Reseach

Research

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Research [1]

• Research is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects, understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure; and developing and testing new theories for the enhancement.

• Research implies that the processa. Being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophiesb. uses procedure, methods, and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability, andc. Is designed to be unbiased and objective.

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Research [2]• Research is not at all technical, complex, statistics and computers. It

can be a very simple activity designed to provide answers to a very simple questions relating to day-to-day activities

• The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. Together they form a noun describing a careful systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

• Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally acceptable.

• Scientific method consists of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation of the data.

• Research is a systematic investigation to find the answers to a problem

• Scientific research is a systematic controlled empirical and critical investigation of proposition about the presumed relationship about various phenomena. 04/20/23 3

Characteristics of Research

• Controlled• Rigorous• Systematic• Valid and verifiable• Empirical• Critical

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Types of Research

Research can be classified from three perspective

1. The application of the research study

2. The objectives in undertaking the research

3. The type of information sought

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Application

• Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypothesis that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at present time or in the future.

• Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification, and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques, and tools that form the body of the research methodology.

• The knowledge produced though pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of the research methods

• Most of research in social science is applied.• The research techniques, procedures, and methods that form the

body of the research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that the information gathered can be used in other ways.

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Objectives

• Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically situation, problem, phenomenon, service programs or provide information about the living condition of a community, or describe attitudes towards an issue.

• Correlational research is to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

• Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

• Exploratory research is carried out to ivestigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research of study. It is also called a feasibility study or a pilot study.

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Type of information sought

• The quantitative and qualitative classification id dependent on three criteria.1. the purpose of study2. how the variables are measured3. how the information is analyzed.

• The study is classified into qualitative if the purpose of the study is to describe a situation, phenomenon, problem or event; the information gathered through the use of variables measured or nominal or ordinal scale (qualitative measurement scale); and if the analysis is done to establish the variation in phenomenon, or problem without quantifying it.

• If the purpose is to quantify the variation in a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue, if the information is gathered using predominantly quantitative variables, and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the magnitude of the variation, the study is classified into quantitative.

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Types of methodologies

• QuaLitative Measures– Descriptive– Numbers not the primary focus– Interpretive, ethnographic, naturalistic

• QuaNtitative Measures– N for numbers– Statistical– Quantifiable

What Makes Research Good?

• Validity

• Reliability

• Replicability

• Consistent application/analysis

• “Trustworthiness”

• Rigor

Validity in Research

• Refers to whether the research actually measures what it says it’ll measure. Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions.– Internal Validity: the difference in the dependent

variable is actually a result of the independent variable– External Validity: the results of the study are

generalizable to other groups and environments outside the experimental setting

– Conclusion Validity: we can identify a relationship between treatment and observed outcome

– Construct Validity: we can generalize our conceptualized treatment and outcomes to broader constructs of the same concepts

Reliability in Research

The consistency of a measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated. Measured by test/retest and internal consistency.

Validity and Reliability

The relationship between reliability and validity is a fairly simple one to understand: a measurement can be reliable, but not valid. However, a measurement must first be reliable before it can be valid. Thus reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition of validity. In other words, a measurement may consistently assess a phenomena (or outcome), but unless that measurement tests what you want it to, it is not valid.

Rigor in Research

• Validity and Reliability in conducting research

• Adequate presentation of findings: consistency, trustworthiness

• Appropriate representation of study for a particular field: disciplinary rigor

• Rhetorical Rigor: how you represent your research for a particular audience

Methodology Comparison

Quantitative

• Explanation, prediction• Test theories• Known variables• Large sample• Standardized instruments• Deductive

Qualitative

• Explanation, description• Build theories• Unknown variables• Small sample• Observations, interviews• Inductive

Some other types of research..Some other types of research..

One-time ResearchOne-time Research – Research confined to a single time period. – Research confined to a single time period. Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research – Research carried on over several time periods. – Research carried on over several time periods. Diagnostic ResearchDiagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research which aims at – It is also called clinical research which aims at

identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it.possible solutions for it.

Exploratory ResearchExploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, – It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research. Hence it is also known as formulative research.

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research – It is designed to assess the effect of one particular – It is designed to assess the effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or variable on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled.controlled.

Historical ResearchHistorical Research – It is the study of past records and other information – It is the study of past records and other information sources, with a view to find the origin and development of a phenomenon sources, with a view to find the origin and development of a phenomenon and to discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand the present and and to discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand the present and to anticipate the future. to anticipate the future.

RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS

Define ResearchProblem

Review Concepts

And theories

Review PreviousResearchfindings

Formulatehypothesis

DesignResearch

(IncludingSampleDesign)

CollectData

(Execution)

AnalyseData(Test

Hypothesisif any)

Interpretand

report

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F

F F

FF

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II

III IV V VI VII

F

FF

Feed Back

Feed Forward

Review the literature

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an assumption about A hypothesis is an assumption about relations relations between between variables.variables.

Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationshiprelationship between two or more between two or more variables variables expressed expressed in the form of a testable statement.in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the the network of associations established in the theoretical frameworktheoretical framework formulated for the research formulated for the research study.study.

VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable. A variable is anything that can take on differing or A variable is anything that can take on differing or

varying values.varying values.For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.

Note:Note: The values can differ at various times for the The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different same object or person (or) at the same time for different objects or persons.objects or persons.

Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).variable (qualitative).

For example; For example; The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male

and Female.and Female. The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Disagree.

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Explanatory vs Extraneous VariableExplanatory vs Extraneous VariableThe variables selected for analysis are called explanatory The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory

variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in another The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called variable(s) is called dependant variabledependant variable..The variable whose change results in the change in another variable The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an is called an independent variableindependent variable OR ORAn independent variable is the one that influences the dependant An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.variable in either a positive or negative way.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an relates an independent variableindependent variable to a to a dependant dependant variable.variable.

Hypothesis must contain atleast one Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one dependant variable.independent variable and one dependant variable.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. to the solution of the problem.

Hypothesis is a specific statement of Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.you expect to happen in the study.

Hypothesis is an assumption about the Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.population of the study.

It delimits the area of research and keeps the It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.researcher on the right track.

PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESISPROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved to be right or wrong.can be proved to be right or wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot be A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be scientifically directly tested. A problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis. hypothesis.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

Conceptual ClarityConceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise. - It should be clear and precise. SpecificitySpecificity - It should be specific and limited in scope. - It should be specific and limited in scope. ConsistencyConsistency - It should be consistent with the - It should be consistent with the

objectives of research.objectives of research. TestabilityTestability - It should be capable of being tested. - It should be capable of being tested. ExpectancyExpectancy - It should state the expected relationships - It should state the expected relationships

between variables.between variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

SimplicitySimplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.simple terms.

ObjectivityObjectivity - It should not include value judgments, - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.relative terms or any moral preaching.

Theoretical RelevanceTheoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or existing substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.theory.

Availability of TechniquesAvailability of Techniques – Statistical methods should – Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Discussions with colleagues and experts about the Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.peculiarities.

Review of similar studies.Review of similar studies.

Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

Logical deduction from the existing theory.Logical deduction from the existing theory.

Continuity of research.Continuity of research.

Intuition and personal experience.Intuition and personal experience.

Descriptive HypothesisThese are assumptions that describe the

characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples: “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized

planning”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.

Examples: “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependant variable.

Relational hypothesis

Null Hypothesis

When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared.

It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Example: H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and

expenditure on recreation.

Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s

prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.

Example:

HA: There is a definite relationship between

family’s income and expenditure on recreation.

Alternate hypothesis

FORMS OF RELATIONSHIPS

NON-DIRECTIONALNON-DIRECTIONAL

There IS a relationship There IS a relationship betweenbetween

X & YX & Y

X….linked….YX….linked….Y

Vs DIRECTIONALVs DIRECTIONAL

• If X goes up, Y ….If X goes up, Y ….• oror• As X increases, Y…As X increases, Y…• X = IndependentX = Independent• variablevariable• Y = Dependent variableY = Dependent variable

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES- “X” causes “Y” to change

If X changes If X changes (increases(increases decreases)decreases)thenthen Y will ______Y will ______ (increase or(increase or decrease)decrease)a causal linka causal link

DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

If X increases, Y increasesIf X increases, Y increases A A POSITIVEPOSITIVE relationship relationshipIf X increase, Y decreasesIf X increase, Y decreases A A NEGATIVE NEGATIVE or or INVERSE INVERSE

relationshiprelationshipAs X changes, Y does NOT change...>As X changes, Y does NOT change...> No Change...>No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIPNO RELATIONSHIP

NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES - the weakest form

There IsThere Isa relationshipa relationshipbetween X & Ybetween X & Y

non-causalnon-causal correlational correlational

statementstatement X…..YX…..Y

Positive correlation

When the values of When the values of TWO variablesTWO variables““go together”go together”ororvalues on X & Yvalues on X & Ychange in SAMEchange in SAMEDIRECTIONDIRECTION 0

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CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIPCORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Negative Correlation

When the values of When the values of two variablestwo variables

CO-VARY CO-VARY in Opposite directionin Opposite direction

(as one goes up,(as one goes up,the other goes down)the other goes down)

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FUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESISFUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS

It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the study.

It determines the data needs. It specifies the sources of data. It suggests which type of research is likely to be more

appropriate. It determines the most appropriate technique of

analysis. It contributes to the development of theory.