from the sample to the general population.

Examples :To sample friends, co-workers, or shoppers at a single mall, are all examples of convenience sampling. The first respondent refers a friend. The friend also refers a friend, etc

In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups.Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.

Example: We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given street. We visit each household in that street, identify all adults living there, and randomly select one adult from each household.

Primary DataPrimary Data is a term for data

collected on source which has not been subjected to processing or any other manipulation.

When Primary Data is Processed it becomes Information

Primary Data is the data collected for the first time

Secondary Data is the Data that has already been collected and used earlier by somebody or some agency.

Example: Statistics about the Population of the country collected for the first time by Govt. of India is Primary Data, but when a researcher uses it for his study the same data becomes Secondary Data

Published Sources Examples: Official Publications of

State and Central Governments, Research Institutions, Committees and Commissions

Unpublished Sources Examples: Records maintained by

different offices, Scholars in the Universities

Purpose and Scope of EnquiryAvailability of TimeAvailability of ResourcesThe degree of accuracy desiredStatistical Tools to be usedMethod of Data Collection

For example if the researcher interested in knowing the nature of price change over a period of time, it would be necessary to to collect data of commodity prices(wholesale or retail prices)

The purpose and scope of data collection should be clearly set out at the very beginning

Direct Personal Interview Indirect oral interviews Information from correspondentsMailed Questionnaire methodsSchedule sent through interviewers

Under Indirect Oral Interview method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties generally called “witnesses” who are capable of supplying necessary information.

Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked in a face to face situation with another person.

Primary Data is more accurate and authentic.

Time, Money and labour is more involved in Primary data Collection

But in Statistical enquiries secondary data is used.

Primary Data is are collected only if there exists no secondary data.

According to Bogardus, a questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a number of persons for their answers and which obtains standardised results that can be tabulated and treated statistically

Example1 of Sampling: A housewife testing small quantity of rice to see whether it has been Well cooked

Example2 of Sampling: A pathologist testing blood sample of the patient.

Number of questions as small as possible.

Questions should be clear Questions should be arranged in a

logical order Questions should be simple to

understand Questions should be easily answerable No personal questions

Shut Questions:Simple Alternate Questions..Yes or NoMultiple Choice questions…a)..b)...c)…d)

… The questionnaire must be pre-tested

on a small scale before using it for the enquiry

A covering letter from the organizers of the enquiry should be enclosed along with the questionnaire

Absolute Experiment: Example: The impact of fertilizer on the yield of a crop

Comparative Experiments: Example: Impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer

The Principle of Replication Experiment should be repeated

more than once to increase the statistical accuracy

The Principle of Randomization The Principle of Local Control

It is accurate watching and noting of phenomena as they occur with regard to the cause and effect or mutual relations.

Example1: Watching bonded labour’s life

Example2: Treatment of widows at home