RESCUE TECHNIQUES - V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M.

PANTONE COLOURS:ORANGE 021CBLUE 072YELLOW 012

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RESCUE TECHNIQUES FOR

EMERGENCY RESPONSE

vo

l. 2

Search Techniques

Cave Rescue

Management & Logistics

An introductory manual for European Volunteer Rescuers

edited by Trevor Calafato

Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union

ISBN: 978-99957-1-833-6

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Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 2 is, once again, the result of work undertaken in an EU-funded project by nine volunteer rescue teams, led by Edelweiss (Italy) in partnership with EFRU (Malta), SARTEAM (Portugal), EPOMEA (Greece), ÖPVE (Hungary), PUI (France), Serve On (UK), SRT (Serbia) and UCRS (Spain). These organisations form part of the network of a European Association called EVOLSAR, having the harmonisation of rescue training and operations as one of its principal aims.

This second volume of the Introductory Manual for European Volunteer Rescuers, continues to build upon its predecessor, yet still focusing on new volunteer recruits, providing them with a solid foundation on initial rescue skills and techniques. This will eventually lead them to become volunteer emergency responders able to integrate seamlessly in multi-national teams working efficiently to save the lives of those affected by major disasters.

This book provides an overview of Search Techniques: K9 and Technical Equipment, introduces the reader to Cave Rescue and also outlines the importance of Management and Logistics in rescue operations. Together with the rescue disciplines covered in Volume 1, these chapters provide a better understanding of the complexities of notable rescue operations. Each chapter is the result of the concerted effort of author teams and exploits the strongpoints of the individual partners in this project.

Project Leader

Project Partners

This second volume of the rescue manual is one of the outputs of the V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M project, funded under Erasmus+ Key Action 2 – Cooperation for innovation and the exchange of good practices, Strategic Partnerships.

The project started in 2019 with the compilation of this rescue manual. By the end of the project in 2022, the participating organisations will have also created pocket handbooks for the chapters covered in Volume 1 and Volume 2 of the rescue manual and will also have created a website and mobile application aimed at disseminating information about the world of volunteer rescuers and the work that they do.

These will be accompanied by learning activities organised for the participating rescue organisations, multiplier events intended to disseminate information on the results of the project and a series of transnational meetings serving to plan and coordinate all aspects of the project.


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EMERGENCY RESPONSE

vo

l. 2

Search Techniques

Cave Rescue





ISBN: 978-99957-1-833-6

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Project Leader

Project Partners





EMERGENCY RESPONSE


EMERGENCY RESPONSE

An introductory manual forEuropean Volunteer Rescuers


VOLUME 2


© EVOLSAR, 2020 The European Association of Civil Protection Volunteer Teams First published in 2020

Editor Trevor Calafato

Authors Edelweiss (Italy) The Emergency Fire & Rescue Unit (EFRU, Malta) Elite Team Special Missions of Greece (ETSM, Greece) Central Buda Volunteer Civil Protection Association (ÖPVE, Hungary) Pompiers de l’Urgence Internationale (PUI, France) SARTEAM (Portugal) Serbian Rescue Team (SRT, Serbia) Serve On (United Kingdom) Unidad Canina de Rescate y Salvamento (UCRS, Spain)

Project Lead Office Address c/o Edelweiss Protezione Civile Volontariato Via Leoni Bruno 4 88068 Soverato CZ Italy [email protected] www.evolsar.eu Mobile No.: +39 339 392 9365

Design and typesetting IdeaSoft – www.ideasoftmalta.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing by the publisher.

ISBN: 978-99957-1-833-6

Printed at Poultons Ltd, Bulebel, Malta


EU disclaimer: ‘The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.’

Authors disclaimer: This manual is meant to provide a brief overview of the various strategies and tactics used in various rescue scenarios. It is not meant to be a complete set of instructions by itself. It is mandatory that competent, knowledgeable and qualified instructors provide the necessary hands-on rescue training supplementing this manual. None of the techniques presented in this book are to be considered as stand-alone tuition.

The standards quoted in this manual were either standard at the time of writing or the acceptable practices adopted by the authors through experience. It is widely acknowledged that various skills and techniques may be adopted but the teams are presenting here what they believe is most appropriate in the fields they are usually working in.

All authors and organisations involved in the compilation of this book accept no liability or responsibility for personal injury or death from the use or misuse of the information contained therein.

2019-1-IT02-K204-062192

Dedicato a tutti i soccorritori, i nostri eroi!Dedicated to all rescuers, our heros!

GLI EROI VIVONO UN ISTANTE IN PIÙQuando mi cercherai,

ti verrò incontro col sorriso.Quando la tua fredda lama

vorrà cogliere il mio ultimo respiro,come falce che recide il fiore,

allora il calore della mia vita la fermerà.Quando cercherai di avvolgermi

nel tuo manto nero,come nuvole cariche di pioggianascondono la luce della luna,

allora in quell’attimo…io vivrò…

vivrò un istante in piùcome un eroe.

Josh Taps

The verse above is an artistic rendition of a rescuer’s conversation with death, feeling accomplished and brave as the rescuer faces mortal danger... and survives ‘a while longer’ as a hero, for putting one’s own life on the line to save others.

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Contents

List of abbreviations 11Acknowledgements 12Contributors 13Preface 19

1. Search Techniques 21

Introduction 22

K9 Search Teams

The K9 Team 23The aim of the K9 Team 24Morphology of the search dog team 24K9: an indispensable element 26

Live-scenting K9s 27Air-scenting K9s 29Ground-scenting K9s 30Indication 31When is a dog considered operational? 31Pre-Deployment 32

Roles of a K9 Team 32Information gathering 32USAR (Air-scenting) 32Wilderness (Tracking/Trailing/Air-scenting) 32Search and Detect 32Search and Locate 32

Search considerations 32K9 Team Equipment 34

Dog boots 34Abseil tactical harness 34Working search harness 34Long line 35Flotation vest 35K9 safety goggles 35K9 ear defenders 35

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Technical search equipmentDrones 36USAR Technical Search 37

Sound location devices 37Technical Search Camera 38Carbon dioxide (CO2) Probes 39Thermal Image Camera (TIC) 39Night Vision Camera 40

K9 and technical search equipment limitations 40Conclusion 40

2. Cave Rescue 43Introduction 44

Definitions 44History 44Ethics 45

Cave Morphology 45Cave Formation 46Speleothems 47Karst Surface Landscape 49

Underground Landscape 51Cave Ecosystem 51

Cave Zones and Life 52

Cave Surveying and Cartography 54In-Cave Data Collection 54Finalising the Cave Map 55

Essential Caving Equipment 60Personal Caving Equipment 60Team Caving Equipment 60Survival, Camping and Food Supplies 60Maintenance of Caving Equipment 64

Rescue Planning 65Important considerations during the rescue operation 65

Progression Techniques 65Rope Progression Techniques 65Other Progression Techniques 74Stretcher Handling Techniques 74

Conclusion 82

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3. Management & Logistics 83

General concepts of management in rescue operations

Objectives and importance of management in operation 85Structure of the operations management team 86Information management 90Liaison with other components of the team 90

Logistics in Rescue Operations

Main Objectives of Logistics 91Transportation 92Customs 96BoO set-up 96

The Logistics Team 96Preparedness stage 96Mobilisation stage 97Operational stage 99Demobilisation stage 100

Individual Preparedness for Deployment 101Base of Operation Camp Management 102

Primary BoO Considerations 103Minimum Requirements for the BoO set-up 103Special Considerations for the Base Camp 105Determining the Capacity and Category of the Camp 106Base Camp Safety and Security 107Roles and responsibilities 107

Conclusion 108Appendix 109Bibliography 111Image credits 113

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ASF Australian Speleological Federation

ASR Assessment, Search and Rescue

Bivy Bivouac

BoO Base of Operation

CO2 Carbon dioxide (formula)

EVOLSAR European Association of Civil Protection Volunteer Teams

HAZMAT Hazardous Material

ID Identity

IEC INSARAG External Classification

INSARAG International Search and Rescue Advisory Group

IT Information Technology

K9 Canine (homophone)

KED Kendrick Extrication Device

LED Light Emitting Diode

LEMA Local Emergency Management Agency

NSS National Speleological Society

OSOCC On-site Operations Coordination Centre

PMR Public Mobility Radio

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

RDC Reception and Departure Centre

SAR Search and Rescue

TIC Thermal Imaging Camera

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (a.k.a. drone)

UCC USAR Coordination Cell

UHF Ultra High Frequency

UN-OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

USAR Urban Search and Rescue

VHF Very High Frequency

V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M. Volunteers In Action To Improve Competence, Union and Mood

VOSOCC Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Centre

List of abbreviations

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Acknowledgements

Immense appreciation goes to all organisations and rescuers that have contributed to the development of this second volume of the rescue manual Rescue Techniques For Emergency Response, which is the natural progression of the first manual produced thanks to another Erasmus+ project in 2017. Special thanks goes to the editor as well as to all who contributed towards the preparation of photos and illustrations for this book.

Appreciation is also due to organisations that, even if they did not participate directly in the creation of this manual, were still important protagonists in

various rescue simulations and training events:

• Angeli della Sila (Italy)• Antelao (Italy)• Bombeiros Voluntários De

Peniche (Portugal)• ccpvc (Cyprus)• rescue gr (Greece)• saraid (UK)

This manual will be of great help to rescuers who dedicate their time, daily, for the safety of others. The international aspect of this book is the passion that brings together so many nations. Through the teams’ dedication and the rescue volunteers’ care

for others, they produced these guidelines for rescue.

Finally, allow me to express my gratitude to EFRU who have brilliantly worked to coordinate the team of authors to produce the material for the chapters in this book.

The volunteer rescuer is a special person, a person like the rest of us, gifted with great spirit, professionalism and the will to strive to make a difference. It is a person who is to find the energy to work tirelessly for the benefit of others.

Pasquale Pipicelli Edelweiss

(lead team for this project)

RingraziamentiUn immenso grazie a tutti i Team e a tutti i soccorritori che hanno lavorato per la stesura di questo secondo volume del manuale Rescue Techniques For Emergency Response che è la naturale continuazione del primo volume prodotto grazie ad un altro progetto Erasmus Plus nel 2017. Un ringraziamento particolare all’Editore e a tutte le persone che hanno fornito foto e immagini illustrative.

Grazie anche a tutti i soccorritori delle Squadre che non hanno partecipato direttamente alla creazione del manuale ma sono stati importanti protagonisti nelle varie simulazioni ed esercitazioni:

• Angeli della Sila (Italia)• Antelao (Italia)• Bombeiros Voluntários De

Peniche (Portgallo)• ccpvc (Cipro)• rescue gr (Greece)• saraid (UK)

Un manuale che sarà di grande aiuto a tutti quei soccorritori che ogni giorno dedicano il loro tempo alla salvaguardia del prossimo. L’Internazionalità di questo manuale è la passione che unisce soccorritori di tante Nazioni che con la loro dedizione, con il loro amore verso il prossimo, si mettono in gioco per dare una linea guida al soccorso.

Ed infine consentitemi un grande grazie alla Squadra EFRU di Malta che ha brillantemente lavorato per la Coordinazione delle Squadre impegnati nella produzione dei capitoli.

Il soccorritore volontario è una persona speciale, è una persona come tutte noi, dotata di grande forza di spirito, serietà e voglia di impegnarsi per fare la differenza. E’una persona che guarda gli occhi del prossimo e quello sguardo gli da la forza per reagire e non stancarsi mai.

Pasquale Pipicelli Edelweiss

(capo del progetto)

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Editor

Calafato, Trevor – Trevor is a lecturer within the Department of Criminology at the University of Malta. Before moving to the university he was a probation officer and was also in charge of the health, safety and security of the Department of Probation. He holds a M.Sc. in Security and Risk Management from the University of Leicester and a PhD from the University of Sheffield; both focus on security measures and terrorism research. Trevor also edited Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1.

Content Coordination and Technical Consolidation

Emergency Fire & Rescue Unit (EFRU), Malta – www.efru.org

Bonnici, Joseph – Joseph has been a volunteer with the Emergency Fire and Rescue Unit since 2010. As part of the unit, Joe received training in basic, USAR, K9, rope, fire-fighting and swift water rescue and first aid, and is currently assisting in the training of new recruits. Joe also attended the Module Basic Course of the European Union Civil Protection Mechanism and has taken part in various emergency simulations held in Malta and other European locations. Joseph was assigned the role of project manager for the project ‘Synergising European Volunteer Rescue Teams’ in addition to contributing as an

author in Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1. On a professional level, Joseph graduated as an Electrical Engineer and has worked in various roles in aviation.

Vassallo Micallef, Maria – Maria joined the EFRU early in 2009. Since then, she has been trained in Basic Rescue, USAR, Firefighting, Rope Rescue and Swift Water Rescue within the Unit. She is qualified as an Advanced Rope Rescue Technician (Res-cue3 International) and as an Instructor in International Trauma Life Support (ITLS Germany). Maria participated as a rescuer in several simulations abroad, as well as supported logistics in the organisation of local simulations. Apart from the operational aspect, Maria is heavily involved in management duties as one of the EFRU’s Deputy Directors and she has led the EVOLSAR administrative office since its foundation in 2014 till January 2020. She obtained a degree in Master of Science in Chemistry, in 2012 from the University of Malta. Maria has a special interest in science in relation to fire, firefighting, hazardous materials and scuba diving. In 2015, she was an author in Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1 and was assigned the role of coordinator for the project ‘Synergising European Volunteer Rescue Teams’, the prequel project to V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M.

Authors

Central Buda Volunteer Civil Protection Association (ÖPVE), Hungary – www.opve.hu

Bakai, Kristóf Péter – Kristof has two decades of volunteer leader ship experience in disaster management, as a founding president of a civil protection association. Since 2015, he has been the president of the Budapest Volunteer Rescue Union that brings together volunteer rescue organizations in the Hungarian capital and provides them with joint operational command. Kristof is a trainer of the volunteer teams in the field of operational management, log istics, as well as operational and strategy planning. He bears several national and international recognitions of his volunteer work. On a professional level, Kristof is the Director General, in the rank of colonel, of the Hungarian Customs Administration. He is an experienced leader with a demonstrated history of working in the customs administration and law enforcement sector, skilled in International Co-operation, Law Enforcement, Management and Leadership, Customs Policy and Cooperation, Customs and Tax Law, Crisis Management, International Pro-ject Management, Analytical Skills and Government. Kristof has a B.Sc. in Border Policing and Border Management, a B.Sc. in International Relations an M.Sc.

Contributors

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in Security and Defense Policy and currently reading for a Ph.D.

Kassay, Bence – Bence has been a volunteer and rescuer with civil protection experience for more than 25 years. He is a member of the Board in ÖPVE, and he has been involved in management duties of the Budapest Volunteer Rescue Union as Deputy Chief of Staff since 2016. Bence has more than 15 years experience as leader of the volunteer team, in disaster staff and logistic management. He has graduated as electrical engineer and is an experienced leader in production, technical and project manager in different businesses (Food, Oil & Gas, Aviation, Military industry). Bence also has some special experience in the Hazardous Zone.

Levshov, Denis – Denis has been a volunteer with Central-Buda Volunteer Civil Protection Association since 2014. During this time he received certifications as First Aid and USAR specialist within the team and presently has the rank of team leader (platoon commander). He is responsible for the international relations of the Association and is a USAR instructor. Denis is a certified rope rescue technician and has completed rescue-related courses with FEMA (USA), IFRC (Red Cross) and other Hungarian and international bodies. He has experience in leading teams in domestic and international deployments and international exercises. In his professional life Denis works as a project manager

specializing in areas of internet marketing, IT and security.

Elite Team Special Missions (ETSM – Acronym in Greek: EP.OM.E.A), Greece – www.epilektoi.com

Korma, Iliana – Iliana was born in Athens and studied applied Mathematics (Maitrise-MSc.) in the University of Pierre & Marie Curie (PARIS 6). She started her career in a French Company expert in air-land combat systems. Through the eleven-years of her professional career, she has joined various Research and Development (R&D) depar-tments of IT companies, participating in a variety of projects. Being in charge of the R&D department and responsible for the coordination, monitoring, follow-up and organization of European projects and their promotion in Greece and Europe, she is dealing mostly with the preparation and execution of R&D projects by the European Commission or the Greek Government. Additionally, Iliana is teaching ICT in VET centres. Moreover, she is responsible for the project management and the normal execution of both National and European contracts. Ms Korma is also fluent speaker in English, French and Spanish.

Roumeliotis, Georgios – He was born in Larisa in 1972, graduated from the academy of the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) in 1992 and is a member of the HAF’s Disaster Response Team since the year 2000, now serving as the commanding officer, with the rank of Warrant Officer. He is a

certified trainer for First Aid, BLS, AED Instructor of ERC, SAR K9 trainer and technical urban and mountain rescuer. Georgios is also the head of Mountain Rescue and Mechanical Rescue. He has received several honors for his activity in rescue operations and currently is the president and founder of EPOMEA teams (Elite Team Special Missions of Greece) across Greece. He is also leading the EPOMEA team situated in Athens. Finally, he is a trainer and conductor of educational programs organized by the Hellenic Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs, the Hellenic Ministry of Public Order and has participated as the main trainer in workshops organized by the Regional Authorities and Municipalities across Greece.

Emergency Fire & Rescue Unit (EFRU), Malta – www.efru.org

Cristina, David – David has been a volunteer and rescuer within the Emergency Fire and Rescue Unit since 2011. During this time, he received advanced training in various disciplines includ-ing USAR, Rope, Fire and First Aid, and had the opportunity to assist in a number of emergen-cies. David is responsible for the Unit’s motor transport and is also a member within the organ-isation’s Training Committee. An Engineer by profession with an M.Sc. in Telecommunications, David has also served within the AFM’s Emergency Volunteer Reserve Forces for 6 years. His interest in caves and an intensive cave rescue course he participated

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in have proven very useful in the development of Chapter 2 – Cave Rescue.

Pompiers de l’Urgence Internationale (PUI), France – www.pompiers-urgence.org

Besson, Philippe – Philippe is a Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor (promotion 01/01/2015), Lieutenant-colonel, a profession-al officer in the French Fire and Rescue department in Haute-Vienne, Chief of Operations, Deputy Director in 2003, Urban Search and Rescue INSARAG Medium team leader, member of the INSARAG classifiers for USAR teams and building disorders, rescue and fire – disaster preparedness and an instructor for training (natural and technological). Philippe is also a specialist investigator for fire origin, the head of radiological risk operation, forest fires and CBRN team leader, an inspector for fire and risk analysis, Inspector for the assessment of building disorders, training in UN field safety, focal point for the reclassification (2010 and 2015) of the USAR Medium team by INSARAG for PUI FRANCE FRA-1, inspector for assessment of buildings post-earthquake – AFPS. Philippe has a Bachelor in Civil Protection and Security of Population from the University of Poitiers and is the founding chairman of the French rescue team Pompiers de l’Urgence Internationale, classified INSARAG/UN as USAR Medium team, specialist in disaster and emergencies, INSARAG classifier for Iceland, UAE, Turkey, Jordan, Oman, Earthquake simulator

inventor for people and school in addition to being a First Aid and Fire Instructor.

SARTEAM, Portugal – https://epssarteam.vr-sar.org

Rocha, Francisco - Mr. Rocha is a firefighter reserve and forms part of the engineering sector of the civil protection. He is a search and rescue instructor specializing in rope rescue, collapsed structures rescue and floods rescue and has over 20 years of experience in the areas of safety and security. Furthermore, Mr. Rocha was a member of the board of the Mountaineering Club AltoRelevo for 6 years, where he led the sections of Mountaineering and Caving. He was also responsible for creating the cave rescue course in Portugal and is a current member of the Portuguese Federation of Speleology. Currently Mr. Rocha is the Commander of EPS SARTEAM and director of the Escola Portuguesa Salvamento.

Serbian Rescue Team (SRT), Serbia – www.serbianrescueteam.com

Dača, Danilo Budimir – Danilo has 28 years experience in the field of security and has a Bachelor’s Degree in Electrical, Computer and Electronics Engineering. He has practical experience in the private sector in the field of Health and Safety, testing and inspection of electrical installations and lightning rods, fire protection, physical-technical security, safety risk assessments, risk assessments of natural disasters and development of

protection and rescue plans. Danilo holds all the licenses of the Ministry of Serbia, an instructor for security workers. He has many international licenses including Rescue3, SRT, ERC instructor, amateur radio license among others. Since 2013, he has been the founder and chairman of the Serbian Rescue Team, appointed by the Government of the Republic of Serbia as an organization of special importance for rescue, a leader of the rescue team on the water and under water for Belgrade. Danilo has participated in many water rescue activities, water events, regattas and paragliding competitions.

Serve On, United Kingdom – www.serveon.org.uk

Various authors from Serve On have contributed to the development of Chapter 1 – Search Techniques. Serve On is a non-profit humanitarian assistance and disaster response charity that supports national and international communities in times of need. Serve On trains and equips dedicated members of the public, benefitting from their member’s operational experience from all branches of the military, emergency services and the wider community. Serve On’s experience spans the last three decades, meaning that Serve On is constantly evolving as a professional, agile and adaptable response team that delivers a meaningful difference where and when it is needed. Internationally Serve On is able to deliver search and rescue and

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resilience services to vulnerable communities, whilst in the UK, work includes UK flooding and Community Resilience Teams. Much experience has been gained from actual operational deployments to major international emergencies such as Haiti (2010) and Nepal (2015) as well as UK deployments. The knowledge and experience of Serve On’s K9 Team has been pivotal in developing Chapter 1 of this book.

Unidad Canina de Rescate y Salvamento (UCRS Madrid), Spain – www.ucrsmadrid.es

Various authors from UCRS Madrid have contributed to the development of this book, mostly in the area of Search Dogs, and have also coordinated the development of Chapter 1 – Search Techniques. UCRS Madrid is an NGO dedicated to the search of missing persons with rescue dogs. Founded in 2015, it conducts its work in Spain in an altruistic way, helping those who require it. All members in UCRS Madrid are volunteers who form four teams: the K9 team (who perform search and rescue), the veterinary team (who monitors the K9s before, during and after searches), the psychological team (who works with relatives of the missing persons and with the rescuers themselves after the search operations) and the technological team (who develops and implements technology available to facilitate searches).

Overall Project Management and Content Support

Edelweiss, Italy – www.gruppoedelweiss.it

Battista, Francesco – Francesco is a founding member of the Edelweiss Association and has participated in all emergencies in the national territory and in international emergencies in Al-bania and Kosovo. He is a USAR and Technical Rescue Instructor, certified by Escola Portuguesa de Salvamento.

Menniti, Maria A. – Maria has a degree in Biological Sciences with a Master in Integrated Coastal Marine Environment Assessment, Management And Conservation. She has been a volunteer within Edelweiss since 2001. She has participated in various national emergencies and has attended various training courses in the field of civil protection. Maria is also a qualified Search and Recovery Diver. Since 2015, she has also held the position of advisor within Edelweiss. Maria was also one of the authors of Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1 and is currently managing the overall V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M. project together with Pasquale. Maria has provided significant support to Edelweiss and specifically Pasquale in their role of Project Management and Content Support.

Perronace, Giuseppe – Giuseppe has been a member of the Edelweiss Association since 2002 and has participated in

all emergencies in the national territory. He is a USAR and Technical Rescue Instructor, certified by Escola Portuguesa de Salvamento.

Pipicelli, Pasquale A. – Pasquale graduated in Sports Science. Since 2015 he has been the president of Edelweiss, for which he was also a founding member. For 19 years he was the Head of Emergencies of the Association. Pasquale participated in various national and international emergencies between 1996 and 2020. He attended various training courses in civil protection and is a founding member of EVOLSAR, of which he has become the president early in 2020. Pasquale was also one of the authors of Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1 and is currently managing the overall V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M. project. Pasquale has supported the development of this book through the provision of resources, rigorous follow ups with the respective responsible persons and timely intervention in moments of need.

Design, Sketching and Image Editing

Mizzi, Josef – Josef has been a volunteer with the Emergency Fire and Rescue Unit for the past twelve years. He has participated in several training exercises with the EFRU in Malta and abroad together with other rescue teams. He has achieved Rope Rescue Operator and Advanced Rope Rescue Technician qualifications by Rescue3 International in

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2014 and 2019, respectively and completed a course on Search and Rescue in Collapsed Structures at the Escola Portuguesa de Salvamento. Josef also attended the ‘Modules Basic Course within the European Civil Protection Training Programme’ organized by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency MSB. In addition to rescue volunteering, Josef also has a passion for technology and design, especially drones, photography, photo editing and illustration design, that have proven to be very useful in this project.

Josef has contributed greatly to this book through sketching and illustrations, editing of

vRigger schematics and editing of photos in preparation for publishing. In addition to Josef’s work, Joseph Bonnici (EFRU Volunteer) designed and corrected several illustrations. Elina Nikolaou has been contracted for the development of certain illustrations in this text, while Angeliki Apostolaki (EPOMEA) produced the introductory illustration to the first Chapter. Keith Borg (EFRU) had produced the initial artwork and design ideas for the cover page and chapter title pages for Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1, and these were also adopted to this book following the necessary

modifications performed by Josef. Typesetting and book design was taken care of by Stephen Said (www.ideasoftmalta.com).

Indexing and Proofreading

The indexing of the text was carried out by Iona Muscat and Joseph Bonnici, both volunteers in EFRU. The proofreading task of this text was contracted out to MariaElena Zammit, who is a professional in the field and offered her services at reduced cost. These personnel have contributed significantly to the quality of the content of this book.

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In Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response: An Introductory Manual for European Volunteer Rescuers Volume 1, it was important to create a set of scenarios that are frequently encountered by rescuers. However, it was immediately stated that the manual was never meant to be an exhaustive product and this additional volume is proof of this.

Only three years after the introductory manual was pub-lished, I find myself writing this preface for this second volume. With a duration of 36 months, V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M. (Volunteers In Action To Improve Competences Union and Mood), follows on the project ‘Synergising European Volunteer Rescue Teams’, led by the Emergency Fire and Rescue Unit (EFRU) and successfully completed in 2017, and aims to expand further while providing further learning opportunities to voluntary rescuers.

V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M. is aimed at producing a series of outcomes: the creation of Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 2; the production of rescue handbooks based on the chapters of the 2 manuals; and the creation of a website with associated mobile application for rescue volunteers and for the public. This project is being led by Edelweiss (Italy) in collaboration with EFRU (Malta), SARTEAM (Portugal), ServeOn (UK), PUI (France), UCRS (Spain), EPOMEA (Greece), OPVE (Hungary) and SRT (Serbia). In addition to

the intellectual outputs of the project, these teams will be engaging themselves in a number of multiplier events in their respective countries to promote and disseminate the results with peer rescuers and the public. Additionally, also as part of the project, learning activities will be organised for the rescue teams to practice working together, particularly in the disciplines discussed in the two volumes of the rescue manual.

This second volume of the rescue manual consists of three chapters: Chapter 1 - Search Techniques; Chapter 2 - Cave Rescue and Chapter 3 - Management & Logistics. Chapter 1 looks at the search aspect, starting with K9 search teams and the use of dogs to detect and locate victims in different scenarios. The chapter then also delves into technical search equipment and its use in diverse circumstances, while keeping in consideration their inherent limitations. Chapter 2 provides a detailed overview of the morphology of caves and the ecosystems found in this particular environment. This is followed by a brief section on the method of cave surveying, cartography for caves, as well as the equipment used in caving. This provides the reader with the necessary background to understand the necessity for cave rescue and the particular challenges presented by this environment. The chapter then moves on to rescue within this

environment. The final chapter explores the management and logistics aspect of rescue and its influence on operations. This chapter explores in depth the necessary management structure of rescue teams and follows on to the various aspects that impact logistical requirements in a rescue operation, also delving into the set-up of an operational base when deployed on a rescue mission.

Each chapter was developed by a group of partners in the project. Chapter 1 included the efforts of UCRS (coordinator), ServeOn, and EPOMEA. Chapter 2 saw the collaboration of SARTEAM (coordinator) and EFRU, supported by Edelweiss while the final chapter was coordinated by PUI together with OPVE and SRT. Moreover, EFRU led the overall coordination of the Manual, editing, proof reading, coordination of illustrations and design while Edelweiss supported the process.

This conjoint international effort of rescue volunteers is again testimony of how much at heart and a way of life rescue is for these groups and individuals. Thus, one can only praise their efforts and hope that this and future initiatives are disseminated and exploited to their utmost with the final scope being to save lives.

Trevor Calafato

Preface

search techniques1

Unidad Canina de Rescate y Salvamento (Spain) Elite Team Special Missions of Greece Serve ON (UK)

Search Techniques

2222 Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 2

IntroductionNatural or man-made disasters (earthquakes, hurricanes, land-slides, building collapses, etc.) almost always lead to persons being missing, trapped, or lost, thus requiring assistance from rescue teams. Similarly, people may get lost, either due to unfamiliarity with an area (e.g. hiking on hills and mountains) or due to medical conditions such as dementia. This leads to the necessity of having a robust method of conducting searches for these persons as timely and efficiently as possible.

Whatever the task ahead, search teams have a ‘virtual toolbox’ that they can go to, to assist them in the search for

missing persons. From technical equipment that helps them to detect faint sounds below ground or Thermal Image Cameras (TIC) to locate heat sources, to the four-legged companion who can detect the life of a casualty lost, hidden or buried. All have their limitations of use, but if used properly, they can accelerate the search and ultimately the rescue of the casualty.

This chapter therefore focuses on the Search aspect of Search and Rescue (SAR). The Rescue part is dealt with in various other chapters in both volumes of Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response. It is to be noted that search techniques may also apply to other areas, including law enforcement, such

as dogs trained to search for illicit substances, explosives or even fire accelerants. These are, however, outside the scope of this chapter despite similarities with SAR search techniques.

Figure 1 illustrates the after-math of an earthquake, showing some basic search techniques that may be ongoing in such a situation. Rescuers may gather information (a) from potential eye-witnesses to understand where victims are most likely to be. Drones (b) are used to obtain a high level view of the extent of the disaster area, as well as to carry other sensors, such as thermal imaging cameras, to help search for missing persons. Trained search canines (c) help to quickly narrow down the search

(b) Drone

(c) Search K9s

(e) Surface search

(a) Eye-witness interview

(f) Void search

(d) Technical search

Figure 1: An artistic rendition of a disaster-hit zone, showing several search techniques that may be employed in such situations.

2323Search Techniques

areas by following scents from live persons buried under rubble. Rescuers may also use technical search equipment (d) to further confirm or identify locations where missing persons may be trapped, using cameras, acoustic sensors and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas detectors. Sometimes, victims may be very close to the surface, in which case they may be found by rescuers performing a surface or a line search (e). Finally, in the case of collapsed structures, rescuers, may study the type of collapse and deduce where there are most likely to be survivable voidsii where a trapped person may still be alive (f). This illustration is meant to give an insight of the several types of search, and each situation may require only some of the mentioned search techniques.

K9 Search TeamsDogs have been worked for hundreds of years, faithful companions to farmers and hunters alike, assisting in the herding of cattle and sheep, or assisting the hunter to flush the game out to be shot. Although some see it as a natural instinct that dogs have, dogs have been bred over many years to get the ‘right balance’ for the job at hand.

Over many years, SAR teams have recognized the usefulness of dogs, or K9 (a homophone of the word canine, meaning dog) as they are frequently referred to in Search and Rescue. Specialized training for both the handler and

ii More information may be found in Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1, Chapter 2 – Collapsed Structure Rescue.

dog has been developed to be able to attain the skills required.

The K9 TeamThe structure of the K9 team consists of three elements, each with a fundamental role: the handler, the dog and the observer or navigator. Each role has a specific function and is integrated within the main operational technical search team.

The dog and the respective handler must have a strong and stable bond between one another. This will allow the dog to obey and perform its work through a learned hierarchy and, above all, show respect for its handler. The main functions of the handler are:• The general wellbeing of the

dog; and

• To be consistent with the de-velopment of the dog through general and specialised search training.

The observer or navigator is the handler’s support person during the search operation, but may sometimes also be trained as a handler to gain a better understanding of the behaviour of the dog during a search. This person will monitor the search time and take note of the areas that the dog covered and ones it is being employed in, in addition to being the safety person. Furthermore, they are the liaison person between the K9 handler and the search coordinator located in the command post, communicating locations, sec-tors searched and any finds.

Figure 2: The K9 Team – Observer, handler and dog.


The aim of the K9 TeamThe aim of the search team is to search and detect people under any circumstances. The purpose of the K9 search team is to reinforce the process of searching and detecting victims, taking into advantage the dog’s heightened sense of smell and scent discrimination to quickly identify a more precise location of the persons in difficulty, thus enabling a more effective and immediate rescue.

Morphology of the search dog teamThe makeup of the core search dog team consists of one handler and one dog. It is important to understand the skills that are required in each search discipline and the environments that will be worked, which will ascertain which dog to choose. The chosen discipline determines the most appropriate characteristics of the dog, its size, physical stamina, and how it copes with new social and environmental stimuli (sensitivity).

The search dog can work in a multitude of scenarios and dis-ciplines. However, not all search dogs can work in all scenarios since each necessitates exclusive requirements. Despite this, there are some characteristics common to all K9s.

The rule of thumb is to choose dogs having a medium sensitivity since these dogs have balanced characteristics, are able to stay focused on the task at hand without getting easily

distracted or losing interest. These dogs tend to demonstrate a good level of independence, social interaction with humans and other dogs, as well as have a really good enthusiasm to play with a toy, chase a toy and hunt for the toy. This eventually leads to successfully training the dog in searching for the missing person.

In order for the handler and the dog to work effectively, the handler should possess the qualities as described in Table 1.

The handler is also chosen for their conscientiousness, humility and an overall good knowledge of the technical search role they come from and are going to be working in. This is key, as the handler needs to understand the different environments that the dog will need to be comfortable in to become a balanced and stable search dog. This process requires regular training, and in the absence of an instructor, the handler needs to have enough knowledge to set up the required training him/herself. This is very

common in volunteer teams who have limited access to instructors.

There are many breeds of dogs that can be trained to become search dogs, though the general types are herding (Border Collies and similar Shepherd breeds) and gundogs (such as Spaniels, Labradors and Retrievers). Terrier breeds have also been known to perform extremely well in the collapsed structure environment.

Undoubtedly, search dogs must have specific characteristics that allow them to carry out their work with maximum efficiency. Restricting these characteristics to a specific breed may give the false impression that only dogs of a certain breed can perform search work.

Though the breeds mentioned above are traditionally chosen as working dogs, the selection must be made based on the characteristics and morphology of the dog, and not exclusively by its breed. Over the years, several search dog specialties have been developed depending on the area of activity and needs, some

Figure 3: The K9 at the start of a search, with the handler and observer staying back to allow the dog to work unhindered.


of which are described below. The scenting techniques used by dogs may be summarised as air-scenting and ground-scenting, and their general applications in search operations is illustrated in Figure 4.

The environment that the team trains in determines the

search discipline, as described below:• Avalanche dogs — detect a

trapped person buried in snow following an avalanche;

• Collapsed structure search dogs or Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) dogs — specialise in the search and

detection of trapped persons in confined areas and disaster areas (e.g. earthquakes, land-slides, etc.);

• Wilderness area search dogs — focus on searching and locating missing persons in unbuilt areas, through air-scenting or ground-scenting;

• Open area search dogs in mountainous areas — these types of searches combine two types of search K9s to take advantage of their different scenting technique: generic scent and specific scent. The specific scent K9 will greatly reduce the search area (and therefore search time), as long as the weather and environmental conditions are favourable, and as long as the time elapsed since the last sighting of the missing person

Scenting Techniques

Ground-Scenting

Air-Scenting

Trailing

Tracking

Open Area

Collapsed Structure

Victim Recovery

Trailing

Avalanche

Wilderness

Figure 4: Scenting techniques and their common applications in search operations.

Positivity The handler must always have a positive attitude when training and searching with their dog. Any negativity can be felt by the dog and can limit their development or search. Furthermore, a negative attitude can affect the way the handler thinks while searching.

Patience A handler can be considered patient if they are able to accept the dog’s progress, even if it is delayed, as it is highly dependent on the dog’s own abilities.

Stability A handler has to show a stable behaviour towards the dog and be decisive and commanding when required, without exceeding limits.

Understanding The handler must become familiar with their dog’s true abilities and capabilities during the training as well as the limits of the dog’s endurance. It is the handler’s responsibility to understand the dog’s reactions on time and act accordingly.

Sympathy and love for their dog

The handler must show both sympathy and love for the dog. This is a prerequisite in order to develop that special relationship with the dog, which will contribute to the success of the partnership.

Hard working It takes time and many hours of training for the handler to work with the dog, in order for the team to reach a high level of training.

Table 1: Qualities of a search dog handler.


is within the range of 24 to 72 hours. This type of K9 will indicate a direction and sense of search to be followed and may even positively locate the victim. In case the specific scent K9 location was negative, the generic scent K9 must then be used.

• Victim recovery dogs (Cadaver dogs) — specialise in locating and detecting deceased persons, generally by air-scenting.

The search dog is by no means the only option for an effective search. K9s have their limitations, similar to technical search equipment, as will be explained later in this section. The human counterpart must understand such limitations and be competent and confident in the use of K9s, in the same way as for the use of technical search equipment.

K9: an indispensable elementThe differential feature that search dogs provide is plainly and simply… time! With any search for missing person(s), time is always a critical factor to the probability of survival. In an avalanche, the swift location of a casualty trapped beneath the snow is paramount to the

probability of survival, given that the time someone can survive being buried is less than 15 minutes, depending on the depth the person is trapped in.

In a collapsed structure environment, 72 hours is basically the time after which the probability of survival declines at an alarming rate. A well-trained K9 Team, in the right environmental and climatic conditions, can search an area in minutes, compared to hours taken by a team of 10 personnel using sound location devices which may take hours. In the wilderness, time can be a factor in locating a missing person in a conscious state, depending on any medical condition, temperature and climatic conditions.

Therefore, if search teams being deployed to a search task (be it a collapsed building, avalanche or wilderness search) have trained K9 resources,these should be deployed during the first phase of assessment with

Figure 5: An avalanche dog performing a search during training.

Figure 6: Victim found in an ‘atypical’ position – crouching in a corner.


initial search teams or hasty, trailing or tracking teams, as they increase the likelihood of locating the person(s) alive. The resources used within each type of environment may vary from 10 searchers on a rubble pile, to 50 searchers in forest areas. The strategic use of one K9 team can reduce these numbers significantly so as to release the searchers to assist elsewhere, either to clear other areas or to assist in the rescue of the missing person. In this way, the technical

and human resources are used in a more efficient manner: after the location of the person by the search dog, the rescue teams have a smaller area of action, thus the time to rescue the person in the area is reduced. This requires efficient coordination between all the teams that participate in search tasks, so that the work is as smooth as possible enabling the rescue of trapped or missing people in a timely manner as much as possible.

Live-scenting K9sThe dog must have a handler to accompany him throughout the training. Training a search dog begins in the first months of life and ends when the dog is very old. Once a dog is trained, the training continues throughout its working life.

The search dog is trained to look for a set of substances that the human body expends, of which origin and properties are very diverse. In addition, search dogs can be differentiated according to the smell to be located:• Generic smell: These are dogs

capable of looking for the smell of any live person in the area, in an ‘atypical’ position (sitting, buried or in a high place), an example of which is shown in Figure 6. Generic scenting K9s can be used in open areas, wilderness, and collapsed struc ture envir-onments, as they can detect the concentration of human scent from quite a distance away, sometimes even at a significant height above the dog’s search area, as shown in Figure 7.

• Specific or reference scent: specific scenting dogs are trained to discriminate the specific scent of an individual. To enable the dog to understand what scent they need to find, an article (clothes or objects) with the individual’s scent is offered to the dog to sniff (see Figure 8). The dog is then set to search for the individual. This type of dog is usually used in open

Figure 7: Victim found at a significant height above the dog’s search area.


area search. A trail dog uses a reference scent (a single scent of the missing person) and discriminates the rest of the scents. These dogs are handled by a leash and always keep their nose close to the ground

iii ‘Tugga’ is being used to describe a kind of dog toy that permits the dog to play tug-of-war with the handler or the helper, as a reward for finding the helper (see Figure 10). Several dogs seem to find this method of play highly rewarding and therefore is an excellent way to motivate the dog to give its best during the search.

to capture the molecules and particles of scent of the person and the scent of trampled ground beneath the footsteps of the missing person (see Figure 9). These K9s are mostly used for searches in large

areas due to their high degree of scent discrimination as well as due to search ground conditions.

The live-scenting dog is arduously trained through positive reinforcement training to locate the live victims’ scent, in fun hide and go seek games looking for their favourite toy. During this time the dog learns to give an indication before they are rewarded with the toy (ball or ‘tugga’iii).

Gradually the dog is introduced to a helper, who will then encourage and be the dog’s focus. The body (helper) then takes the toy and goes to hide. This then becomes a game of association: helper has the toy, find the helper, find the toy and get a reward of tug of war or fetch. Whilst this play of hide and seek is going on, there is also an association, not only with regards to finding the toy, but also in getting an understanding of what they must find in the air or on the ground to locate the helper. Over time the search distances are increased, and different environments and challenges are introduced. As will be seen further on, the live scent is highly variable and one has to know how odour particles are distributed to understand how a search dog performs its task.

Figure 9: The dog uses a ground-scenting technique (nose to the ground) to find and follow the track of the missing person.

Figure 8: A specific scenting dog smelling items of clothing of a missing person.


Air-scenting K9sAir-scenting K9s take in the air and look for a generic live human scent through suspended particles in the air. The K9 looks for and moves towards the maximum scent level at the source of scent (called the scent cone). Once the K9 locates the strongest scent, it will indicate this by barking actively until the handler reaches that area and confirms the find, at which point the K9 will be rewarded.

The makeup of human scent mostly differs from person to person. Every one of us is unique in the biological makeup to a point. Dependent on ethnic and racial traits, male or female, general health condition and diet, the one common thing that denotes us as being alive is the carbon dioxide that we exhale and the skin cells that each one of us drops. We exfoliate circa 40,000 skin cells a minute, and

on each skin cell area multitude of bacteria that eat the cells and release gaseous concoctions. These skin cells carry an array of information about the person all the way down to what they have recently eaten. Whilst you exhale, there are skin cells in the breath being released at the same time. These rafts of skin can be lighter than air and will float quite a long way from the host. The air-scenting dog can and will pick up a casualty or missing person scent, when conditions are right, from over 500 metres away.

As mentioned earlier, the handler needs to be able to read the signs and decipher how they can assist the dog with searching more efficiently. Air movement and wind direction are the primary factors that help the scent move. There is an allegory that the wind is like a virtual river. Any obstacle in its way will cause eddies (turbulence and

vortices) and stoppers. Trees and vegetation can act as strainers causing the scent to get trapped and diluted. The handler must be proficient in recognising these factors and direct the dog to give them the best chances of locking on the scent source.

It is also important that the handler is knowledgeable of the movements of their dog. For example, in open areas it is typical for the dog to make zigzag movements or in circles. Why? Because the air tends to expand, so that in the area furthest from the victim’s position the air tends to be less concentrated and the dog’s movements are thus wider to cover more ground. As the dog approaches the casualty, their movements will be smaller, since the scent is more concentrated and this indicates to the search dog that it is approaching the person. It is imperative to keep in mind that during a real search there may be residual scent, whether of rescuers, of other casualties who have already been rescued, casualty clothes, dead animals, food etc. An operative dog must discriminate between these scents and, although sometimes these may attract the dog’s attention, it should not mark them as points of interest.

Some search dogs have been taught to be scent specific search dogs, those that can discriminate scent and indicate the correct person within a crowd of people. These dogs are using both air-scenting and ground-scenting abilities. Dogs used for trailing are seen more commonly to be scent specific, but this comes

Figure 10: Playing with the dog as a reward for having found the victim.


down to how the dogs are trained and the associations that have been made.

Ground-scenting K9s

While tracking and trailing, the dog learns the game behaviour-ism, which entails tracking a scent in exchange of a reward.

However, the scent elements in the track the missing person used are a lot more direct and precise and the tracking dog usually uses just the freshest scent. The makeup of the ground scent is a mixture of soil elements, grass, chemicals, bacteria (vegetation scent) and the heavier skin rafts (human scent) that fell from the

missing person whilst they were walking.

Figure 11 illustrates, in a very simplified manner, the process of ground-scenting. As a person walks, the heavier skin rafts that are shed drift to the ground, leaving behind a trail of human scent. This trail of human scent settles relatively close to the path taken by the person, as opposed to the scent formed by lighter skin rafts that remain airborne and are carried away by the air movements. Additionally, as the person walks over soil and vegetation, the crushed vegetation starts to decompose by the action of bacteria, also releasing scent that remains practically in the footsteps of the person. A ground-scenting K9 is trained to use these scents to follow the path of the missing person. It is to be noted that the human scent will be strongest for a short time immediately after the missing person has walked in that area, and will then gradually disperse. Meanwhile the scent

K9 uses a combination of the human and vegetation scents to follow the track/trail.

The heavier skin rafts drift to the ground

Bacteria start decomposing the crushed vegetation Crushed vegetation

Figure 11: A basic illustration showing how human skin rafts falling to the ground and bacteria acting on crushed vegetation produce the scents that lead a ground-scenting K9 to follow the track/trail of a missing person.

Figure 12: A dog barking upon finding the victim. Bark barrels are often used during training to teach the dog to constantly bark near the hidden victim until rewarded.


of crushed vegetation requires some time for the bacteria to act on it, and will gradually increase in strength over time, reaching a peak and then starting to reduce again.

IndicationAn indication is an alert that the dog has been trained to perform once they have located a live scent pool. This could be dependent on the training, e.g. for collapsed structure, a constant stand over

and bark (see Figure 12), digging, sitting (see Figure 13), or using a bringsel. A bringsel is a piece of wood or another object that is attached to the dog’s collar. On finding the live scent the dog will put the bringsel into its mouth (see Figure 14) and sit down, indicating that it has found a scent. This is often used in avalanche scenarios.

The most used form of indication for area search is the re-find, or pendular method, where the dog will locate the casualty, bark once and then return to the handler, bark again at the handler and return to the casualty. This continues until the dog has shown the handler where the casualty is.

When is a dog considered operational?

The handler’s time availability for training and the speed at which the dog is able to learn and stay proficient and consistent determines when the K9 team can be assessed for operational duties. The usual amount of time taken for a team to become consistently proficient in locating a missing person and becoming environ-mentally socialised is around two years from the start of training. Once the K9 team has passed an operational assessment, they will become an operational team (dog and handler). If one fails to perform, then so does the other, as it is a 50/50 partnership.

Figure 13: A dog demonstrating a sit indication in the vicinity of the found victim.

Figure 14: Dogs may sometimes be trained to indicate that they found a person by holding a bringsel in their mouth.


Pre-DeploymentBefore deployment, all operation-al equipment must be checked for its serviceability, including ensuring that the batteries are charged and all cables are in good condition, sound location probes are operating correctly and basically anything needed on site should be functioning correctly. Going on site with a misfiring generator would inhibit performance during a night operation. Similarly, certain pre-deployment checks apply to search dogs as well. Search dogs should not become lame and lose their drive through infection or mental tiredness. It is a requirement that all dogs being deployed are first checked over by a team’s veterinarian, to get a sign off that they are healthy to fly and to work.

Roles of a K9 Team

Information gatheringGathering information is key for any search team to be able to clarify whether the area is safe, what the building was used for and if anyone is missing. The dogs can be used to assist the team in a basic 360 perimeter assessment of a collapsed building or the initial sweep of an area where a missing person was last seen. Whilst doing this they can inform the handler through their body language if there is anyone trapped alive, lying in the grass or in a wooded area among other scenarios. This initial sweep determines by a

high percentage (>85%, weather and environmental conditions permitting) whether there is a live scent emanating from the remains of the building or from a wooded area.

The main information the handler looks for is the direction of air movement or wind. This generally gives the handler a good idea of where to start their perimeter search from and whether they need to do a full 360 degree search or just focus on a few sides.

USAR (Air-scenting)In a collapsed structure environ-ment an air-scenting K9 saves time and effort from the search teams and can determine whether the building needs further in-vestigation using sound location and cameras. This depends on the size and type of collapse. If the K9 doesn’t show any signs of interest, then another K9 team will be asked to search the area just to confirm that there is no live scent emanating out of the structure at this time. A decision is made by the team to either move on to another area or delaminate (to take a layer off) a level and get the dogs to the area again.

Wilderness (Tracking/Trailing/Air-scenting)

With wilderness search, informa-tion is generally thin, other than the point given as to where the subject was last seen. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the wilderness search dog (specific

scent trailing or tracking dog) can be used to ascertain whether the missing subject was actually in the area, including helping to determine the direction of travel. This will assist in creating search plans for the teams involved.

Search and DetectWithin the USAR role, K9s are trained to indicate the strongest source of live scent which could be more than one metre away from the live casualty in a collapsed structure environment. In such circumstances the dog can detect live scent but can’t locate the person. As soon as the dog has detected and indicated the general location, then the other part of the team (search technicians) use their sound location equipment to locate the casualty whereabouts.

Search and LocateWithin the wilderness and avalanche scenarios, K9s are taught to search and locate missing persons through either specific scent trailing, tracking in the wilderness, or air-scenting (wilderness/avalanche).

Search considerationsBefore tasking the dog to search an area, a dynamic risk assessment must be carried out. By obtaining the search brief from the team lead or coordinator of the search, handlers can assess and manage better their expectations of the dog’s performance. When utilising a dog to search an area,


there are a lot of factors that need to be taken into consideration.

The time of day is a very important factor and this varies according to the period of the year. The sun tends to be hottest between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. This can reduce the strength of wind currents leading to scents flowing directly upwards, creating a kind of chimney effect, called thermocline. This means the dog needs to be directly on top of the scent to locate the casualty, requiring it to work harder. The best times for employing K9 units are early morning or late afternoon, as well as early evening or during the night. If possible, midday searches should be avoided, both for the benefit of the dog but also to ensure that the searches are more efficient. Temperature also limits the duration of the dog’s scenting capabilities. The cooler

the temperature the better and longer the dog can work, as this allows the scent to hang or travel at the same height as a medium dog’s nose level.

The scent from a missing person will be carried by wind and will also diffuse in the process as it moves further away from the source, forming an imaginary cone of scent. The shape of this cone is greatly affected by the strength and direction of the wind. The handler needs to carefully assess the conditions to start the search from a position that gives the K9 the best opportunity to catch the scent cone and follow it to the source. Figure 15 demonstrates how the K9 starts to search and as soon as it finds itself in the scent cone it starts zig-zagging towards the point of maximum scent concentration.

Wind conditions should be constantly monitored whilst searching, especially in urban and wooded environments. Wind may be moving in one direction on one side of the street, and in another on the other side. Similar circumstances occur while searching in woods. The dog may be on the boundaries of the wooded area and picking up the wind nicely, but 30 metres into the wooded area the air may be almost motionless. Wind movement is very much like water movement, where there are currents, eddyies, strainers and stoppers that have a diverting or thinning effect or stop the scent movement respectively.

Any environment a search K9 unit is employed in, be it a collapsed structure, a mountainous area or a forest, will always contain various hazards that may impede the dog’s

K9 search path

Search area boundary

Victim location

Wind direction

Scent cone

Figure 15: The effect of wind on the scent cone requires careful consideration for a successful K9 search.


performance and safety. The most common hazards are the following:

• Other people and/or rescuers

• Further collapse of buildings

• Voids in the rubble

• Entanglement in reinforcing bar (rebar)

• Wild animals, other dogs

• Vehicle traffic

• Unseen wire fences when searching in the wilderness.

Additionally, gasoline fumes or smoke can dramatically inhibit the dog’s scenting ability by as much as 60% for at least 30 minutes. It is critical to ensure that the dog is housed in an area free from any noxious or hazardous fumes so that its scenting capabilities remain strong.

A search, be it during training or in actual operations, should always finish on a good note. Searching a tasked area without locating a missing person’s scent may have a negative effect on the dog’s mental wellbeing. Therefore, it is important to always end a negative search with a quick hide-and-go-seek game so that the dog wins its reward. This builds up confidence in the dog and helps it keep focused.

K9 Team EquipmentThe K9 team needs to be able to operate safely within its search environment and be comfortable with wearing protective equip-ment when the elements require it.

Dog bootsAlthough the K9 is quite comfortable with running in the snow or on tarmac, the dog’s feet can become either sore from chills or burnt from direct contact with hot tarmac or dirt. For these reasons,the dogs are to get accustomed to wearing special dog boots (see Figure 16). These boots give the necessary protection from the various elements and can also offer some protection from glass and sharp objects that may be found in collapsed building environments.

Abseil tactical harnessSometimes there may be a requirement where the search dog and handler need to be lowered into an area to search or lifted into a helicopter to be extracted from particular areas

such as from a mountain. For these types of operations K9 teams would be using specialist harnesses (see Figure 17).

Working search harnessSearch dogs will usually wear a harness to show others that they are working dogs and currently working in the area (see Figure 18). This harness is usually orange or yellow but can differ from team to team and search discipline.

However, in collapsed struc-tures it is considered safer for the dog to work without any harness to avoid possible entanglement. In specialized harnesses, some-times technology can be included to monitor the dog’s vital signs and chemicals released in the environment, in case these are dangerous.

Safety gogglesEar Defenders

Search harness

Dog boots

Figure 16: Some safety equipment for the SAR K9 – safety goggles, ear defenders, search harness and dog boots.


Long lineThe dog handler will have a couple of standard leads that they use, but they may have a long line as a safety line for the dog when working in difficult terrain or in open areas, mostly during tracking and trailing work (see Figure 19). Whilst working from a boat, the ideal type of

long line would be a floating line. This gives added protection as it would not sink and would not snag on underwater objects.

Flotation vestAlthough dogs are relatively good swimmers, a flotation vest is a necessary requirement

while operating over water. This offers the dogs extra buoyancy and helps them to do their job, especially if they are lifeguard dogs.

K9 safety gogglesOver the years, dog goggles have been developed to be able to protect the dog’s eyes from dust kicked up by helicopters/planes or sharp objects present in collapsed structure environments (see Figure 16).

K9 ear defendersSince dogs have sensitive ears, it has been increasingly common to use ear defenders on the dog when waiting in noisy environments or waiting to board a jet, helicopter or propeller plane (see Figure 16).

Figure 17: A dog wearing an abseil harness before being lowered into a valley from a bridge during a training session.

Figure 18: A search harness shows that a dog is (or will soon be) working to identify the location of a missing person.

Figure 19: A long line is typically used during tracking or trailing, allowing the handler to stay at a certain distance so as not to disrupt the scent trail.


Technical search equipmentSearches are carried out also through the use of technical search equipment. Some of this equipment might have multifunctional roles while other equipment is specific to the environment and tasks. Such equipment has its limitations too and these will be touched upon at the end of each part. Table 2 shows where the different technical search equipment may be used in different operational environments.

DronesUnmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), better known as drones, have become more widely utilised in search and rescue operations, from the military’s Predator to the small quadcopters and hobbyist units.

These pieces of equipment have become a fast-growing, go-to accessory of search and rescue

organisations, both government and charity alike. The efficiency of the drone in the air is close to that of the K9 on the ground. The drone can cover a wide area within a small amount of time and can carry different camera payloads dependent on the operation (see Figure 20). Some cameras may capture thermal

imagery with up to 30x zoom, with night vision if required.

Drones can cover wide areas in a relatively short amount of time. A UAV team can be deployed quite quickly to an area and the UAV can be in the air in a short amount of time compared to a helicopter. The drone unit can assist in gathering

Figure 20: Drones have become important assets in SAR operations, enhancing situational awareness and carrying search tools such as visual and thermal cameras.

USAR Open Area Wilderness

Drones

Sound Locators

Thermal Imaging Cameras

Night Vision Cameras

Technical Search Cameras

Carbon dioxide Probes

Table 2: Multifunctional roles of technical search equipment.


information regarding what type of environment or terrain the searchers are going to encounter and can help map the area to enable more strategic planning to assist in locating the missing person(s).

Drones may also carry thermal or night vision cameras (see below). In this way, not only do they allow a rapid visual sweep of the area, but they can detect areas of heat where a person could be or increase the degree of vision in the dark. Drones increase the effectiveness of the search, allowing a tracking of the area in greater depth and in less time. This allows a more efficient approach avoiding unnecessary work areas while focusing the available human and canine resources where required.

When should they be used? Drones should be one of the first pieces of equipment to be deployed so as to get a good understanding of the environment that the searchers will be working in. Obtaining this information ahead of time helps the search managers spot potential hazards, estimating the risks before strategically deploying the searchers.

Drones have been used successfully in search operations and have assisted in the location of missing persons throughout the short time they have been used for this purpose. These results are based uniquely on the skill of the pilot, the information given and the strategic planning of the search.

USAR Technical SearchAs indicated at the beginning of the chapter, search dogs aren’t the only means to search and detect. There are other modern devices out there that require patience, humility, concentration and ability that can be used to detect the casualty.

Sound location devicesUSAR teams all over the world have been using sound location devices to help locate signs of living casualties. The unit utilizes seismic and acoustic technology. These devices, light and battery operated, are usually deployed and used with a team of five to seven operatives. Sound location devices differ in size and capabilities. The probes of the

unit can be placed on multiple surfaces and on any edge but must be in good contact with the surface to provide an eligible source detection.

As with all search techniques, the use of sound location units as a search tool is based on strategy and planning, moving slowly and through a pre-planned course of action. The only time the strategy should change is if the probes make contact (detect) a non-natural noise, such as a designated tapping sequence. Upon detecting a non-natural noise, the search revolves around this probe until the USAR team locates the casualty.

Some common sound location devices include the Vibraphone® and the Delsar® LifeDetector®. The former device is the baby of

Figure 21: A Delsar® LifeDetector® unit ready to be deployed in operation.


the sound location devices. It has a minimum of two probes and an acoustic mic and speaker. More advanced models have additional probes to help pinpoint the sound location more accurately. These devices have been used for many years by lightweight rescue teams (first response teams). The units are relatively simple to use and require a minimum of 3-4 people. Once fully immersed into its working capabilities, a search technician will be capable of working in all different collapsed environments.

The Delsar® LifeDetector® is the big brother of the Vibraphone® and is used by light to medium USAR teams (see Figure 21). It is relatively small compared to its big impact on locating Life. The life detector is relatively flexible with six probes, as these can be used with one probe for confined space to six

for covering a wider area. This is more technical and requires more skill to be able to detect which probe has made contact (detected noise). As with the Vibraphone® it has an LED panel which fluctuates with noise and movement giving a visual as well as an aural indication. Training and getting accustomed to the device is necessary to enable its correct use.

Sound location devices give the conscious casualty a greater chance of detection and location when being trapped at depth. The probes are very sensitive and, conditions permitting, can detect a conscious casualty up to 30 metres underneath rubble. If and when a casualty is located, a two-way microphone can be lowered down so as to communicate with the casualty.

Sound location devices such as the Vibraphone® and Delsar®

LifeDetector® units should be used after the initial K9 search, particularly if there has been an indication of a possible casualty. Similarly, these devices may be employed if a dog unit isn’t available directly after a line search and call out has been exercised. Initially though, the information gathered about the building should determine how much time is spent on the site using this equipment. The type of collapse determines the probability of survival, which dictates where sound location should start from and what methods should be adopted.

Technical Search CameraSearch technology has developed rapidly over a short amount of time and the search camera is one of these technologies. There are many variations of technical search cameras, from medical inspection cameras used in keyhole surgery to tactical cameras used in tactical search missions by both military and law enforcement teams. The technical search and rescue camera has become a much used tool within collapsed structure (as shown in Figure 22) and water search environments. The units have been developed to include a telescopic rod, with an articulating waterproof camera that has LED lighting to help pinpoint a victim’s location. Some units now have a two-way audio function which allows the rescuer to communicate directly with the casualties. The benefit of these cameras is that they also have the option to record audio

Figure 22: Inspection cameras give a visual inside voids where a victim may be buried.


and video which can help with evidence gathering and assist with training.

Most, if not all, USAR teams around the world, have this or a similar type of camera in their search equipment toolbox. These types of cameras are used to probe deep down into voids and to search for any signs of presence of casualties,whether alive or deceased. A well-trained technician, who would be fully aware of its capability, can navigate the probe’s camera and get a full picture of the voids and extent of collapse, before committing a searcher into the voids.

The teams would ideally use this tool when starting to search the voids created by certain types of collapse, or when teams are having to gain access through breaking and breaching. The teams will make a small hole in the face of the wall, door, floor or ceiling that they wish to breach, and then will insert a camera to do general sweep of the immediate area behind the proposed breach to make sure they will not harm any casualty located near it.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) ProbesThe CO2 probe/detector has been used by industries throughout the world to detect any danger-ous build-up of CO2 levels within different industrial environ-ments. The CO2 probe is relevant in the USAR environment and can detect a concentration of CO2 given off by breath (see Figure 23). CO2 probes are

not better than a dog’s nose in detecting live persons, but can give a solid reading of CO2 levels emanating from a void of a collapsed building, giving a reason to investigate the pile or structure further.

When using these probes, the information gathered about the scene is important. If there are persons reported missing in the building, then it would be an ideal tool to use, if no dogs are available, to detect signs of human life. However, if no strong information about the building is available, be aware that these devices can also pick up on the decay of rotten fruit, for example, which has CO2 as part of the decay makeup and can therefore give false readings.

Thermal Image Camera (TIC)The Thermal Image Camera (TIC) has over the years reduced in its size and increased in its capabilities. In the early days of this technology, the first infrared line scanner allowed only a single image to be produced over quite a long time. Nowadays, thermal image camera technology has evolved significantly, making it a very useful search tool used widely in the search and rescue field and has proved itself time and again in detecting life in darkness as well as in smoke-filled and wilderness environments.

A thermal imaging camera consists of five components: an optic system, detector, amplifier, signal processing, and display. Fire-service specific thermal imaging cameras incorporate

these components in a heat-resistant, ruggedized, and water-proof housing. These parts work together to render infrared radiation, such as that given off by warm objects or flames, into a visible light representation in real time.

The camera display shows infrared output differentials, so two objects with the same temperature will appear to be the same ‘colour’ (see Figure 24). Many thermal imaging cameras use grayscale to represent normal temperature objects, but highlight dangerously hot surfaces in different colours.

Figure 23: CO2 detectors may pinpoint voids with higher than normal CO2 values that may indicate possible human occupancy.


Advancements in Thermal Imaging Camera (TIC) Technol-ogy, introduction of zoom, and panning modes have given the search teams a tool that when used in the right search environments and when conditions are good, can help reduce search times to locate missing persons in the wilderness or even in and around the collapsed building environment. This technology has also been introduced into drone camera payload technologies and is now widely used with these units.

The ideal time to use TIC is during dusk and night time searches when the surface temperature of objects is starting to get cooler. The option to use TIC in any open or forest area should always be considered and when searching within a building, in heavy smoke, or a dust-filled void or room. There

are certain limitations to using the equipment which will be covered later in the chapter.

Night Vision CameraNight Vision Cameras increase the degree of vision and sharpness of the human eye in darkness. In this way, these types of cameras increase the adaptation to the darkness and cause the night search and rescue tasks to be carried out with less difficulty.

Although they are often confused with thermal cameras, they are not the same. Night vision does not work with body heat, but uses infrared spectrum amplification to allow vision in dark situations. These types of cameras are especially useful in night search tasks, where visibility is zero and the lack of light can pose a danger to both search technicians and casualties.

K9 and technical search equipment limitationsThe main limitation that can be found in both the K9 and the technical search equipment is the human factor. Those technicians who participate in search tasks must have a great knowledge of the tools that they are using. Additionally though, every search tool has a number of limitations (briefly described in Table 3) that always need to be taken in consideration when devising a search strategy for the particular situation at hand.

ConclusionDifferent emergency situations have different requirements when it comes to searching for victims. To cater for this, there are various options available to facilitate the search, through the use of specially trained dogs and technological devices. The success of these, however, depends on correct training, as well as knowing and respecting the limitations of each tool.

Figure 24: A thermal imaging camera displays an image based on the heat intensity of objects and may help distinguish a person in the dark through body heat compared to the surrounding objects.


Technique Limitations

K9 • Animal welfare considerations• Constant performance maintenance• Needs to rest• Needs feeding and watering• In particular environments is easily injured• Has off days• Gets Sick• Gets tired

Drones • Operating time limitation due to power pack• Easily damaged if conditions not right for flying• Depending on country, there may be limits to areas allowed to fly• Technology short circuits• Radio wave interference and rendering unresponsiveness• Operator experience

Sound location • Battery Operated• Multiple points of failure regarding connections• Resonance issues with regards to type of building construction and

placement of probes• Operator tiredness or knowledge of equipment• Other external noise sources

Technical search Camera • Battery operated• Multiple points of dirt ingress on telescopic poles• Operator tiredness or lack of expert knowledge of equipment• Multiple points of technical failure with regards to connections

CO2 Probe • Battery Operated• Electronic calibration required• Multiple points for dirt ingress• Other rotten organic matter giving false readings

Thermal Image Camera • Battery Operated• Cannot see through glass• Cannot see through water• Operators awareness of heat signature

Night Vision Camera • Need to adapt the eye to the camera. The technician must be accustomed to its use for correct vision.

Table 3: Limitations of search tools.

cave rescue2SARTEAM (Portugal) The Emergency Fire & Rescue Unit (Malta)

Supported by:

Edelweiss (Italy)

Cave Rescue


IntroductionHuman interaction with caves and cave systems has existed for a very long time, for shelter, scientific research, or recreation. However, cave exploration may be inherently dangerous, leading to the need for specialist rescue resources. This chapter gives the reader an insight on various types of caves and their formation, the environment and habitat within, features within cave systems, mapping and orienteering during exploration, caving and rescue equipment, and, rescue planning and techniques.

DefinitionsSpeleology (from the Latin term ‘spelaeum’ meaning cave/cavern) is the science that studies natural cavities and other karst phenomena, aspects of their formation, constitution, physical characteristics and life forms, and their evolution over time.

Officially, the term caving refers to the exploration of caves with the intention of surveying and documenting them for the accumulation of knowledge. Meanwhile, the term spelunking refers to the exploration of caves as a sport or hobby. However, these two terms are often used interchangeably.

HistoryThe history of caving is as old as man himself. In prehistoric times, caves were the first truly effective shelter from the cold that reigned in the glacial periods. However, it was only in the nineteenth century that caving emerged as a systematic exploration activity of caves.

The French pioneer explorer, Edouard Alfred Martel (1859–1938), is considered by many as the father of speleology. He contributed to the development and dissemination of this discipline. Martel wrote 21 books and over 1,000 articles for magazines on the exploration and surveying of caves. After his death, numerous followers continued on his footsteps to further develop the caving discipline, including prominent figures Robert-Jacques de Joly (1887–1968), who developed the steel cable ladder, Norbert Casteret (1897–1987), and Guy de Lavaur (1903–1986).

Figure 1: Hang Son Doong cave, Vietnam.

Figure 2: Caves attract great interest in mankind, both for scientific and recreational reasons.

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EthicsSpeleologists, more than any-one else, have the moral respon-sibility of protecting the caves they explore, minimising impact through the deterioration that occurs whenever a cavity is discovered. One of the golden rules is to not remove anything from inside the cavities. Leave no more than footprints and take nothing more than photographs. In certain locations, not even footprints should be left! Nothing should be disturbed, or worse killed! Caves provide several different types of habitats, as shall be delved into further on within this chapter.

Cave MorphologyThe formation and development of caves is known as speleogenesis and it can occur over the course of millions of years. Caves range widely in size, and are formed

by various geological processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, erosion by water, tectonic forces, micro-organisms, pressure from the rocks above, and atmospheric

Figure 3: The fragile biodiversity in caves requires visitors to take great care not to endanger it through carelessness.

Acidic rain water

Soluble rock

Cave system

Disappearing stream

Impermeable rock

Spring

Carbon dioxide dissolves into water

Cracks formed by dissolution

Figure 4: Formation of karst surface and cave features through dissolution of soluble rock.


influences.1 The most common types of cave formation are briefly described below.

Cave FormationSolutional caves (also known as karst caves) are the most common, and are formed by the dissolution of soluble rock such as limestone. As illustrated in Figure 4, rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming carbonic acid with a pH value of 5.6. As rain water percolates through the soil and penetrates through crevices and fractures in the limestone, it dissolves away its calcium carbonates, thus generating underground cavities, and eventually caves.

The dissolution process pro-duces a distinctive landform known as karst, which is char-acterized by sinkholes and un-derground drainages. Limestone caves are often adorned with

calcium carbonate formations known as speleothems. These formations, generated by the deposit of secondary minerals, include flowstones, dripstones, pore deposits and pool deposits.

Primary caves are caves which were formed at the same time as the surrounding rock. The most

common are lava tubes, formed through volcanic activity (Figure 5), and reef caves, formed by ridges and open hollows during the growth of the reef.

Sea caves (also known as littoral caves) are found along coasts, formed primarily by erosion induced by sea wave action on a weak zone within the host rock (Figure 6).

Glacier caves (Figure 7), are formed by melting ice and flowing water within and underneath glaciers, forming pathways and caverns through the ice at the bottom of the glacier.

Erosional caves form entirely through erosion induced by flow-ing streams (or wind) carrying rock and other sediments. They can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks. These caves start from a zone of weakness (such as a fault or joint) to guide the stream, which then continues to erode the rock, deepening the cavity until a cave forms (Figure 8).

Figure 5: A lava cave forms at the same time as its surrounding rock through volcanic activity.

Figure 6: Sea caves are formed through wave action, wearing the weaker rock faster than its surrounding, thus creating a cavity.

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Though there are several types of caves, this chapter focuses on karst caves, as these are the most frequently occurring. Figure 9 illustrates some of the associated

features both at the surface as well as within cave systems and gives a basic idea of the formation process of karst caves.

SpeleothemsSpeleothems are secondary mineral deposits and form through the action of carbon dioxide in acidic water, which

Figure 7: Glacier caves form through the melting of ice at the bottom of the glacier.

Figure 8: Erosional caves form by the action of flowing water or wind leading to erosion of the rock.

Karst limestone outcrop

Limestone walls

Crack

Limestone plateau

Stalactite

Surface water

Doline

Fault

Underground water

Resurgence of underground water

Gallery

Impermeable rock

Impermeable rock

StalagmiteCave

Figure 9: Formation of karst landscape and cave systems.


escapes in the airiness of the cave and the dissolved calcite hardens once again. Speleothems take various forms, depending on whether the water drips, seeps, condenses, flows, or ponds. Many speleothems are named for their resemblance to man-made or natural objects. Some types of speleothems are described below.

Dropstone: Water emerging from a joint in the cave ceiling hangs for a while as a pendant drop. During this time, a small amount of calcium carbonate is deposited in a ring where the drop is in contact with the ceiling, before the drop falls off. This process is repeated over and over again, and an icicle-like speleothem called a stalactite builds up (Figure 10). Stalactites vary in shape from thin, straw-like features to massive pendants or drapery-like forms. Stalactites have a central canal that carries water from the feeder joint to the stalactite tip. Stalactites may grow so large that they cannot support their own weight, and the broken fragments of large

stalactites are sometimes found in caves.

When the drops fall to the floor of the cave, additional mineral matter is deposited and stalagmites are built up. Stalagmites also take on many forms, from slender broom-handle to mound and pagoda-like shapes (Figure 11). Stalagmites consist of superimposed caps or layers and do not have a central

canal. Stalagmites can reach heights of tens of metres.

Columns are formed by the union and fusion of stalagmites and stalactites, or when stalactites reach the floor of the cave.

Flowstone: Water flowing along ledges and down positive-sloping walls, leaves behind sheets of calcite which build up a massive deposit known as flowstone (Figure 12). The deposits may grade into thin sheets called draperies or curtains where they descend from overhanging portions of the wall. Some draperies are translucent, and some have brown and beige layers.

Speleogens: These are geo-logical features within solutional caves and are created by the dis-solution of bedrock. Speleogens can form where the bedrock is not uniform in chemical com-position. Consequently, through time, the less soluble rock dis-

Figure 11: Stalagmites form on the ground as water droplets fall from the ceiling, leaving minerals on the ground as water flows away or evaporates.

Figure 10: Stalactites form on the ceiling as water seeps in and deposits minerals, before it falls to the ground.

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solves at a slower rate than the adjacent, more soluble rock. The less soluble rock tends to stand in relief and projects from walls and ceilings of caves (Figure 13).

Karst Surface LandscapeKarst landscapes have two peculiar characteristics which make them immediately identifiable even where rocks are covered by soil and vegetation. One is the particular form of dissolution on the surface and the second is the practically total absence of watercourses on the surface, as all the water, or most of it, is rapidly swallowed into the depths. The best-known and most striking karst forms

Figure 12: Flowstone form in a similar way to stalactites, except that they flow along sloping ledges and thus form drape-like vertical structures.

Figure 13: As parts of the soluble bedrock dissolve more quickly than others, speleogens form over time on what eventually become the ceiling and walls of a cave.


are the karren or lapiez, furrows and small depressions created by the dissolution of rock (Figure 14) which are formed on a small scale. Another karst form is the doline, a closed funnel or bowl-shaped hollow sinkhole. In most cases, dolines which form by collapse give access to cave systems underneath and are most often shafts of a sub-circular cross-section (Figure 15).

Dolines can be very deep, and at times allow direct access to flooded systems, as in the case of cenotes (Figure 16). More complex and larger forms are polje and ponores. Polje consist of large, flat-bottom depressions characterised by caves. Ponores act alternately as sinkholes during the dry season or as

Figure 14: Karst landscape features include characteristic furrows and small depressions in the bedrock.

Figure 15: Dolines, or sinkholes, form large depressions in the surface relief, and sometimes may be connected to cave systems underneath.

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springs during the rainy season, when water flowing within the karst system exceeds its drainage capacity. Water rising up through the sinkholes from which it flows out often forms temporary lakes.

Underground LandscapeCave morphology is often complex and difficult to describe, however there are a few elementary features, some of which are illustrated in Figure 17.

Galleries are prevalently horizontal or slightly inclined,

and are generally large, as opposed to passages.

Meandering channels (also known as canyons) are horizontal tracts, characterized by very deep and narrow channelling, which have been eroded by flowing water. Very often, these are the most difficult passages to explore, because they are frequently very narrow at the base and have flowing water courses that can be quite violent.

Shafts tend to be vertical and can either be perfectly cylindrical tubes with smooth vertical walls, or may develop in ledges or steps with erosion potholes at the bottom. Shafts formed in a zone of saturation or at high mountain altitudes due to the presence of snow or ice generally have smooth walls. Vertical shafts originating from water courses on the surface, which recede due to the erosion of a waterfall, generally have multiple levels. Shafts can be of incredible heights with absolute vertical drops reaching up to 500 metres.

Chambers (also known as rooms) form following collapses, and are the places where shafts and galleries meet. The size of an underground room may, at times, be immense.

Cave EcosystemCave ecosystems are character-ized by lack of light. As a result, there is a dependence on connect-ivity to the surface or the supply of organic material brought about through different mechanisms as a supply of energy (Figure 18). Such energy sources sustain

Figure 16: Part of a doline may collapse into a cave underneath, which may eventually be flooded to form a cenote.


the activity of decomposers and microorganisms that feed omnivores and herbivores. These, in turn, sustain predator requirements. Predators support the ecosystem through the generation of more organic material.

Caves are actually part of a larger karst ecosystem that is the entire drainage basin through which water, energy, and matter move. Within these karst eco-systems lie a diversity of habitats and organisms that can differ substantially, yet are highly inter-

connected and interdependent. While often thought of as stable, karst ecosystems are extremely dynamic and subject to natural and human-imposed disturbance.

Cave Zones and LifeA cave has three distinct zones: the entrance zone, the twilight zone, and the dark zone. These three zones are essentially defined by the extent of sunlight access (Figure 19). The zonal conditions impact the type of

life that can be sustained, and hence are directly related to the categories of animals that live there: troglophiles, trogloxenes and troglobites. These may inhabit different parts of the cave for different spans in their lifecycle.

The Entrance Zone defines the entry point of a cave, which usually receives adequate direct sunlight. This part of the cave opens to the outside environment and experiences varied temperatures, as it adjusts to the external environment and

Shaft

Limestone

Well

Source

Underground river

Karst limestone outcrops

Chimney

Gallery

Figure 17: Underground karst landscape features.

Organic Material (guano & other)

Transferred into the cave via:• vertebrates• cave flooding• air currents• generated by

cave fauna.

Microorganisms & Decomposers

example:• bacteria• fungi

Omnivores & Herbivores

example:• millipedes• amphipod• planarians• crustacean

Predators

example:• salamanders• cave fish• spiders• centipedes• crayfish

Figure 18: The food chain within the cave ecosystem.

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climate. The entrance zone can be either naturally formed or created by humans.

Green plants grow in this zone because of sunlight access, which is needed for photosynthesis. It can be inhabited by various forms of life, including beetles, small rodents, spiders, snakes, salamanders, earthworms, milli-pedes, owls, and snails. Addition-ally, certain terrestrial animals,

such as raccoons and bears, may take refuge in the entrance zone to sleep, eat, and nest. Within this zone, we also find accidentals, which are organisms that wander, fall or are washed into the cave. This category includes snakes, groundhogs, frogs, and turtles, which cannot survive inside a cave, and will therefore die if they do not eventually exit. If accidentals die inside a cave, they

become a rich source of nutrients for the cave ecosystem.

The Twilight Zone is the part of a cave that receives a small amount of sunlight through indirect rays, since it is not too far from the entrance. This zone is cool and damp and there is minimal fluctuation in temperature. The twilight zone is shared by both outside organisms and cave dwellers, resulting in the transfer of energy, in the form of nutrients, from outside the cave to the inside.

Animals that live in the twilight zone are trogloxenes (also known as subtroglophiles). This category refers to cave guests. These are animals that use the cave only for shelter, breeding or feeding, but leave for other stages of their lifecycle as they cannot live exclusively in such habitats. All cave mammals can be classified as trogloxenes, with the most common ones being bats (Figure 20), bears, skunks, and raccoons. Spiders, bats, moths, cave crickets, cave beetles, and millipedes may also be found in the twilight zone.

The Dark Zone is the deepest and darkest part of the cave. It is located at the back of the cave and receives no sunlight. As a result, the dark zone is always cool, dark, and its temperature is constant.

This zone is inhabited by highly specialist species, known as troglobites, such as the eyeless shrimp and blind crayfish. These animals spend their entire life cycle within a cave and would not be able to survive outside due to the way

Figure 19: Cave zones offer distinct habitat conditions, in terms of physical characteristics (sunlight access and temperature changes) and biological characteristics (vegetation, fauna diversity and specialisation).


in which they have adapted to cave conditions. Animals in this zone possess certain features like poorly developed or absent eyesight but with long antennae and legs, allowing them to move and locate food more efficiently in the dark. They have little or no pigmentation, hence are usually white, pink or colourless. These dark zone dwellers, such as several types of cave fish, insects, crustaceans, annelids and arachnids, have also developed the ability to live with very low metabolic rates, allowing them to survive without food for long periods.

Another category of cave-dwellers is that of the troglophiles, animals that can survive outside the cave, but would prefer living inside it. Despite this, they have not specialised in a manner that prohibits them from thriving outside the cave, and thus, they are fully capable of dwelling for

their entire life cycle either within the cave or outside. Given their preference to remain within the cave habitat, they generally leave the cave only in search of food. Some examples of troglophiles include beetles, worms, frogs, salamanders, crickets, spiders (Figure 21) and even some

crustaceans like crayfish. Given the partial specialisation for cave life, these animals would tend to be found in the entrance and twilight zones of the cave.

Cave Surveying and CartographyA cave survey is a map of all or part of a cave system. Such survey may be produced to meet differing standards of accuracy depending on the cave conditions and equipment available underground. Cave surveying and cartography is the creation of an accurate and detailed map. This is one of the most common technical activities undertaken within a cave and is a fundamental part of speleology.

In-Cave Data CollectionThe goal of a cave survey is to collect as much information as possible on the cave. During the survey, the distance and angles

Figure 20: Bats, like other cave mammals, spend only a part of their lifecycle inside the cave.

Figure 21: Spiders, similarly to other troglophiles, spend most of their time inside the cave.

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between selected temporary fixed locations (called stations), chosen primarily for their ease of access and clear sight along the cave passage, are measured and recorded. Sketches of, and notes about, the cave are also produced.

Survey equipment includes the following:

• Compass for measuring horiz-ontal angles;

• Clinometer for measuring vertical angles and heights;

• Measuring tape or range finder for measuring distances;

• Hard-cover notebook with waterproof paper; and

• Pencil or pen.

Sketch maps record straight-line data, details of passage dimensions, shape, gradual or

sudden changes in elevation, the presence or absence of still or flowing water, the location of notable features and the material on the floor.

Finalising the Cave MapAfter the survey has been completed, all in-cave notes and sketches are handed over to a cartographer, who in turn analyses the recorded data, and converts them into two dimensional measurements through geometrical calculations, creating a line-plot. Using the additional data of passage dimensions, water flow, and floor/wall topography recorded at the time, such details are then

drawn around the line-plot to complete the cave map.

To successfully read a cave map, one needs to understand how the general outline is drawn, what the different symbols mean, what the orientation is, and any additional notes left by the surveyor. Figure 23 provides examples of symbols which are used in cave maps to provide a good representation of the features and characteristics to be expected within the cave. One may find various sets of symbols, developed over time by the likes of the National Speleological Society (NSS) and the Australian Speleological Federation (ASF).

A cave map is generally composed of a plan view, a cross-section showing the vertical shape of passages and a side

Figure 22: Speleologists perform cave surveys to document the characteristics of a cave.


Plan View

Main and subordinate measuring points

Gallery outline

Underlying galleries

Continuation too narrow

Dimensions of space presumed

Possible continuation

Ceiling forms

Cross Sectoin View

Continued on next page.

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Plan View

Escarpment zone

Step

Pit

Pit opening to the surface

Gradient arrow

Chimney / Chimney-pit

Altitude above sea level

Cross Sectoin View

Continued on next page.


Plan View

Difference in elevation (lines showing joint, fault and bedding plane)

Flowing water / lake

Siphon

Waterfall

Widespread water inlet (seepage)

Spring (water source)

Current scallops

Cross Sectoin View

Figure 23: Cave maps make use of conventional symbology to depict the various formations and characteristics of the cave being surveyed and documented. The above selection of symbols is non-exhaustive and is based on ASF Cave Map Symbols.

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Figure 24: Map of the Hotbox Cave, in Rockcastle County, Kentucky, US.


view or projection, showing the different levels of the cave and how these connect. The map should include:• cave name and number;• area name;• scale;• orientation;• legend;• survey date;• cave walls, generally drawn in a

thick line;• topographic details (floor and

roof steps, and slopes);• contents such as water, sedi-

ments and fauna;• surface features such as dolines,

streams and boundaries;• navigation and rigging infor-

mation; and• other special features.

Figure 24 shows an example of a cave map – the Hotbox Cave. At the top there is a detailed plan providing a good overview of the length, shape, and layout of the cave. The map also contains markers for special passages, with cross-sections for each of the passages. This gives a great impression of what to expect inside the cave. At the bottom of the map, a projection view including the scale of depth gives a general idea of the slope and ceiling heights.

Essential Caving EquipmentIt is very important to have the right caving equipment in a technical cave expedition or a cave rescue operation and the following checklists provide an

overview of these items. Gear, equipment and clothing made specifically for caving should be used as the harsh conditions inside caves test equipment to its limits. Climbing equipment is not adequate, and will wear out and fail in the trying conditions encountered in a cave.

Personal Caving EquipmentThe personal caving equipment that is required by a rescuer is listed in Table 1 and further illustrated in Figure 25, which shows a cave rescuer wearing the required clothing and equipment.

Team Caving EquipmentThe necessary equipment dep-ends on a number of variables, including the horizontal and vertical profile of the cave, distance and topography. The basic team equipment required to sustain a functional rescue team of three to four personnel includes:• 400 metres of static rope (split

into 50 metre lengths);• 8x 3 metre lashing rope;• 50x steel carabiners;• 10x single pulleys with car-

abiners;• 6x pear shaped alloy carabiners;• 2x descender devices;• 2x kits containing a caving

hammer, self-drilling anchors, and complete caving bolt hangers;

• Cordless drill with durium bit;• Radio for communications;• Stretcher; and• First aid kit.

Survival, Camping and Food SuppliesSurvival is a critical aspect of a cave expedition or cave rescue, as the caving team has to live and be fully functional inside the cave for hours or possibly days.

It is extremely important that all rescue personnel entering the cave are well-prepared and equipped. Apart from personal and team caving equipment, rescuers must also be equipped with appropriate survival equipment and supplies. The team must also be conversant with the cave map and its topography prior to entering the cave. Caves can be extremely confusing, and the rescue team needs to exercise situational awareness throughout and mark the way out at all intersections. Furthermore, members of the team must always remain together. A resting schedule should be established, and adhered to, thus avoiding exhaustion. Areas designated as camp sites (with basic necessary facilities) must be identified to facilitate rest.

It is imperative that all rescuers stay warm and dry. Caves are frequently cold, and hypothermia is one of the most dangerous hazards that may be encountered. While food, water and battery supplies should be rationed and conserved, it is important to hydrate well and avoid movement in total darkness. Caves offer dangerous unpredictable environments, and the risk of injury outweighs all other hazards.

6161Cave Rescue

Personal caving equipment

Helmet

• A helmet is a must for head protection.• Caving helmets are rugged, low profile and lightweight.• A good chinstrap is mandatory.• Needs to have attachment points for a headlamp.

Headlamp

• Good quality, rugged, and easy to operate when wearing caving gloves.• Adjustable brightness is useful.• Avoid headlamps with elastic headbands which can break.• Mount the headlamp on the helmet.

Backup independent light sources

• The basic rule is to have at least three independent light sources.• A headlamp mounted to the helmet as the primary light.• A spare headlamp carried in the pack is the second light.• The third light may be a flashlight in a secure inside pocket.• Keeping the light sources in different places (helmet, pack, inside pocket)

ensures that in the event of getting separated from some of the equipment, one does not lose all light sources.

Boots• Sturdy boots for caving with good rubber soles.• Wellington boots (calf-high rubber boots with a grippy sole and protective

steel toe-caps) are commonly used by cavers.

Oversuit • A one-piece, abrasion-resistant, flexible, caving cordura oversuit with neoprene and velcro seals.

Undersuit

• Fitness, body weight and degree of fat, age, and metabolism are all factors that affect how easily one gets cold.

• It is important to be properly prepared.• Clothing requirements will vary with the temperature and humidity of the

cave, duration, degree of activity, and how wet one is expected to get.• Polypropylene long underwear as a base layer is one of the most important

items for comfortable caving, with synthetic jogging pants and shirt or sweatshirt as an intermediate layer.

Socks• Neoprene socks are recommended.• Toenails should be properly trimmed.• Zinc oxide tape over hot-spots may prevent blisters.


Gloves

• Dextrous.• Flexible.• Waterproof.• Quick to dry.• Made of rubber.

Knee pads • Thin, soft and flexible knee pads should be worn.

Harness

• A full body speciality caving harness (both waist and chest harness).• Caving harnesses should be lightweight, made from durable material and high

strength webbing, and have minimal or no loops, which would otherwise get caught on rocks.

Chest ascender• Fitted to the chest harness to aid the ascent.• Used in combination with hand or foot ascenders

Hand ascender

• Complete with foot loop, a three-point cow’s tail or Purcell Prusik and carabiners.

• Used in combination with chest ascender to help during ascents.• Can also be used as a rope grab, to attach other equipment such as pulleys.

Descender• Complete with friction carabiner.• The descender must be specifically designed for caving (to avoid blockages

caused by mud), such as the Petzl STOP or Petzl SIMPLE.

Cow’s tail positioning lanyard

• Three-point Purcell Prusik.• Complete with carabiners.• At least one attachment point should have an adjustable length.

Single pulley • Complete with Prusik and a carabiner.

Progress Capture• Petzl Shunt, Petzl I’D or similar.• Complete with a carabiner.

Cave backpack

• A flexible, small, nylon, heavy duty, water proof backpack with shoulder straps, and without any outside pockets.

• The pack should contain spare batteries, chemical light sticks, waterproof and shockproof watch, food and drinks, personal first aid kit (which includes a space blanket), and a folding multi-tool with a knife.

Table 1: Characteristics and considerations for personal caving equipment. Some devices are illustrated in Figure 27a-f.

6363Cave Rescue

Figure 26: Cave rescue operations may take days, therefore rescuers may need to pitch tents to rest.

Helmet + headlamp (not shown)

Over suit

Under suit

Gloves

Knee pads

Boots + Socks (not shown)

Chest ascender

Harness

Descender + friction carabiner

Cow’s tail

Foot ascender

Figure 25: A cave rescuer wearing some of the required personal caving gear. Some of the equipment is not shown.


Survival Equipment: The following essential equipment should be carried by every rescuer as part of the survival kit. The expected conditions and duration of the rescue operation drive the need for each individual item:

• Sleeping bag

• Sleeping pad

• Lightweight small tent

• Camping stove

• Sand bags

Sustenance: Water and food are very important. Food must be

light, nutritious and containing the necessary sources of energy. Caving is an activity that involves substantial energy consumption. Granola or cereal bars, dried fruit, trail mix, chocolate or anything that is not completely inedible after being bashed over rocks is a suitable snack. For longer durations it is recommended to opt for pasta.

Water should be carried in durable plastic (Nalgenes or Platypus) or metal bottles. Nalgenes and metal containers are nearly indestructible. Platypus bottles are soft, and could

possibly puncture. Disposable water bottles have leaky tops and can crack, so avoid carrying them if possible. Lots of water will be required during the activity!

Maintenance of Caving EquipmentCaving equipment is crucial to the safety of the operator or the casualty in case of a rescue. Careful maintenance is therefore very important to ensure that the equipment does not fail when needed. The manufacturers’ instructions on care and

a b

c

d fe

Figure 27: (a) Chest ascender. (b) Hand ascender. (c) Three-point Purcell Prusik (cow’s tail) (d) Friction carabiner (e) Descender devices: SIMPLE (left), STOP (right) (f) Progress capture device.

6565Cave Rescue

maintenance should always be followed. In Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1, both Chapter 1 – Basic Rescue and Chapter 3 – Rope Rescue provide recommendations on standards and care of equipment related to ropes. In caving and cave rescue, environment and conditions to which equipment is subjected makes it even more important to rigorously clean the equipment to remove any dirt and mud. After cleaning it should always be thoroughly dried (Figure 28) and inspected for deterioration and damage before packing it to be ready for the next use.

Rescue PlanningThe success or failure of a cave rescue operation mainly boils down to the emergency plan and responses, the inter-organisational coordination, the skills and the infrastructure that is needed to respond effectively. Cave rescue is extremely complex, with the major constraints being space and time. It is therefore crucial that emergency plans are optimised for maximum efficiency.

With reference to a cave rescue in Germany (Riesending cave) in June 2014, 728 personnel were involved in the retrieval of the victim. A total of five temporary encampments were established during the rescue operation, strategically located to provide sufficient comfort for each team and the victim during the extrication. The costs reached nearly one million euros, and the operation lasted 11 days. The

difficulty and complexity of this operation were unprecedented.

To facilitate planning of the rescue operation, a number of questions help to gather as much information as possible, together with a number of steps that may need to be carried out in preparation for the rescue operation (Table 2). A team briefing is also conducted before entering the cave to ensure that the team members are aware of all the necessary information Figure 29.

Important considerations during the rescue operationExtractions involving complex progression techniques (refer to the section Progression Techniques) should only be started once all teams are available and ready in position. This is important to avoid unnecessary lengthy stops while waiting for the next team to be available. A cave rescue team is usually formed by three personnel, with one being appointed team leader. The team leader is responsible for the decision on the extrication technique to be used on the spot while the responsibility of the rescue commander is to coordinate the strategic management of the rescue with all responsible individuals. Each team must have all the necessary equipment and supplies as explained in the section Essential Caving Equipment, as equipment is never shared between teams.

Whenever possible, nurses or doctors should accompany the victim, allowing a better

assessment of the condition and to administer emergency drugs if necessary. If this is not possible, the local emergency regulation body should be consulted on whether there is a legal allowance or protocol for emergency drug administration by first responders. Also, the victim must be continuously protected from the cold and humid environment. The vic-tim will be spending lengthy hours strapped to a stretcher, making it critical to prevent complications arising from deep vein thrombosis. Very often, due to challenging passageways, the trauma protocol may have to be adapted accordingly.

Progression TechniquesThe goal of the rescue operation is to transfer the victim from the location of the mishap to the outside of the cave where the victim may be treated by medical personnel. For this reason, this part of the operation is referred to as progression within the cave. Rescuers utilise a number of techniques to progress over the challenging terrain and conditions inside the cave.

Rope Progression TechniquesSingle rope techniques are employed within vertical cave systems. These techniques range from simple processes, such as descending or ascending a free hanging rope, to more complex aspects. Some of the more complex manoeuvres include changing from one rope to


Figure 29: A team briefing is conducted before the start of the rescue operation.

Figure 28: Once cleaned, the equipment should be dried thoroughly before being packed again.

6767Cave Rescue

Rescue operation planning considerations

Logistics

• Is the cave entrance accessible? How can it be reached?• What is the local weather?• What is the cave type?• What is the cave topography?• Is the location of the victim known and what is the travel distance and depth

within the cave?• Worst case scenario: What is the maximum travel distance into the cave and

what is the greatest depth that can be reached?• What is the quantity and depth of vertical shafts?• Are there any known difficult passageways and what are the associated

challenges?• Is it expected that rescuers find material that needs to be cleared?• Are any drainage problems expected and what tools are available to clear,

divert and drain the area?• Are there any siphons?• What are the quantities, availability, expertise and equipment of the rescue

personnel?

Victim(s)

• What details of the accident are known?• What is the number of victims?• Is there any background information on the victim(s) including age, sex, build,

medical conditions and purpose for being inside the cave?• How long has the victim been inside the cave?• What is the state of consciousness of the victim?• What are the probable or suspected injuries?• Is the pain scale (1–10) known?• Is the victim’s condition known to be stable?• Are there any known special requirements?• What is the risk of hypothermia?• What is the risk of dehydration?• What is the risk of shock?• What is the risk of sepsis?• Is onsite medical stabilization (advanced relief) available?


Operation Organisation

• Coordinate with the local rescue regulation body;• Organise transport to the cave;• Plan and coordinate access to first aiders as quickly and safely as possible;• Establish a communication channel with first aiders;• Draft the extrication plan (split into sections based on the cave’s topography,

particularly by vertical shafts);• Organise logistics, including food and technical supplies;• Organise the operational teams, assign responsibilities, and assign respective

sections;• Organise base camp (including communication, equipment and food);• Organise rescue personnel work/rest schedules and replacement system;• Coordinate the onsite medical stabilisation team for the victim transfer to

hospital;• Organise decontamination for all cave rescuers and kits.

Table 2: Rescue operation planning considerations.

Figure 30: Rescuers extricate a victim from a cave.

6969Cave Rescue

another, moving along horizontal lifelines (traverse lines), passing obstacles (rebelay or deviations) as well as technical rescue and counterweight systems. Double rope techniques are utilised when handling the laden stretcher, as explained further on in the section Stretcher Handling Techniques.

Ascending (also known as a Prusiking) utilises a chest and a hand ascender with a foot loop (or alternatively a foot ascender) to climb up a rope Figure 31: Rescuers waiting their turn to negotiate tight passageways.

Figure 32: Rescue teams are assigned tasks by the rescue coordinator. A number of teams work in parallel at different levels along the route, and once ready, they move to the next task.


(Figure 34). Progress up the rope is made by shifting weight from one ascender to the other and advancing the unweighted ascender. The climbing motion cycles between sitting in the seat harness and standing in the foot loop, somewhat resembling the movement of a frog. A three-point Purcell Prusik is used for various rope manoeuvres, with the longer (and adjustable) of the two tails used as a tether to attach to the hand ascender.

Descending (also known as Abseiling and Rappelling), in the cave environment, is often done through the use of a descender such as the Petzl STOP or Petzl SIMPLE. These benefit from allowing a lot of

friction control in a variety of conditions (especially mud), do not cause twists in the rope, and allow for the attachment to and detachment from a rope without disconnecting the device from the harness. The descent is controlled through the combined action of pressing the handle (typically with the off-hand), and applying tension on the free rope coming out of the descender (typically with the dominant hand). The descender should be locked (Figure 35a-b).

Changeovers consist of switching between descending and ascending (or vice versa) on a rope. This is a fundamental vertical skill for cave rescuers,

following a number of steps as outlined below.

Changing from ascent to descent:1. attach the descender to the

rope and lock off;

2. step on the foot loop to unload the chest ascender and remove it from the rope;

3. shift the weight onto the descender;

Rebelay

Traverse Line

Primary Belay or Y-Hang

Deviation

Figure 33: Some rope rigging situations necessitate the rescuer to be proficient in certain rope progression techniques.

Figure 34: To reach upper levels, the rescuer utilises a chest ascender together with either a hand ascender with foot loop or a foot ascender.

7171Cave Rescue

4. remove the hand ascender from rope;

5. remove the rope from the foot ascender, if being used;

6. unlock the descender and start descending.

Changing from descent to ascent:1. lock the descender;

2. attach the hand ascender with foot loop to the rope;

3. step on the foot loop to unload the descender;

4. attach the chest ascender to the rope, taking up any slack in the rope;

5. remove the descender from the rope;

6. attach the rope to the foot ascender, if being used

7. start ascending.

Rigging rebelays and devi-ations (Figure 36) are very important in cave environments to avoid the rope from meeting rub points, waterfall, or loose rock. While a rebelay bears the weight of the rescuer, a deviation point does not. Deviation points are most often used where there is not a sufficiently strong anchor point for a rebelay. It is important that deviation points are not loaded with the full weight.

Crossing deviations or rebelays are done by following the steps outlined below.

Descending past a rebelay:1. Abseil until level with the

rebelay knot;

2. Clip the short cow’s tail into the rebelay knot;

3. Abseil until weight is transferred to the cow’s tail;

4. Remove the descender from the upper rope, attach it to the lower rope, and lock;

5. Shift the weight off the cow’s tail by either standing on the rebelay loop, or else use the hand ascender and foot loop;

Figure 35: Sequence for locking (a) the Petzl STOP and (b) the Petzl SIMPLE.


6. Unclip the cow’s tail, and shift the weight onto the descender;

7. Remove the ascender (if used), unlock the descender and continue abseiling.

Ascending past a rebelay:1. Climb to just below the rebelay

knot;

2. Clip the long cow’s tail into the rebelay knot;

3. Stand on the foot loop, remove the chest ascender, and attach to the upper rope;

4. Shift weight onto the chest ascender, remove the hand ascender, and attach to the upper rope;

5. Unclip the cow’s tail and continue climbing.

When crossing deviations, one must keep in mind that the rope passing through the

deviation carabiner is not fixed with a knot, and therefore will slide through depending on whether the weight is on the upper or on the lower rope.

Descending past a deviation:1. Abseil until level with the

deviation carabiner and lock the descender;

2. Reach for the lower rope and pull to get closer (horizontally) to the deviation point;

3. Clip the short cow’s tail into the deviation tape or rope loop, below the deviation carabiner;

4. Unclip the deviation carabiner from the rope;

5. Clip the deviation carabiner back on the rope, this time above the descender;

6. Unclip the cow’s tail, unlock and continue abseiling.

Ascending past a deviation:1. Climb to just below the

deviation carabiner;2. Clip the long cow’s tail into

the deviation tape or rope loop;

3. Unclip the deviation carabiner from the rope from above the hand ascender, and control the slight swing outward as

Upper rope

MaillonMaillon

Carabiner

Knot loop

Bolt

BoltRope

Fig. 8, Fig. 9 or Alpine knot Tape/rope loop

Lower rope

Rebelay loop

DeviationRebelay

Figure 36: The structure of a rebelay and a deviation.

Figure 37: Horizontal lifelines or traverse lines allow for horizontal progression over gaps and voids.

7373Cave Rescue

the long cow’s tail comes under tension;

4. Take some slack of rope from below the chest ascender and clip it in the deviation carabiner;

5. Pull all the slack of the lower rope from underneath the deviation carabiner, hold the tension and unclip the long

cow’s tail from the deviation tape or rope loop;

6. Control the swing away from the deviation by a controlled release of the lower rope, as the weight shifts in line with the upper rope;

7. Release the lower rope and continue ascending.

Traversing through horizontal lifelines can be achieved through the use of a descender bearing the load of the rescuer, attached to the rope using the upper cam only, thus acting similarly to a pulley. The hand ascender is then used by the rescuer to pull themselves forward. Traversing through the clipping points involves the same technique as described for rebelays.

A counter-weight system is typically used to facilitate the ascent of the victim strapped to a stretcher. The technique involves the use of two 1:1 pulley systems, each operated by a rescuer using their own body weight (Figure 38). The rescuers can be either physically standing on the floor at the bottom of a vertical shaft or suspended and locked. The two rescuers need to coordinate together and operate the system in the same way as if they are ascending. Such a system is easy to build and operate, with very little equipment. It is important to carefully ensure the system remains under control, especially when the victim is of a heavy build. It is important to note that the first aider accompanying the victim ascends abeam the stretcher using a separate rope.

Figure 38: The counterweight technique is used to haul the victim up.

In the case of a deviation, the cow’s tail should be attached to the deviation and ONLY used to stop the rescuer from swinging away from it. The weight must always remain on the rope.


Cave ceiling

Dry areaSiphon

Water stream

Figure 39: A siphon consists of a flooded part of the cave where part of the ceiling is submerged.

Other Progression TechniquesIn addition to rope techniques, other progression techniques may be necessary within the caving environment. One such situation is traversing past siphons. Siphons, or sumps, essentially consist of flooded parts of the cave system and can either be static with no inward or outward water flow, or active, with continuous through-flow (Figure 39). Depending on hydrological factors specific to the cave, sumps may fluctuate in water level, depth and length. It is very important to understand these factors prior to traversing past a siphon to avoid getting trapped inside the cave and becoming a victim who needs rescue too! To traverse past siphons, one would need to either dive, or drain the section.

Siphons may be traversed by diving. In the case of shallow and short siphons, simply holding one’s breath (free diving) may be enough to traverse. On the other hand, longer and deeper siphons may require the use of specialised cave diving underwater breathing apparatus. Cave diving is one of the most challenging and dan-gerous, as this typically involves penetration diving, extremely tight spaces with sharp protrud-ing rocks, very poor visibility and potentially strong currents.

When practical, siphons can be emptied by draining the water using buckets or pumps. The primary factor which determines whether draining is indeed feasible is the rate of the inward flow, which may possibly be controlled by deviating the flow using sandbags. Furthermore, a suitable place must be identified where to collect or divert the

emptied water to prevent it flooding other parts of the cave that may need to be traversed.

In cases where the cave has large underground lakes or rivers, it may be useful to consider swimming or using a small boat to make progress to reach and extricate the victim.

Finally, as a team enters a cave to perform a rescue operation, a safe passageway must always be ensured. For this reason, consideration should be given to the need to shore certain parts of the cave deemed at risk of collapse. Other times, passageways may need to be cleared of debris to ensure that rescuers and victim (on a stretcher) will be able to pass through.

Stretcher Handling TechniquesStretcher handling techniques are among the most important aspects of cave rescue. One of the most appropriate stretchers for a cave rescue environment is the SKED, given its wraparound characteristics, low profile and relative flexibility (Figure 40a). Care must be taken however as the SKED does not offer much protection to the victim and is not very comfortable. An alternative to the SKED is the Petzl NEST. At times, cave sections might be so tight, that the victim would have to be removed from the stretcher, and temporarily lashed onto a short board such as the Kendrick Extrication Device (KED), until the tight passage is negotiated. The stretcher must always be

7575Cave Rescue

accompanied by a bivouac (bivy) to protect the victim from water ingress, a sleeping bag to protect the victim from getting cold, and a complete helmet with visor to protect the head and eyes from loose particles and rock.

Horizontal stretcher work is a basic, but important, progression technique. On difficult terrain

(slippery, perilous or confined), the basic rule is for rescuers to stand ground and pass the stretcher over, either using the hand-over-hand method (Figure 41), lay down on the back and pass the stretcher over the head or, in certain confined spaces, even sit down on alternate sides and pass the stretcher

over the knees (Figure 42). This ensures that the rescuers have a stable position before taking the weight of the stretcher and thus avoid the possibility of tripping and dropping the stretcher.

Figure 40: (a) SKED stretcher (b) Petzl NEST.

A2A1

B2B1

Figure 41: Hand-over-hand method – As the stretcher is passed on in the direction of the arrow, rescuer A at position 1 becomes free and moves to the front in position 2 ready to receive the stretcher. Similarly for rescuer B.

Figure 42: When the ground is too uneven to walk with a stretcher, it is possible to pass the stretcher along on the knees of rescuers sitting opposite each other.


At times, a passageway may have a low ceiling that prevents rescuers from being able to move freely with the stretcher. Provided that the ground is smooth enough, the stretcher may be pulled using ropes, making this technique faster and more efficient than using

hand-over-hand methods. When the rescuers pulling on the rope cannot stay in line with the stretcher, an anchor point and a pulley may provide a change of direction on the rope, thus making it possible to pull a stretcher round bends or corners. Once the stretcher reaches the

pulley (placed in the corner or outside of the bend), a rescuer will simply remove the rope from the pulley and the hauling team can continue pulling the stretcher towards them (Figure 43).

Prior to passing the stretcher through obstacles (either involv-ing horizontal or vertical pro-gression through the use of rope techniques), all rescuers must be ready in position before the stretcher starts to be moved and should remain there until

Figure 43: Anchor points and pulleys may provide an option to pull a stretcher around bends and corners (top view).

Stretcher head attachment point

Central attachment point

Stretcher feet attachment point

Figure 44: Stretcher attachment points.

Figure 45: Stretcher attachment point with three carabiners attached.

7777Cave Rescue

Step 4Step 3

Step 2Step 1

Figure 46: Changing orientation of the stretcher is done step by step, unloading one of the ropes, unclipping it from its original position to the other attachment point, then loading it to rotate the stretcher and to be able to release and relocate the first rope connection point.


Figure 47: This technique enables stretcher movement both horizontally (to the left) as well as vertically when required.

their task has been completed. Stretcher transpositions should be tackled either manually, by rescuers placed at strategic locations, or through the use of ropes.

In cave rescue, double rope techniques are employed for the suspension of the stretcher. The two parallel systems will not only guarantee enhanced safety in rope and anchor point redundancies, since stretcher handling involves heavier loads, but will also provide ease of movement through change of directions to overcome obstacles. Each system must always be completely independent and complete with all the necessary

deviations, rebelays, anchors, and pulleys.

The stretcher must have the possibility of three large connection points, to allow the attachment of three carabiners each (Figure 44). It is very important to connect the three carabiners (Figure 45) into the stretcher head and the centre point from the beginning of the evacuation operation. These are to be left there throughout, as all the progression manoeuvres require them.

The ropes coming from the anchor point must always be connected to the stretcher central point first, then allowed a slack of around one metre and connected

Selection of descender deviceWhile a Petzl I’D may be used as the descender device (as shown in Figure 47), it is recommended to use other devices, such as the Petzl STOP or Petzl SIMPLE, that are less prone to getting clogged with mud and dirt, thus enhancing the efficiency of the operation in challenging cave conditions. This applies to all rope progression techniques illus-trations involving the use of descender devices in this book.

7979Cave Rescue

Figure 48: This technique uses a slanting rope (green) that carries the weight of the stretcher and allows it to slide in the direction where the blue and red ropes are pulling.

Step 1 Step 2

Step 3a Step 3b

Figure 49: This technique provides the possibility to lift the stretcher vertically first and then continue to a horizontal progression. The illustration presents two alternatives for step 3.


Figure 50: This is a variation of the previous technique, providing the same progression, but introducing a variable trajectory locus pulley controlled by the green rope.

8181Cave Rescue

to the stretcher head carabiners. This facilitates changes from a horizontal to a vertical stretcher orientation (or vice versa) during the ascent or descent while negotiating obstacles or tight spaces. The sequence for changing the orientation is illustrated in Figure 46.

Figure 47 depicts a system which allows simultaneous horizontal and vertical move-ments of the stretcher. A rescuer is required to be rigged on the belay to operate the descender (right-hand side of the illustration), while two rescuers would be performing the counterweight procedure (left-hand side of the illustration). This effectively pulls the stretcher to the left-hand side. If the rescuer on the right-hand side stops releasing rope through the descender device, the stretcher is pulled upwards in addition to being pulled to the left-hand side.

Other techniques can be employed for stretcher progres-sion, depending on the physical space available within the cave. In Figure 48, the trajectory of the stretcher is determined by the angle and tension of the ‘green line’. Tension, and therefore the resultant angle of the loaded rope,

is controlled using a descender device. The stretcher progresses along the intended direction by pulling the red and blue ropes, possibly using counterweight techniques using two ascenders. A progress capture system (either using a Petzl I’D or Prusik loops) stops the stretcher from going back downwards when the rescuers operating the red and blue lines release the tension on the ropes.

There may also be instances where a stretcher needs to be lifted vertically first, then changed to a horizontal progression, all whilst being kept suspended (as depicted in Figure 49 step 1). Once the stretcher reaches the required vertical height, the ‘red’ system is eased off the load, and the pulley is moved over to the blue line (step 2). The ‘blue’ system now changes orientation from ascending to descending (step 3). An additional line (‘green’ system) can be introduced (as shown in step 3a), particularly if the horizontal direction is sloping downwards significantly, to help control the movement rate. However, if the slope is not too significant, the ‘green’ system may be omitted and descent would be controlled by the ‘blue’ system alone (step 3b).

This technique is typically used in confined spaces and in well-defined transitions between vertical and horizontal shafts.

Figure 50 illustrates a technique with a slight variation to the previous one, typically used in larger spaces. Instead of shifting the pulley from one system to another when changing the orientation, the pulley on the ‘red’ system is mounted on a descender, allowing for a variable trajectory locus. Once the stretcher has been pulled vertically upwards to the desired height, the green rope is released gradually together with the blue rope, while the red rope is being pulled, thus resulting in horizontal movement of the stretcher.

Horizontal progression tech-niques are especially necessary when crossing cavities and involve the use of a tensioned line between two anchor points and a progress capture system with a simple mechanical advantage system to move the stretcher along the tensioned rope, as illustrated in Figure 51.

Figure 51: Horizontal progression of a stretcher using a tensioned line.


ConclusionCave rescue operations are relatively rare compared to other types of rescues but are among the most complex. Despite borrowing techniques used in other, more common types of rescue, most notably rope rescue operations, the environment and conditions

where they are employed make any errors quite unforgiving. This is why rescue personnel need to have a high degree of knowledge and experience, not only in the use of rescue equipment and techniques, but also about the structure and formation of caves, the associated language

and terminology, orienteering, hazards and survival, as well as meticulous planning. This chapter is but a short introduction that needs to be enhanced by intensive practical training to ensure the safety and efficiency of any rescue operation.

References1 Laureano, Fernando & Karmann, Ivo & Granger, Darryl & Auler, Augusto & Almeida, Renato & Cruz, Francisco & Strícks, Nicolás & Novello, Valdir. (2016). Two million years of river and cave aggradation in NE Brazil: Implications for speleogenesis and landscape evolution. Geomorphology. 273. 10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.08.009.

management & logistics3

Pompiers de l’Urgence Internationale (France) Central Buda Volunteer Civil Protection Association (Hungary) Serbian Rescue Team (Serbia)



General concepts of management in rescue operationsWhile every emergency situation features its particular character-istics, which may change during the course of the rescue response, emergencies are frequently defined by the dominant rescue ‘discipline’ required for the assistance of potential casualties. Extrication of victims requires specialized knowledge, training and equipment. Some of these disciplines are:

Confined space rescue: this kind of rescue tends to be in an enclosed area with limited access points, including collapsed structure rescue.

Water rescue: there are different specialties of water rescue and these include swift water, calm water, underwater, surf, and ice rescue. Each one of the mentioned water rescue disciplines requires unique specialist training.

Trench rescue: occurs in areas undergoing construction, where pipes, cables or other services are being buried in trenches dug in dirt or soil. The most common trench rescue scenarios involve rescuing a construction worker trapped when the trench walls suddenly collapse.

Rope rescue: this includes high-angle or low-angle rescues, which are likely to occur around cliffs, ravines, caves, mountain-ous areas, high-rise buildings, communications towers, water towers, wind turbines or silos. These rescues may require com-plex rope and hauling systems to secure rescue personnel and to safely access and extricate victims.

Transportation accident rescue: crashes, collisions or derailments of transportation vehicles and/or aircraft that may result in the entrapment of passengers.A common trait in the response to the above emergencies is the need for proper management

of the rescue operation to ensure a safe, efficient and methodical working method. As the severity and complexity of the emergency increase, so do the need and importance of proper logistical preparations. This need becomes even more critical when international assistance is requested in major, multiple casualty incidents like earthquakes or other major disasters. Management and logistics in international response have been key concerns in two major earthquakes in 1985 (Mexico) and 1988 (Armenia), and these concerns started being addressed through the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG), established in 1991.1 Figure 1 depicts the INSARAG Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) framework, with first response being offered by the local community, i.e. local emergency entities and civil defence, followed by light, medium and heavy national USAR teams (if available) and eventually

International

National USAR Teams

First Responders

Light, Medium and Heavy International USAR teams, having undergone INSARAG

External Classification (IEC)

Light, Medium and Heavy National USAR teams, following INSARAG operational and organisational guidelines for capacity building

Community responders, Local Emergency Services and Civil Defence with INSARAG USAR

First Responder Training

Figure 1: INSARAG USAR response framework4 for major emergencies.

8585Management & Logistics

international medium and heavy USAR teams.

The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA) serves as the INSARAG Secretariat and is mandated to coordinate international assistance in disasters and humanitarian crises exceeding the capacity of the affected country. USAR in the international arena is most often discussed within the context of the response to collapsed structure incidents resulting from earthquakes. Various types of collapse necessitate a multi-disciplinary

approach (including emergency medical care) at evaluating, searching, and rescuing entrap-ped individuals. It should be noted that USAR principles are applicable in numerous scenarios, including single structural failures, weather-related incidents resulting in structural failures, transportation accidents involving confined space (e.g. train accidents), mining accidents, as well as other scenarios involving patient entrapment in confined spaces (e.g. industrial sites, explosions/terrorism).

Objectives and importance of management in operationInternational USAR teams are assets that respond to carry out USAR activities in collapsed structures and scenarios of disaster. Different key functions of international USAR teams are necessary for correct coordination. Among these functions one finds the following: management of operations, logistics, search and rescue operations, and medical support for victims and teams. USAR teams are expected to be self-sufficient, around the clock from

Figure 2: Command post for operations management at the base of operations


Task assignments from LEMA/OSOCC

• Assessment tasks• Worksite assignment• Other tasks

Assessment (ASR Levelsii)• Structural assessment• Hazmat assessment• Safety and security assessment

Go / No Go decision based on assessment results

Search activities• K9 search• Acoustic instrument search• Visual / camera search

New tasks may be identified based on the search results

Rescue activities• Safety and security measures• Rescue interventions• Preparation for medical treatment

May need to conduct new rescue tasks in parallel

Medical Treatment• Medical procedures• Preparation for evacuation

Evacuation procedures• Organisation of transport• Administrative work

ii An overview of ASR Levels may be found in Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1, Chapter 2 – Collapsed Structure Rescue.

Table 1: USAR Operations flow5

seven to ten days of operational deployment and work in more than one site. They are to establish a Base of Operations (BoO) that will support the teams for the duration of the response and to serve as the communications hub for the operation of the team (Figure 2).

Structure of the operations management teamThe Local Emergency Manage-ment Authority (LEMA) of the affected country is the overall responsible authority for dis-

aster response. USAR Teams must adhere with the policies and procedures of the affected country regarding incident operations. Figure 3 illustrates the overall coordination structure that is generally adopted whenever international USAR teams are involved. Table 1 gives a basic overview of the USAR operations flow that a team goes through when deployed to assist in a disaster.

Team Management is respon-sible for managing all aspects of team operations and ensuring that all functional areas within the

team coordinate operations. The team is responsible to assess the progress of operations and must ensure ongoing coordination and communication between other entities responding to the emergency. LEMA roles include coordination with the Reception Departure Centre (RDC) and the USAR Coordination Cell (UCC) during the entire operation. All planning must be done in close cooperation with UCC and LEMA, ensuring continuous information exchange.

It is important to keep in mind that international USAR


Team efforts are integrated into local operations. The priority is to save lives, so a careful assessment of the different collapsed structures is important to ensure that correct priorities are set. In parallel, the BoO is set up for the coordination of operations and logistics of the team, such as rest periods, food, water, showers, toilets, and maintenance of equipment among other requirements. The Management of the team has the responsibility to exchange information with LEMA, UCC, one’s own USAR team members and other home base organisations, as appropriate. Safety and security are a constant priority at the work site, during

mobilisation and in the BoO. In case of problems, LEMA should be informed immediately.

The following team member functions, briefly summarised in Table 2, give an overview of the main important aspects of these roles, and therefore the required pre-requisites for those taking on such roles, since these will have a direct impact on the whole team. Each member needs to be well prepared, have a good understanding of the INSARAG methodology and have undergone required training, such as the online UN BSAFE security awareness course, good cultural awareness, and a good fluency in English.

Team Leader and Deputy Team LeaderThe Team Leader and Deputy, as the management component of a USAR team, are accountable for all aspects of the USAR team’s activities throughout the response cycle, including command and control, operations, assessments, coordination, planning, media, as well as safety and security at rescue team level.

The Team Leader and Deputy have an important role for the success of a USAR operation and need to have functional English language proficiency, knowledge of the coordination process on the Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (VOSOCC)

LEMA

Virtual Coordination

Borders Coordination

Field Coordination

Affected Country

Local USAR Teams & Resources

OSOCC

Virtual OSOCC

RDC

UCC

International USAR Teams

Figure 3: Core coordination structure and main information flow, adapted from INSARAG.ii Dashed lines represent virtual coordination, whereas solid lines represent either physical or virtual coordination.


USAR Component Role Function

Management • Team Leader• Deputy Team Leader / Operations

Officer• Planning Officer• Liaison Officer / Deputy Liaison

Officer• Structural Engineer• Safety Officer

• Command• Coordination/Operational

Control• Planning• Liaison/Media/Reporting /

RDC/UCC• Structural Assessment/Analysis• Safety/Security

Search • Technical Search Specialist• Search Dog Handler• HAZMAT (Hazardous Materials)

• Technical Search• Dog Search• HAZMAT Assessment

Rescue • Rescue Team Officer• Rescuer• Heavy Rigging Specialist

• Breaking/Breaching/Cutting/Shoring/Tactical Rope

• Breaking/Breaching/Cutting/Shoring/Tactical Rope

• Lifting/Moving

Medical • Medical Team Manager (Medical Doctor)

• Paramedic/Nurse

• Team Care (Personnel/Search Dogs) and Patient Care

Logistics • Logistics Team Manager• Logistics Specialist• Communications Specialist

• BoO Management• Food and water supply/Base

camp operations/Transport capacity/Fuel supply

• Communications

Table 2: Main USAR team member roles and associated functions.

portal and a functional under-standing of its utilization. The Team Leader and Deputy are senior operation officers with a good command of strategy, tactics and safety while operating within a USAR environment. It is important to have a good understanding of the process of all the USAR team functions, to be able to coordinate. Their knowledge ranges from Hazmat, safety and security, to support in

the management of the operation at hand.

Operations OfficerThis is a senior management position in the team being a focal point for the USAR operation, with a good understanding of the different modules in a USAR team. The Operations Officer is responsible for the collection, evaluation and dissemination of information through the

development of documents, as needed, to understand the current situation, predict a probable course of incident events and prepare alternative strategies. The operations action plan, strategic and demobilisation plans, together with the required reports fall within the remit of this role.


Liaison OfficerThe Liaison Officer should have good organizational capabilities as well as experience in rescue operations or in providing humanitarian assistance. Liaison officers are to participate in joint operations planning, report preparation, as well as exchange information between the USAR management team, LEMA and UCC/OSOCC.

Technical ExpertThe search component of a USAR team is responsible for the systematic application of technical search and/or canine capabilities for the location of persons trapped during a disaster. This role requires a good level of technical expertise in the areas of K9 and Technical Search Equipment. A Technical Expert should normally hold the role of technician within the home organization and it is essential that s/he has comprehensive knowledge of all team functions.

The Technical Expert needs to take care of staff welfare, including rest and rehabilitation cycles for both humans and K9s. The role of the Technical Expert is to take decisions on tactical operations, problem-solving and operational control of the assigned area, as well as implement the tactical component of the action plan. Additionally, the organizational and logistical needs for the worksite need to be determined, together with the most appropriate tactical approach, interaction with locals, LEMA and other organizations, ensuring that the team’s welfare

and safety standards are enforced and controlling the crew accountability system.

The Technical Expert must have a very good knowledge of tools, equipment and direct resources to accomplish the assigned tasks. S/he must also maintain communication with the Operations Officer and recommend revisions to the tactical plan of action based on progress or gaps. The Technical Expert must compile and organize data and compile the post-mission operations report.

IT Communications SpecialistThe IT Communications Special-ist must be able to ensure communication within the team as well as between the people of the affected country and other rescue teams, making sure that there is a functional internet network in the field. The IT Communications Special-ist must install, operate and maintain communications and IT equipment, UHF/VHF radio, geospatial technologies, have adequate knowledge of USAR safety considerations, and prac-tical application of available technologies. A functional knowledge of hazards associated with disaster environments is also required, and the expert must assemble and organize data to compile the post-mission operations report.

This person must have a functional experience with communications and IT equip-ment and occupy an existing communications / IT position in the home organization. In

addition, whoever is acting as IT Communications Specialist shall be a registered user of the VOSOCC and computer literate.

Safety ExpertThe expert must occupy an existing management position in the home organization and shall have experience as a safety officer, with relevant certifications and recognised qualifications. The Safety Expert must have a comprehensive knowledge of all USAR team functions, with lots of experience in USAR operations, tactics and safety considerations. This expert needs to have a functional knowledge of hazards associated with disaster environments and must coordinate with the USAR Team Leader, Deputy Team Leader, Medical Manager and Hazmat Technician.

One important role of the expert is to have good manage-ment skills: strong capabilities in personnel management, technically-apt and capable, with strong communication skills to enable cooperation and coordination among team members, able to effectively engage with strong negotiation skills for conflict resolution, critical incident debriefing and ultimately carry out these tasks for the benefit of staff welfare. The role of this manager is also to ensure that the team respects resting periods, the planned rehabilitation, the personnel duty roster, fatigue management, sanitation and hygiene, and the safety controls of the assigned area. This expert must continuously evaluate


all roles to assure that optimal safety and injury prevention is being practised at all times. The individual must be in a position to make immediate intervention in activities to prevent the loss of life and/or injury.

Tasks assigned to the person holding this role include:• the documentation of safety

and risk assessment;• the implementation of risk

mitigation strategies;• accountability of the crew

system; and• knowledge of tools and

equipment.

The role of the Safety Expert includes the development and implementation of the safety aspects of the operation’s plan of action, as well as the analysis of data related to safety con-siderations, while continuously monitoring hazards and risk environment. This expert must also assemble and organize data, generate continuous reporting and finally issue a post mission safety report. Follow-ups relating to corrective and preventive actions raised in prior reporting may also be necessary.

Information managementInformation management during USAR operations is very impor-tant:1. to assist in the overall

coordination of the search and rescue effort by providing

ii Further information may also be found in Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response Volume 1, Chapter 2 – Collapsed Structure Rescue.

the necessary situational awareness to OSOCC and LEMA; and

2. to ensure proper records and documentation are kept once USAR operations have been concluded.

In order to assist information management, INSARAG devel-oped a number of standardised formsii that are used at various phases, as may be seen in Figure 4. International teams normally hand over their completed forms to OSOCC through the UCC. However, there may be cases where it will be agreed beforehand to hand over Victim Extrication Forms directly to LEMA. Meanwhile, the information being received by UCC and OSOCC may be further collated and summarised to prepare other reports such as the Team Fact Sheet Summary and the Incident / Sector Situation Report. The latter provides updates regarding the progress of USAR operations to LEMA.

Liaison with other components of the teamMedical teams, logistics, and rescue teams need to interact in a synergistic manner. They would undergo hours of intense physical work in austere living conditions, where they could be exposed to potential hazmat risks, as well as experience the exposure to risk of secondary collapse and other dangers (methane, explosions,

accidents, etc.) which may cause injuries to the team members.

The medical team in a USAR organization must have the ability to provide medical care for its members, including the search dogs, and provide the necessary medical support to victims that the team may come across. The medical team covers the pre-deployment medical screening of all members including the K9 unit and also the daily medical health and welfare checks during the mission. USAR trauma medicine is an integral component of collapsed structure response and requires unique knowledge, skills, and abilities designed to support evaluation and treatment for entrapped victims in these environments as well as for the welfare of the rescuers themselves. Treatment procedures utilized in regular hospital settings may be challenging in situations with limited patient access, unusual positioning of the patient, and poor lighting. Delivery of medical care to these casualties, while still entrapped, is an essential humanitarian activity as extrication may take several hours. The rescue process itself can pose a risk to the patient involved and medical support is key to prevent additional adverse impact during the rescue process.

Hazard recognition and risk mitigation are essential for USAR medical providers. Hazards vary according to the encountered scenarios. Hazards related to


the structure include; secondary structure collapse, loose footing and sharp objects. Hazards related to the environment include situations of low oxygen concentration, volatile organic compounds, and heat - especially in confined spaces. Victims may also be exposed to potential hazards and may present, for instance, altered mental status or loss of body fluids. These conditions pose specific challenges in such an environment. Without adequate training and appropriate equip-ment to respond to these scenarios, medical providers may easily become secondary victims during the rescue efforts.

In international fora, USAR is most often discussed within the context of response to collapsed structure incidents resulting from earthquakes. Various construction types in collapsed structures necessitate

a multi-disciplinary approach (including emergency medical care) to evaluate the extent of the emergency and to perform the search and rescue of the entrapped victims. It should be noted, however, that USAR principles apply also in numerous hazard scenarios including single structural failures, weather-related incidents resulting in structural failures, transportation accidents involving confined space (e.g. train accidents), mining accidents, as well as other scenarios involving victim entrapment in confined spaces (e.g. industrial sites, explosions, terrorist activities).

Logistics in Rescue Operations

Main Objectives of LogisticsDuring deployment on Search and Rescue or other disaster missions, logistics are an important consideration. This section provides an overview of potential solutions for the mobilisation of equipment and rescue teams from the home base to the BoO in the disaster-affected area and then to the intervention site. A critical element of the logistics process is to have dedicated personnel responsible for the team’s logistics, including supply, catering, transportation and maintenance. The logistics group leader is a direct subordinate of the Team Leader.

Team Fact Sheet Summary

LEMA

USAR Coordination Cells

USAR Operations Management Tool

Incident Situation Report

USAR Team FormsPhase

Team Fact SheetMobilisation

Worksite Triage FormASR

Worksite Report

Operations

Victim Extriction Form

Demobilisation FormDemobilisation

Figure 4: Flow of information during core USAR Operations, through the use of standard INSARAG forms, adapted from INSARAG.iv


The level of preparedness and support at the team’s headquarters is a key element to effective response. The main goal of an orderly and efficient logistics system is to reduce reaction time. This goal should define the cornerstones of the system developed, focusing primarily on requests for equipment clustering and storage. Some equipment may be kept readily available on board vehicles (an example of which is shown in Figure 5), but other equipment is not always needed on day-to-day basis, especially when transportation means available need to fulfil multiple roles and uses. It is also important to keep equipment systematically grouped, organised and stocked to make it transportable (Figure 6). This will reduce response time in reaction to unexpected events.

It is advisable to create sets of rescue tools that are used together for each task, as operational kits. The contents of such kits should be defined in such a way that they contain the necessary fuel, charged batteries (including the charger), lubricants and other essential consumables beside the rescue equipment itself. A checklist of the contents of the kits should be made and stored with the kit to assist with inventory checks and rapid equipment transfer. If there is no permanent warehouse, it is advisable to seal the supplies in such a way that the seals can be checked, to efficiently confirm the integrity of the kit.

When the rescue organization is alerted, necessary supplies and equipment must be checked. Depending on the deployment logistics, especially the mode of transport, equipment should

be packed and placed in the designated vehicles. The logistics officer will take account of any assets that are loaded, using the inventory checklist to generate the equipment packing list. This list may need to be checked at border stations and in the operations area for security reasons. In addition to fire trucks, there may also be the possibility of using logistics vehicles such as trucks equipped with trailers, box trucks and smaller rapid deployment personnel vehicles. Large trucks serve as mobile warehouses, which reduce the workload at the BoO for logistics personnel.

TransportationDuring deployment in the field, moving and securing the team’s gear becomes a priority. When selecting the type of transporta-tion, besides the travel distance, the team should also understand and consider the type and extent of the disaster, infrastructure requirements for the BoO near the affected area, and the type of assistance requested by the disaster-affected country. After the disaster, the goal is to eliminate the immediate threat to life or to save and restore material goods. Furthermore, consideration should be giv-en to the distance of the home base from the disaster area. The following modes of transportation are typically used, based on the aforementioned criteria.

Figure 5: Team vehicles may be pre-loaded with equipment, ready for deployment.


Transportation by airTravelling by plane is one of the most preferred modes of transportation for large national rescue organizations with medium or heavy USAR certification, especially for longer distances. Air transportation is one of the fastest modes of travelling, but it is also the costliest and requires an airport

in both the base and host country. This method of transportation makes it even more complicated when transferring the team between the main base and the local international airport, as well as between the nearest operating airport in the host country and the disaster-hit area, since land transport logistics to/from airports still need to be taken care of in addition to the

air transport logistics. Despite its disadvantages, air transport remains the fastest and most efficient mode of transportation for faraway or overseas locations when the time factor remains crucial. For voluntary teams this can only be realized with extentisive support from the state or other entities.

The transfer of the team cargo using vehicles is much less sensitive to weight than similar movement by air. Hence, the development of packing lists based on travel by air or land becomes a valuable exercise in contingency planning for both individuals and teams.

Equipment may only be transported in special cargo boxes for transportation by air. Air cargo boxes must also be marked externally with the team’s name and the box should be numbered. This would allow the logistics officer to identify its contents in a practical manner. Different airplanes and helicopters can carry different sizes of cargo and sometimes can only accommodate specifically sized cargo boxes. Knowledge of aircraft parameters is therefore essential when planning such potential deployments in advance.

One may use different specialist aluminium trunks and/or plastic chests that meet the requirements of air transportation or military standards, examples of which are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 6: Equipment in the rescue team’s warehouse needs to be carefully packed, stacked and labelled to facilitate rapid loading onto transportation means, thus minimizing deployment time.


Transportation by landTransportation by motor vehicles is considered the best choice to reach close destinations. Considering the context of EVOLSAR,iii a disaster-affected area in Europe may be easily reached by road transportation by at least one volunteer rescue team. Figure 8 illustrates this with an example selection of just four countries that are represented in EVOLSAR. At the time of writing, sixteen EVOLSAR member teams, based in ten European countries, are operationally ready. This means that the actual ‘coverage’ in Europe is even more comprehensive. Voluntary teams may carry their own equipment and personnel using their vehicles and trailers up to circa 1,500km from their base with relative ease. Such a trip would take around 16 hours, in addition to any preparatory work needed before departure. Alternatively, the deployed teams may rely on carrier companies to transport their cargo by truck.

The biggest advantage of using motor vehicles is that the same means of transport can be used to mobilise the team and its equipment from the home base all the way to the disaster-stricken hosting country, to the operational areas (Figure 9). Already equipped vehicles reduce the logistical strain and the required pre-deployment time for packing at the home base as well as the time required

iii EVOLSAR is the European Association of Civil Protection Volunteer Teams, a network of volunteer rescue teams from across Europe with the aim to harmonise training and deployment procedures in preparedness of joint deployment of EVOLSAR teams on operational rescue scenarios.

for unpacking rescue equipment at the BoO (Figure 10). This facilitates search and rescue teams to move into the disaster area more promptly and

efficiently. However, this option has its disadvantages, such as the need for many rescuers to man the vehicles and the requirement for additional storage space

Figure 8: The circular ranges shown in this map illustrate the ‘rescue assistance coverage’ within Europe by four selected EVOLSAR member teams, presented as an example, with at least one rescue team able to deploy with its vehicles and equipment to assist in a disaster-affected area, around geographical Europe.

Figure 7: Heavy-duty cargo boxes protect equipment during transportation and help with maximising space use as they enable stacking on top of each other, in a systematic manner.


for dedicated cargo vehicles or trailers in case of international deployments.

Such mobilisation strategies may require dedicated vehicles, such as trucks, that are not usually used in domestic operations but may be dedicated to international deployments. These kinds of vehicles may be leased, out-sourced or provided by local authorities for specific deployments. The use of such trucks provides the most efficient and cost-effective solution for the equipment to be moved, especially within the good European road infrastructure. The use of trucks inherently entails certain disadvantages such as additional time requirements to load equipment and additional logistical strain upon arrival, limited access for trucks in some affected areas, additional space requirements at the BoO with respect to parking and location and the possible need for other vehicles at the

deployment location to move personnel and equipment to respective working sites.

With the development of rail transport, the transportation of motor vehicles by rail is also another possibility (rail cargo). This may be useful primarily in situations where the road

network is underdeveloped. In cases where there is the need to travel over 2,000 km, particularly when overseas assistance is required, air transport still remains the best solution, followed by road transport.

In any situation, it is very important to pack the right tools for the mission. Unnecessary equipment would result in shortage of space. Consulting OSOCC, LEMA, or the local EVOLSAR hosting team may help identify which equipment is absolutely necessary, what is good to have and what is not necessary. A good solution is to create different packing lists for various scenarios, considering types of catastrophes, locations and transportation modes. Preparing packing lists would assist the team in packing up quickly while ensuring essential equipment is included and minimising pre-deployment time.

Figure 10: Team vehicles and small trailers greatly facilitate logistics by enabling the team to transport equipment directly to the location where it is needed with minimal loading/unloading cycles.

Figure 9: A convoy of rescue vehicles during deployment.


The advantage that EVOLSAR offers to its teams, is that if a disaster occurs in a country where EVOLSAR is represented, the local team can supply the bulk of the required equipment. This would significantly reduce the logistical needs of intervening volunteer organizations, speed-ing up the arrival of trained EVOLSAR forces. In cases of disasters away from EVOLSAR countries, different capabilities and tools could be offered from different countries. The capabilities, resources and teams can then merge into one international EVOLSAR team at the BoO, to function as a self-sustainable unit.

CustomsWhen rescue teams deploy to a foreign country to assist in extraordinary events, disasters or major emergencies, certain rules and regulations, such as customs, cannot be assumed to be automatically waived. Within the European Union territory (where the Schengen agreement applies) no customs formalities should apply. For relief consignments crossing country borders, a customs declaration may be required at border crossing points. The declaration should at least show the equipment packing list, tariff classification and the value of the goods (i.e. rescue equipment and supplies). The purpose of entry and the temporary or permanent delivery of equipment must be declared. Preparing an extract of the packing list in advance would

greatly facilitate any customs authority intervention.

The customs authorities usually apply special procedures towards rescue services and humanitarian / relief supplies. Having said this, authorities have all the legal rights to access and examine any part or all of the consignment. Most states treat temporary rescue imports as duty free and tax free.

BoO set-upIn the operational area, LEMA will arrange and assign a suitable area for the BoO of the respective teams. Depending on the type of disaster, this may be an existing facility (such as a school, a sports club, a dormitory) or an area for tent set up. Existing buildings could be unsafe to use in the aftermath of an earthquake and areas with severe structural damages should be avoided. However, in other types of disasters, such as floods or storm damage, the use of existing facilities may be a plausible solution. The section BoO Camp Management, further on in this chapter, goes into further detail.

The Logistics TeamThe first step in logistics is to have a Logistics Specialist, or possibly a team, assigned beside the other professionals responsible for the search and rescue operations. These individuals will be central to the proper functioning of the USAR team as they need to systematically organise the team’s equipment

and supplies. The principal role and responsibilities of the logistics team are show in Figure 11. Furthermore, the Logistics Specialist shall have easy access to the following documentation for quick reference:

• a checklist of all kits (4 copies)

• information about kit weights and packing measures

• a complete list of the team’s equipment

• maintenance manuals for all technical equipment

• a list of personnel (10 copies)

• an asset transfer takeover record (2 copies)

• a list of canine members

Preparedness stageLogistics personnel shall, at all times, be aware of operational and faulty vehicles and equipment, and be able to provide such information to the team management upon request. The Logistics Team Manager shall have checklists, documentation, procedures and list of logistics officers as well as the number of personnel required for temporary logistics teams in case of various types of deployment (e.g. different roles are needed for logistics tasks for airplane cargo, for packing trucks and for travel on land). Logistics specialists need to have ease of access to pre-existing databases of team members’ personal data such that the details of the designated team are extracted efficiently in the pre-deployment phase.


Mobilisation stageDuring the mobilisation phase, the logistics specialists cooper-ate with team management and when necessary, make proposals on the most suitable type of transportation and inform on logistical needs (including financial) to trigger mobilisation and deployment. With the assistance of the team management, logistics specialists shall get in contact with the local EVOLSAR team or the LEMA logistics teams to collect information on the local situation to understand logistical prerequisites and make the necessary adjustments to the list of equipment and other requirements such as spare parts, food and water.

The Logistics Team is to ensure that food rations, water, gasoline, lubricants and other perishable goods are within their expiry date and makes additional purchases, if necessary. Logistics specialists shall run the necessary research on goods, rescue equipment, and communication devices that may be banned in the deployment country (e.g. drones). It is preferable that logistics officers communicate with the local LEMA or the EVOLSAR logistics contact person to get assistance in getting exemptions or permits for team rescue and communications equipment.

Possessing the knowledge of expected rescue activities together with the number of rescue personnel and their

specialisation, the Logistics Specialist shall attempt to stock on PPE items that are most likely expected to require rapid replenishment (e.g. gloves). Logistics specialists shall make an effort to have a communications team working immediately upon arrival (e.g. distribute walkie-talkies amongst vehicle drivers), before establishing proper BoO and communications network. The Logistics Team shall ensure that all equipment manifestations and other official documents that might be required at customs and border control are readily printed out and prepared in line with the respective country’s regulations (signed, stamped, etc.).

Furthermore, the Logistics Team shall collect personal

Logistics Team Role and Reponsibilities

rescue logistics cycle

Stand by and planning• maintain kits and rescue equipment

well stocked in preparedness• plan possible scenarios of operation

Demobilisation• take stock of the equipment• prepare for transportation, including

packing equipment• update equipment inventory with

equipment that is unservicable or lost• disassamble BoO facilities• compile reports on logistical issues

before, during and after a mission

Mobilisation• pack, transport, distribute and

maintain the equipment of the team• coordinate with military and civilian

transport officials• procure perishable items

Incident operations• procure perishable items• ensure the security and accountability of

all components of the team equipment• select the BoO site and manage its day-to-

day operation, including health and safety issues

• keep appropriate records

Figure 11: The role and responsibilities of the Logistics Team.


EVOLSAR DEPLOYMENT INFORMATION SHEET

Form Ver. 1.0 1

Information compiled by:

Responsible person: Franklin, John

Organisation: Emergency & Rescue International (ERI)

Version 1.0 Date 31/12/2019

Deployment Information

Destination Lamberia Lamberia

City Deployment 01/01/2020 08/01/2020

Country City From To

Emergency type

Earthquake, Magnitude 7.5 Occurred on 31/12/2019 at 17:30 CET

Deploying organisations

- Emergency & Rescue International (HU)

- TechRescue International (GBR)

Team sizes - 12

- 9

Principal Rescue Activity

USAR, shoring, search

Transportation and Logistics Information

International

Road convoy 10 hr Max 70x50x30 cm / 30 kg

Mode Duration Baggage restrictions

Local Transport Road convoy Potable Water

Limited availability

Accommodation Tent setup Catering Field kitchen

Personal Items Required

Sleeping bag and mat Water filtration tablets

Contacts

Team Leader Richard Taylor: +36 91440032

Other Logistics Hans Campbell: +36 91385042

Medical Dr. Kate Brown: +36 91100234


Form Ver. 1.0 2

Affected Country Information

Identification requirement

Passport VISA requirement Yes / No

Vaccination requirement

Nil.

Restricted items

Drugs Weapons

Customs Restrictions

Cigarettes: max 10 packets Cash: max 4,000€

Cultural / Ethical

Observe hierarchy Address persons by family name

Weather Snow, rain, min -2°, max 3° Religion(s) Orthodox

Currency Lamberian Floarian (LAF) Electricity

230 V Type F

Rate 1€ = 400 LAF Voltage Plug Type

Telephony GSM 1800 +13

Internet Access

Local data sim cards Availability Country Code

Security alerts

Medium Level Reports of looting and aggressive behaviour in parts of the city

Safety alerts

High Level Reports of various aftershocks Severe damage to most buildings Deteriorating sanitation levels

Other

Reduced availability of fuel Road infrastructure severely affected in parts of the city

Notes


Form Ver. 1.0 1


Responsible person: Franklin, John

Organisation: Emergency & Rescue International (ERI)

Version 1.0 Date 31/12/2019


Destination Lamberia Lamberia

City Deployment 01/01/2020 08/01/2020


Emergency type

Earthquake, Magnitude 7.5 Occurred on 31/12/2019 at 17:30 CET


- Emergency & Rescue International (HU)

- TechRescue International (GBR)

Team sizes - 12

- 9


USAR, shoring, search


International

Road convoy 10 hr Max 70x50x30 cm / 30 kg


Local Transport Road convoy Potable Water

Limited availability

Accommodation Tent setup Catering Field kitchen


Sleeping bag and mat Water filtration tablets

Contacts

Team Leader Richard Taylor: +36 91440032

Other Logistics Hans Campbell: +36 91385042

Medical Dr. Kate Brown: +36 91100234

Figure 12: Deployment information sheets, as in this fictitious example, provide a way to summarise important information for deploying team members to ensure physical and mental preparedness.

information pertaining to the deployed team members. Logistics specialists shall also look into specific country requirements that prohibit the entry of personnel of certain nationalities or the requirement of VISA permits. Logistics personnel must be aware that VISA applications may be lengthy processes and this process could be facilitated in liaison

iv A Deployment Information Sheet Template may be found as an appendix in this book.

with foreign affairs ministries, relevant embassies or consulates. In certain situations, countries may waive VISA requirements for personnel accessing the country for humanitarian or relief purposes.

The Logistics Team is responsible to disseminate vital deployment information to the deployment team members using Deployment Information Sheetsiv

(Figure 12). These will give the deployment team an insight on what to expect and what they may need to prepare for. Logistics specialists are also responsible for notifying the Team Management on the number and type of personnel needed for the temporary logistics team. Upon receipt of such notification, the logistics Team Manager should brief personnel on the exact tasks


and supervise these activities. At the point of departure, the Logistics Team must supervise the loading of the equipment to the transport vehicles or aircrafts, cooperate with the aircraft loadmasters and vehicle drivers. The Logistics Team should report to Team Management on any major problem that may endanger the designated time of deployment. Furthermore, the Logistics Specialist should keep online or hard copy records to keep track of all expenses being incurred during the deployment, ensuring compliancy and compatibility with national and organisational accounting rules.

When in transit, the Logistics Team shall review the latest disaster-related information. Such information is to be made available to the team before arrival. In case travelling takes place with own vehicles, the logistics team shall coordinate the convoy vehicles (e.g. re-fuelling stops and road tolls) en route, ensuring that such expenses are properly documented. During border crossings logistics spe-cialists liaise and cooperate with customs and border guard authorities (e.g. upon arrival by plane) and may represent the team (subject to the Team Leader’s decision) in all official procedures.

During this phase, some rescue operatives may be assigned temporary logistics tasks based on their personal abilities (e.g. language knowledge, driving experience/licence category, ad-ditional professional know ledge or experience). Such res cuers

may be assigned to report directly to the Logistics Specialist and form a temporary logistics unit. In case of travel on land with the team’s vehicles, designated drivers may have additional tasks of managing and administering travel expenses (gas, road tolls) of their vehicle during the journey.

Operational stageUpon arrival, the logistics team shall assist in the off-loading of equipment and ensure the security of rescue equipment and personal gear, by assigning a team member to monitor the equipment at all times. Additionally, the team coordinates the transportation and security of team equipment to the Mobilisation Centre or assigned BoO. Information on the local supply of fuel, lubricants, food, and clean water supply system must be obtained from LEMA, the local reception team or other USAR teams on the ground. Adequate transport capacity must be provided in the field of operation by requesting the necessary vehicles (if they are

not available within the team’s resources) from LEMA.

The setting up of the BoO is also the responsibility of the Logistics Team Manager. The first step in setting up camp is to designate the storage location for the technical equipment. When designing, setting up and operating a BoO, the environmental aspect is to be taken in consideration. The Logistics Team is to coordinate the availability of fuels, lubricants, oxygen, water, fresh food, etc., while hazardous materials are properly stored. Further assignments are the following:• Lighting for the camp’s night-

time operation,• Re-fuelling equipment and

tools, and testing them before the operation,

• Ensuring that the medical point is established and that the BoO has sufficient security at all times, even during the establishment phase,

• Once the BoO is set up, a tracking system must be implemented so that the

Figure 13: A forward logistical point, situated close to the rescue operational area.


location of all team members is known at all times. Departures and arrivals in the operational area are to be recorded, and

• The daily life of the camp and its systematic operation must be established and communicated to the team members as soon as possible to retain order.

At the operational site, very close to the rescue operation, a logistical staging area or forward logistical point (Figure 13) may need to be established. Sufficient material must be available at this location to allow rescue operations to progress smoothly. This point should be installed outside the boundaries (hot zone) of the ruins of damaged buildings. The logistical staging area manager should be able to account for the technical resources at all times. The responsible person should monitor the consumption of individual fuels and lubricants and ensure that these are replenished as required. Logistics specialists who are at the rescue site should be prepared to assist with immediate effect the rescue activity in the eventuality of unpredictable developments that worsen the current situation (e.g. in the case of a secondary collapse).

Some of the search and rescue operatives may be assigned to participate in establishing the BoO and/or setting up the equipment warehouse. Such orders will be issued by the team management. Without any regard to the respective rescue

operative tasks, all team members shall commit to the team’s successful logistics during the operation by being aware of and complying with BoO safety and security rules, reporting all new threats, breaches of safety and security rules, fully complying with equipment handling, handover and administration procedures as set by the logistics team, reporting faulty equipment and depleted resources (gas, lubricant, chains, water) as soon as possible, properly marking faulty equipment when returned to the logistics warehouse and reporting damaged or missing PPE as soon as possible.

Demobilisation stageOnce rescue operations are concluded, the logistics specialists should take stock of the equipment, prepare it for repatriation and eventually manage the demobilisation. Rescue equipment is packaged as sets or kits, ensuring that out-of-service tools and equipment and lost equipment are appropriately logged. Logistics specialists are also those responsible to ensure the return of all items issued to the mobilisation team. The Logistics Team may also advise the Management Team on what equipment or goods could be left behind or donated to local team/s, residents and authorities. The Logistics Team Manager shall also supervise the dismantling of the BoO area together with the designated LEMA officer. For environmental considerations, the area of the BoO should be

kept as clean as possible during operation and upon departure.

Upon return to the home base, the Logistical unit should crosscheck the complete inventory of the equipment returned to home base. All tools, equipment and supplies must be inspected and made ready for re-use. Once this process is completed, the kits should be repacked in readiness for a prospective deployment. The Logistics Team Manager shall present a full and comprehensive account of expenses to the management team, and provide feedback regarding the mission’s logistical aspects, shortcomings, and development or proposals for improvement.

During this phase, some rescue operatives may again be delegated to temporary logistics teams responsible for the dismantling of the BoO, maintaining an inventory and packing the equipment, and driving back vehicles to the team’s home base. All team members shall ensure that they have returned all the equipment they received during deployment, they have compiled and submitted all necessary administrative documents and that their personal PPE and personal belongings bags are ready and left at the designated gathering point at the specified time.

During the post-mission debriefing all individual rescuers are encouraged to provide feedback on any possible short-comings they have experienced with regard to team logistics, their personal logistics, the rescue


operation as well as positive aspects of the experience.

Individual Preparedness for DeploymentEach volunteer member per-taining to an EVOLSAR team, and who has been approved for contribution in international missions by his/her own

respective team leadership, shall be familiar with the characteristics of international rescue efforts well before deployment. Induction training, professional courses, team simulations and any other key information are to be made available to the rescuer to ensure optimal preparedness of the individual volunteer for rescue

work abroad. In accordance with such training, at all times, individual volunteer rescuers shall make sure to have their ‘go-bag’ (Figure 14) prepared and that:• they possess valid travelling

documents and such details are also to be made available to the logistics team (full name, date of birth, travel document number);

• their immunisation program-me is up-to-date, and proof is available through their vaccination record book;

• their blood type and special medical conditions are known to the logistics and medical team;

• they have a valid document/ID card identifying them as members of the respective rescue team;

• the Logistics Specialist is aware of their respective sizes for appropriate PPE;

• full PPE and special equipment are ready according to their specialities or have such equipment assigned specifically to them at the team headquarters warehouse (especially in case of rope rescue, K9, etc.); and

• they have a comprehensive checklist to account for this assigned equipment.

During mobilisation stage, the EVOLSAR rescuer who is willing and able to join the rescue operation abroad and has been notified of the approval to partake in this mission has three main concerns: Individual

Figure 14: Every individual rescuer will need to have personal items, basic PPE and travel documents during deployment.


rescuer logistics, Collective travel logistics and Personal travel logistics.

Individual rescuer logistics – The rescuer shall ensure that all the requirements listed in the section Preparedness stage, are met. If the rescuer is missing any of the travel documents, PPE items or other important equipment, the team’s logistics Team Manager must be notified immediately. The rescuer shall also make sure to receive and understand the briefing and Deployment Information Sheet from the team management. If the rescuer possesses various specialisations, the role(s) for which s/he is being deployed should be well-defined, and the rescuer must avoid taking unnecessary and excessive PPE and equipment within one’s kit. It is imperative for the rescuer to double-check PPE in accordance with the information sheet, have it duly packed and confirm the equipment checklist. A sleeping bag, feeding utensils, flashlight(s), rainproof (or winter) jackets are also considered as part of PPE during foreign deployments. Finally, the rescuer shall ensure to carry the details of their personal medical insurance.

Collective travel logistics – Typically, only a small team of dedicated logistics personnel travel to international missions. Thus, each rescuer shall have to assist the logistics team in its deployment preparations to the best of one’s knowledge and abilities. During the mobilisation stage such activities involve mainly the preparation and

final checking of team kits and equipment, the packing and loading of equipment and the compilation of all necessary paperwork prior to deployment.

Personal travel logistics – The rescuer shall aim to pack the most essential, durable and lightweight personal items, based on the information provided in the Deployment Information Sheet. All personal items should fit into one bag, which should be properly labelled (country, organisation, name, contact email/phone). Such personal items must provide the necessary level of comfort for the rescuer, during the whole duration of the deployment, to ease physical and mental strains. The items include:• personal hygiene items;• underwear;• recreational/casual clothing;• communications items;• an appropriate supply of

medicine, preferably to cover the whole duration of the planned deployment;

• smokers should also consider their requirement of cigarettes.

Furthermore, experience shows that a few, small, lightweight, authentic home food items have great positive effect on the mental wellbeing of rescuers while being exposed to harsh and challenging circumstances.

Base of Operation Camp ManagementCorrect organisation of the base camp for rescuer accommodation is key in rescue missions. At its base, the team must be well-organized, with all the necessary facilities for rescuer and team support. The availability of appropriate facilities at the BoO will enable rescuers to perform at their best during the rescue mission as well as in all tasks on the ground. Considerations of weather, type of disaster (for e.g. whether the disaster is the result of an earthquake or floods), and the proximity to operational areas will all be determining characteristics for the choice of the Base Camp area.

Accessibility to the base camp is critical and depends on the type of roads in the surroundings of the base camp, especially when considering the size of the vehicles which need to access it. Safety and security will depend on how isolated the BoO set up is from civilians, journalists and potentially malicious persons.

Rules and regulations are mandatory for the harmonious operation of the base camp. All personnel on site need to respect others and understand the need to abide by these rules. Schedules are to be respected by all teams. Retention of cleanliness and regard towards the environment of the area within and around the base camp are basic behaviours that ensure respect towards other fellow rescuers and the hosting nation.


The base camp may be one which accommodates more than one rescue team. This would be the case, for instance, in the case of the deployment of EVOLSAR teams. In such cases, as rescue teams reach the BoO, it is critical for Team Leaders to meet, understand the set-up of the base camp and ensure that their team members familiarise themselves with the camp. Rescuers’ should be easily identifiable through scanning of authorised ID cards.

In such joint deployments, it is crucial to determine the responsibilities of each team in terms of self-sustainability and autonomy. For example, teams may agree to remain autonomous in terms of food and water supplies but make use of the communal facilities to prepare their food. The supply and use of equipment is another critical factor that must be agreed upon prior to deployment.

Primary BoO ConsiderationsIn the identification process of an area appropriate for the BoO, it is important to have clarity on the type of disaster that the teams will be dealing with. This information will enable the team management to focus on appropriate areas for base camp set-up. Furthermore, to ensure safety and security of the base camp, the management must consider the topographic information of the area, the extent of red zones around the disaster area and the risk assessment based on the expected or developing situation.

Minimum Requirements for the BoO set-upThe following basic requirements of the base camp are key for the BoO to fulfil its purpose. If any of the following minimal requirements are missed out, this may compromise the functionality of the rescue team:• Adequate weather protection;• Easily guarded, if necessary, to

ascertain an adequate level of security;

• Ease of access to the site by team vehicles and safe parking;

• Supply of clean water and capacity for catering and food storage;

• Sanitation and hygiene facili-ties;

• Medical care (First Aid tent);• Heated resting and recreational

areas;• Adequate places for search

dogs to rest and exercise;• Storage and maintenance of

equipment;• Working areas for Command

and Control, Administration, Communications and Media;

• Reliable electrical supply and lighting (including power generation, if required);

• Adequate communications equip ment;

• In case of working in contaminated environments, dirty/clean (black/white) zones including decontamination area.

Food and non-food products safety: During accidents and incidents it often happens that water and food supplies

are contaminated. Therefore, food must be obtained only from reliable suppliers with implemented controls when entering the camp. Priority should be given to factory-packaging and canned foods because their risk of contamination is almost non-existent. In such cases, the shelf life must be clearly visible and should be monitored. Food, like all other non-food products, must be stored in one pre-defined place, with the responsibility of the assigned personnel for its care and distribution.

Water, sanitation and hygiene: Each campsite must have an adequate supply of clean drinking water and non-potable water supplies, which must be clearly distinguished. When choosing the terrain where to set camp, the logistics team must bear in mind the requirements of sanitary and hygiene facilities, to ensure proper connections for appropriate disposal of wastewater, possibly through wastewater storage and later disposal to a designated site via competent service providers. The location of the tent for decontamination and cleaning must be at the entrance of the base camp. This eliminates the possible further spread of contagion or dirt throughout the camp.

Communication Systems: Rescue teams are trained to use portable radios. Each rescue team is also able to communicate via one or more channels using its radio communication system. Public Mobility Radio (PMR) channels are exempt from


licence requirements in almost all European countries without special permits, except in the UK. Communications means are usually set up between the BoO, the command post as well as the rescue team deployed on the field. When preparing for the arrival of rescue teams to the camp, it is important to emphasize whether it is necessary to bring a radio communication system. In addition, if radio communication cannot be provided, backup communication systems must be used, such as pyrotechnic devices, signal mirrors, flashlights and whistles.

BoO tent set-upIn case of an area that needs to be set up using tents, one can design the site based on the above minimal requirements. For instance, the implementation of the designated quarters should be adapted and tailored to the local characteristics and available tents, considering the principles of the sample layout shown in Figure 15, even though the actual final layout may differ depending on the conditions prevalent at the time and on the resources available (Figure 16). Tents should be in a safe place, close to clean water supplies, provided with a sewerage system and connected to an electric network. The site must be in a location accessible by motor vehicles and trucks, preferably close to the affected area. For the safety of the camp, it is paramount to ensure that the buildings in the area are stable, that the area in which it is set up is not susceptible to the effects of adverse weather that may be

typical in the area, and that there is an adequate level of security (limited or no criminal activity). A mobile command post may mobilise out to disaster areas during operations maintaining continuous communication with the BoO Command and Control.

BoO in existing facilitiesThe BoO may be allocated to any building that has not suffered any structural damage and which

is not deemed as prone to any significant risk in the eventuality of adverse weather or aftershocks. Sites that can be considered and that are free to use are schools, colleges and sports facilities in or near the affected area. In this case, the Team Leader and the Logistics Specialist, together with the local authorities, must design the premises and determine which areas are to be used by the team. The use of

Figure 15: A schematic drawing showing the possible layout of a BoO, featuring minimum requirements.


existing buildings will only be feasible if they have access to electricity, lighting, clean water and, possibly, hot water.

Existing buildings usually provide viable solutions for sleeping, bathing and dining. Occasionally, offices may be viable as managerial quarters. The storage of technical equipment and the search dogs’ resting area may be allocated in parking lots and yards. An appropriate area is to be designated as resting quarters for the team. Other rescue organizations may already be accommodated in the same facility. In this case, Team Leaders should coordinate on how to best utilise the facility. Occasionally, the facility may also be operated by local bodies that can provide security, cleaning, and technical support. Whichever the location of the BoO, the logistics officer must arrange for the basic

supplies to render it functional, regulate security concerns, issue guidelines of self-rescue and notify team members with any announcements relating to the BoO in a timely manner. The

Assembly Point/s should also be designated in preparedness of potential evacuations. The site should be equipped with an adequate number of fire extinguishers that may be used by rescuers as first response in case of an accidental fire.

Special Considerations for the Base CampWhen setting up a base camp, one should also consider the time of year, the respective season and consequently the expected weather. The campsite must cater for adverse weather conditions and the type of tents used may be different in summer and winter, for example.

Furthermore, special consid-erations may need to be made based on the type of disaster or accident being attended to. The team called to tend to such an emergency will vary its equipment

Figure 16: In actual BoO set-ups, the final camp layout will be adapted to the conditions present at the time, as well as the available resources.

Figure 17: When setting up a BoO, selecting an available (undamaged) building may greatly reduce the time needed to set up and provide additional shelter to the rescuers.


based on the requirements of the disaster; the base camp should be adapted accordingly.

Fire & Rescue TeamsThese teams need a continuous and reliable supply of fire extinguishing media, especially water and foam to replenish its vehicular tanks. Replacement of special PPE to support the firefighters also needs to be considered, in addition to decontamination and cleaning area required, equipped with sufficient dryers for the rescuers firefighting suits to dry up in a timely manner for the next working period.

Water Rescue TeamsWhere floods are involved, it is key to identify an area for the BoO that is not at risk of flooding in case water levels rise unexpectedly. Lifeboats need to be made available together with the relevant maintenance equipment to make repairs, inflate and maintain the same lifeboats, as necessary. Finally, if divers are involved, the necessary equipment (e.g. air compressor or air banks) for re-filling of air tanks efficiently, is required, together with appropriate set-ups for equipment cleaning after use.

USAR / Confined Space Rescue TeamsFor rescue teams operating in inaccessible or remote areas, the deployed team(s) and possibly local team(s) should supply appropriate rescue equipment. Consideration should be made for the transportation of the

injured and sick over difficult terrain, high structures, tunnels and pipes, and other inaccessible environments. Additionally, other material, means and equipment may be necessary, such as wood supplies for shoring and airbags for load shifting. Also, sometimes conventional radio communication systems do not function in certain conditions, and therefore it is necessary to provide wired communication systems.

Determining the Capacity and Category of the CampIn planning the set-up of the base camp, the team management and logistics must determine the size of the BoO. This must be considered together with the sizes of the tents that would be used for sleeping quarters. Whether the camp will serve 50, 100 or 100+ rescuers has significant implications. The camp size impacts not only on

the accommodation units in the tent settlement but also on other infrastructure requirements. Such requirements include the provision of food (including meal preparation) and water supplies, provision of tents or suitable areas for communal facilities, and an adequate ratio of sanitary facilities.

Where a base camp will support a number of small teams as in the case of EVOLSAR, the management team must define whether rescuers are to supply own sleeping quarters by carrying their own small personal tents, or if tents will be provided by the team managing the base camp (Figure 18). Knowledge and awareness of these factors plays a key role to maintain a systematically organised BoO and ensure that the camp fulfils the requirements of the teams and respective rescuers.

Figure 18: Sleeping quarters may either consist of large tents accomodating several rescuers or personal tents set up for each rescuer.


Base Camp Safety and SecurityThe safety and security of the BoO is a delicate matter, especially since the teams need to create a safe environment in a host country where civilians in the surroundings may be hostile due to difficult circumstances. The camp may be managed by a designated person, particularly competent in rescue, safety and security. This individual, the camp manager, must manage the camp responsibly and safely. S/he must have a wide range of rescue knowledge and be experienced through various rescue missions.

Camp Authority: This role is usually assumed by national or local authorities. This includes a general overview of responsibilities, including the safety of rescue teams.

Camp Coordination: This role is usually assumed by the international liaison within the local emergency authorities. This includes overall strategic and operational coordination between camps, covering issues such as strategy and standard settings, emergency planning and information management.

Camp Management: This role is taken by the host rescue team or local government authority. If the capacity is limited, EVOLSAR can provide additional support. This includes the coordination of camp services and infrastructure maintenance.

Roles and responsibilitiesWithin the camp management, it is necessary to provide and authorize a responsible person to communicate with the public and the press. This person, in liaison with management, would define what information may be shared. This allows rescuers to carry out their tasks without interruption and avoid misinforming the public, thus avoiding the possibility of creating unnecessary panic.

The campsite management is responsible for the management of the whole campsite. This includes the coordination and monitoring of assistance, protection and

services at campsite level, as well as developing effective communication with various stakeholders (see Figure 19).

The required human resourc-es and the composition and organization of campsite man-agement staff may need to vary according to the context, size of the campsite and its capacity. The involvement of all necessary civic groups (e.g. civil protection units, etc.) with clear roles and responsibilities as well as training and development of staff are key to the quality and responsibilities of the Camp Management.

Effective information sharing is critical to avoid duplication of work and to effectively fill gaps in providing and ensuring consistent

Figure 19: Managing the camp is about creating a safe and effective environment for rescue teams to rest and prepare for deployment, taking care of their protection and well-being and providing for their basic facility needs.


monitoring and reporting. Camp management necessitates an ongoing monitoring system linked to a response strategy that highlights and eliminates identified deficiencies.

Finally, it is key that rescue teams engage in an appropriate schedule for operations and rest. In order to maximise the performance of individual rescuers and the team, exhaustion should be avoided completely. It is critical that management anticipates the appropriate resting periods.

The maintenance of security, safety and public order is the responsibility of national authorities of the host camp. The assurance of safety of rescuers and other staff as well as the security of rescue equipment are the onus of camp management. Camp management is also responsible for the overall coordination of camp security, such as meetings and contacts with stakeholders. In the meantime, all rescue teams and individual rescuers are

responsible for their own safety as well as the safety of others around them. Common security threats in camps include the presence of civilians and journalists, as well as possible petty crime due to unwanted visitors among other malicious factors. An exception are scheduled conferences. Camp management should receive safety and security training at pre-deployment stage. This core team must be fully aware of the operational context, the actors, the threats, the risks involved and also how the situation is developing in and around the camp. Such knowledge allows for a proactive approach to security management. Camp management must maintain a good level of communication with local stakeholders. This facilitates the exchange of information on security issues and other threats. Early warning and effective communication systems are vital for monitoring, communicating and addressing the situation appropriately.

ConclusionRescue teams deploy in chal-lenging and difficult conditions with the intention to save lives and assist the affected community in time of great need. The successful outcome of such intentions, however, greatly depends on careful planning and on having the correct set-up to overcome such challenging situations. This chapter has shown the importance of having a proper rescue team management structure to lead the team, not only in time of deployment, but also in the preparation process. Another very important element is the logistics team, organising all the needs of the rescue team in a way that minimizes delay to deploy and arrive at the affected area. Finally, the chapter covered the requirements and considerations for setting up a base of operations, with the aim of ensuring availability of basic necessities for the rescue team to be able to carry out their valuable work successfully and efficiently.

References1 INSARAG website online: insarag.org accessed on 10th June 2020.2 INSARAG Guidelines 2020, Volume II: Manual B: Operations.3 INSARAG Guidelines 2020, Volume II: Manual B: Operations.4 INSARAG Guidelines 2020, Volume I: Policy5 INSARAG Guidelines 2020, Volume III: Operational Field Guide

109


Form Ver. 1.0 1


Responsible person:

Organisation:

Version Date


Destination

Deployment


Emergency type

Occurred on


Team sizes



International


Local Transport Potable Water

Accommodation Catering


Contacts

Team Leader

Other Logistics

Medical

Appendix

110


Form Ver. 1.0 2

Affected Country Information

Identification requirement

VISA requirement Yes / No

Vaccination requirement

Restricted items

Customs Restrictions

Cultural / Ethical

Weather Religion(s)

Currency Electricity

Rate Voltage Plug Type

Telephony Internet

Access

Availability Country Code

Security alerts

Safety alerts

Other

Notes

111

Bibliography

Chapter 1 – Search Techniques

Syrotuck, William G., Scent and the Scenting Dog, (United Kingdom: Barkleigh Productions, 2000).

Chapter 2 – Cave Rescue

Alpha, Tau Rho, Galloway, John and Tinsley, John; “Karst Topography”, U.S. Geological Survey, 1997, <https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/0536a/report.pdf> [accessed 10 May 2020]

Laureano, Fernando, Karmann, Ivo, Granger, Darryl, Auler, Augusto, Almeida, Renato, Cruz, Francisco, Strícks, Nicolás and Novello, Valdir; “Two million years of river and cave aggradation in NE Brazil: Implications for speleogenesis and landscape evolution.”, Geomorphology (2016) 273

“Life in Caves”, Western Australian Speleological Group (2020) <http://wasg.org.au/index.php/2015-09-05-08-07-15/2016-02-06-12-40-04/troglofauna> [accessed 30 April 2020]

“Great Basin, Cave Life”, National Park Service, US Dept of the Interior <https://www.nps.gov/grba/planyourvisit/upload/Cave%20Life.pdf> [accessed 30 April 2020]

General

Calafato, Trevor, Rescue Techniques for Emergency Response, Volume 1, (Malta: EVOLSAR, 2017).

113

Apostolaki, Angeliki - ETSMChapter 1: Figure 1

Bakai, Kristóf Péter - OPVEInner front flapChapter 3: Figures 5-7, 9-11, 14, 17

Besson, Philippe - PUIChapter 3: Figures 1, 3-4

Bonnici, Joseph - EFRUChapter 1: Figures 4, 15Chapter 2: Figures 10, 15, 19, 33, 39Chapter 3: Figure 12

Borg, Keith – EFRUChapter 1: Figure 20Chapter 2: Title page top photo, Figures 2, 18

Budimir, Danilo – SRTChapter 3: Figure 19

Bunnell, Dave (www.underearth.us)Chapter 2: Figure 13

freepik.com (www.freepik.com)Chapter 2: Title page top photo, Figures 5, 7-8, 12, 16, 20, 22

Harris, Andrew - Serve OnChapter 1: Figures 21-22, 24

Kalnitz, Howard (www.cavecartography.com)Chapter 2: Figure 24

Mizzi, Josef – EFRUCover, inner flaps and front matter pages: Rescue IconsChapter 1: Title page photos, Figures 2, 6, 8-13, 18-19Chapter 2: Title page bottom photo, Figures 1-3, 11, 21, 26, 27a-f, 34, 40a; Figures 36-37, 45 – created with vRigger (www.vrigger.com)Chapter 3: Figures 8, 13, 15

Nikolaou, ElinaChapter 1: Figure 16Chapter 2: Figures 4, 9, 17, 23, 31, 41-43

Petzl (www.petzl.com)Chapter 2: Figures 40b, 44

Pipicelli, Pasquale – EdelweissInner back flapChapter 1: Figure 17Chapter 3: Title page bottom photo, Figure 16

Rocha, Francisco – SARTEAMChapter 2: Figures 25, 28-30, 32, 35Figures 38, 46-51 – created with vRigger (www.vrigger.com), edited by Mizzi, Josef – EFRU

Roumeliotis, Georgios – ETSMChapter 1: Figure 5

Sauermann © (www.sauermanngroup.com)Chapter 1: Figure 23

Swallow, Steve and Breckland Dog Training (http://www.brecklanddogtraining.com)

Chapter 1: Figure 14

Vassallo Micallef, Maria – EFRUChapter 2: Figures 6, 14, 18

Verdugo, Alba – UCRSChapter 1: Figures 3, 7

Image credits

Note: All images were edited and prepared for publishing by Josef Mizzi and Joseph Bonnici (EFRU).

115

Index

Aabseiling. See descendingabseil tactical harness 34accidentals 53acidic water 47acoustic 37administration 103aircraft parameters 93air movement 29air-scenting 25, 26, 29, 32alert 31anchor point 76, 78anchors 78ascending 65, 69, 70, 72, 73, 81ASF 55, 58ASR Levels 86assembly point 105assessments 87attachment point 76, 77Australian Speleological

Federation. See ASF

Bbase camp 102, 103, 105, 106Base of Operations. See BoObiodiversity 45bivouac 75BoO 85, 86, 87, 92, 94, 96, 99,

100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106capacity 106category 106considerations 103minimum requirements 103,

104safety 107security 107, 108

Ccalcium carbonate 46, 48camp

authority 107

coordination 107management 102, 107, 108size 106

canyons. See meandering channels

carbon dioxide 39, 46, 47probes 39

carbonic acid 46cargo boxes 93, 94cartography 54Casteret, Norbert 44catering 92cave 44

ecosystem 51, 52, 53life 52, 53map 54, 55, 58, 59, 60

cross-section view 55plan view 55symbols 55symbols. 58

morphology 45, 51rescue 65rescue team 65survey 54, 55zones 52, 53

caving 44equipment 60, 65, 66

maintenance 64, 65personal 60, 61, 62, 63survival 64team 60

history 44cenote 50, 51central point 78chambers 51change of direction 76changeovers 70chemical processes 45chest ascender 64, 69, 70, 71, 72,

73chimney effect. See thermoclineclinometer 55collapsed structure 32, 38columns 48

command and control 87, 103, 104

command post 23, 85communication

equipment 89hub 86systems 103

compass 55coordination 85, 87, 90

structure 86, 87corrective actions 90counterweight

systems 69technique 73, 81

coverage. See rescue assistance coverage

cow’s tail 64, 71, 72, 73crevices 46cultural awareness 87curtains 48customs 96

authority 96declaration 96

Ddark zone 53, 54decomposers 52decontamination 106

area 103deep vein thrombosis 65de Joly, Robert-Jacques 44de Lavaur, Guy 44demobilisation

plans 89stage 100

deployment 91, 92, 97Information Sheet 98, 102, 109

deposits 46deputy team leader 87, 89descender 70, 71, 72, 73, 78, 81descending 65, 70, 71, 72, 81deviation 69, 71, 72, 73, 78

carabiner 72, 73

116

deviation point 71, 72dissolution 45, 46, 49, 50diving 74documentation 90dog

breeds 24gundogs 24herding 24shepherds 24terrier 24

characteristics 24limitations 26

dog boots 34doline 50, 51, 60double rope technique 69, 78drainage basin 52draining 74draperies 48dripstones 46drones. See unmanned aerial

vehicledropstone 48

Eear defenders 35earthquakes 84emergency plan 65entrance zone 52, 53, 54environment 25equipment 34, 35erosion 45, 46erosional caves 46, 47European Association of Civil

Protection Volunteer Teams. See EVOLSAR

evacuation 78EVOLSAR 94, 95, 96, 97, 101,

103, 106, 107exhaustion 60exploration 44

Ffactors 33

temperature 33time of day 33wind 33

fault 46fire extinguishing media 106firefighters 106fire & rescue 106first responders 65, 84floods 106flotation vest 35flowstone 46, 48, 49food chain 52food (supplies) 103foot ascender 69, 70, 71foot loop 69, 70, 71, 72formation 45, 46forward logistical point 100

Ggalleries 51generic scent 25, 27geological

features 48processes 45

geospatial technologies 89glacial period 44glacier caves 46, 47go-bag 101ground-scenting 25, 30

Hhabitats 45, 52hand ascender 64, 69, 70, 71, 72,

73handler 24. See also K9 Team

qualities of 24, 25hand-over-hand method 75, 76hazards 34, 37, 60, 89, 90, 91hazmat technician 89heavy USAR 85helper 28herbivores 52horizontal lifelines 69, 72, 73hot zone 100human factor 40human scent. See live scenthypothermia 60

IID card 101immunisation programme 101indication 28, 31

bark 31bringsel 31digging 31re-find 31sitting 31

informationexchange of 89management 90

infrared radiation 39infrared spectrum amplification

40INSARAG 84, 90

External Classification (IEC) 84

forms 90international response 84International Search and Rescue

Advisory Group. See INSARAGinternet network 89inventory 93, 95

checks 92IT

communications specialists 89equipment 89

KK9 Team 23. See also technical

searchaim 24dog 23equipment 34handler 23

main functions 23morphology 24observer 23operational 31roles 32

information gathering 32search and detect 24, 32search and locate 32USAR 32wilderness 32

structure 23

117

karren 50karst 44, 45, 46

caves 46, 47landscape 47, 49, 50, 52

KED 74Kendrick Extrication Device.

See KED

Llapiez 50lava cave 46LEMA 11, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 95,

96, 97, 99, 100liaison officer 89lifeboats 106LifeDetector 38limestone 46littoral caves. See sea caveslive scent 31, 32

bacteria 29carbon dioxide 29skin cells 29

live-scenting 27, 28Local Emergency Management

Authority. See LEMAlogistical staging area.

See forward logistical pointlogistics 85, 87, 88, 91

collective travel 102equipment 92individual rescuer 102objectives 91officer 92personal travel 102rail transport 95specialist 96, 97, 98, 99, 100,

104team 96, 97, 99, 100, 103

manager 96, 99, 100transportation 92, 97

by air 93by land 94

vehicles 92, 94, 99long line 35

Mmaintenance 92management 84, 85, 87, 88Martel, Edouard Alfred 44meandering channels 51mechanical advantage 81media 87, 103medical 88

care 103manager 89support 85team 90

medium USAR 85microorganisms 45, 52mineral deposits 47missing person 26, 30, 37mobilisation

centre 99stage 97, 101, 102

mode of transport 92multi-disciplinary approach 85,

91

NNational Speleological Society.

See NSSnight vision 36

camera 40NSS 55

Oomnivores 52operational

area 99assessment 31kits 92stage 99

operations 87action plan 89officer 88, 89planning 89

organic material 51, 52organisms 52OSOCC 90, 95

Ppacking list. See inventoryPetzl

I’D 78, 81NEST 74, 75SIMPLE 70, 71, 78STOP 70, 71, 78

planning 87polje 50ponores 50positive reinforcement 28post-mission debriefing 100PPE 101, 102, 106predators 52pre-deployment 32

stage 108preparedness 101preparedness stage 96, 102pressure 45preventive actions 90primary caves 46probability of survival 26, 38probe 37progress capture 81progression

horizontal 76, 79, 81techniques 65, 74

rope 65, 70vertical 76, 79

protective equipment 34Prusiking. See ascendingpulleys 76, 78pulley systems 73Purcell Prusik 64, 70

Rrafts. See live scent: skin cellsrappelling. See descendingRDC 86rebelay 69, 71, 72, 78Reception Departure Centre.

See RDCreef caves 46reference scent 27, 28remote areas 106report preparation 89rescue 88

118

assistance coverage 94commander 65confined space 81, 84, 106planning 65, 68

residual scent 29reward 28Riesending cave 65risk

assessment 32, 90, 103mitigation 90

road infrastructure 95rooms. See chambersrope rescue 84

Ssafety 34, 87, 88

expert 89, 90goggles 35person 23

sandbags 74sanitation and hygiene 103scent

chemicals 30crushed vegetation 30grass 30soil 30vegetation 30

scent cone 29, 33scent discrimination 24, 28scenting techniques 25Schengen agreement 96sea caves 46search 88

considerations 32coordinator 23discipline 24, 25

avalanche 25collapsed structure 25open area 25, 26wilderness area 25

harness 34operations 25task 26technicians 32

search and rescue 85seat harness 70Sector Situation Report 90security 87

awareness 87seismic 37self-sustainability 103sense of smell 24shafts 51shore 74single rope technique 65sinkhole 46, 50siphon 74situational awareness 60, 90SKED 74, 75skin rafts. See live scent: skin cellssoluble rock 45, 46solutional caves 48. See karst

cavessound location devices 37, 38sound location equipment 32specific scent 25, 27, 32spelaeum 44speleogenesis. See formationspeleogens 48, 49speleologists 45, 55Speleology 44speleothems 46, 47, 48spelunking 44stalactites 48, 49stalagmites 48stations 55strategic plan 89strategy 88stretcher 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81stretcher handling 74subtroglophiles. See trogloxenessumps. See siphonsurveying 44survival 60sustenance 64swimming 74

Ttactics 88team

leader 65, 87, 89, 92, 103, 104management 86manager 98, 102

Team Fact Sheet Summary 90technical expert 89

technical search 89camera 38equipment 36, 89

limitations 41K9 89

tectonic forces 45tensioned line 81thermal camera 36, 39thermocline 33topographic details 60topography 60tracking 30, 32trailing 29, 30, 32training 24, 28transportation 92transportation accident rescue

84trauma

medicine 90protocol 65

travelling documents 101traverse lines. See horizontal

lifelinestrench rescue 84troglobites 52, 53troglophile 52, 54trogloxenes 52, 53tug-of-war 28twilight zone 52, 53, 54

UUCC 86, 87UHF radio 89United Nations Office for the

Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA) 85

unmanned aerial vehicle 36Urban Search and Rescue.

See collapsed structure; See USAR

USAR 37, 39, 84, 90team 87

functions 88key functions 85roles 88

USAR Coordination Cell. See UCC

119

VVHF radio 89vibraphone 37Victim Extrication Forms 90Virtual On-Site Operations

Coordination Centre. See VOSOCC

VISA 98

volunteer 101VOSOCC 87, 89

Wwater rescue 84, 106wave action 46weather protection 103

Zzonal conditions 52


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RESCUE TECHNIQUES - V.I.A.T.I.C.U.M.

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