Res60102 slides

RES 60102 Research

Methodology

189

Here you can find relevant indicators about articlespublished in several prominent scientific journals in thefield of tourism according to the following main topics:tourism and theory, research and education; tourism andeconomy; tourism market; tourism and society; tourismand space; tourism policy and organization; statisticsand forecasting in tourism; types of tourism.

ANATOLIA (ISSN 1300-4220)

ACTA TURISTICA (ISSN 0353-4316)

ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH (ISSN 0160-7383)

CHINA TOURISM RESEARCH (ISSN 1812-688X)

EVENT MANAGEMENT (ISSN 1525-9951)

ESTUDIOS Y PERSPECTIVAS EN TURISMO (ISSN 0327-5841)

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY& TOURISM ADMINISTRATION* (ISSN 1525-6480)

JAHRBUCH FÜR FREMDENVERKEHR (ISSN 0075-2649)

JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY& LEISURE MARKETING* (ISSN 1050-7051)

JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY, LEISURE, SPORTAND TOURISM EDUCATION (ISSN 1473-8376)

JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL HOSPITALITY,LEISURE & TOURISM MANAGEMENT* (ISSN 1092-3128)

JOURNAL OF QUALITY ASSURANCEIN TOURISM & HOSPITALITY* (ISSN 1528-008X)

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH (ISSN 0047-2875)

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING* (ISSN 1054-8408)

JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM* (ISSN 1531-3220)

PROBLEMS OF TOURISM (ISSN 1230-1035)

TOURISM ANALYSIS (ISSN 1083-5423)

TOURISM ECONOMICS (ISSN 1354-8166)

TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT (ISSN 1330-7533)

TOURISMUS JAHRBUCH (ISSN 1434-5676)

TOURISM MANAGEMENT (ISSN 0261-5177)

TOURISM REVIEW (ISSN 1332-7461)

TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH (ISSN 0250-8281)

TRAVEL AND TOURISM ANALYST (ISSN 0959-6186)

TOURISM : visâo e açâo (ISSN 1415-6393)

*copies are available from: HAWORTH DOCUMENT DELIVERY CENTER; The Haworth Press, Inc.: 10 Alice Street; Binghamton, NY 13904; USA

Bibliographic description is given in this form:

* detailed descriptions

Title / Author(s) // Journal’s name. Volume (year), No.,pages from-till

Tourism -selected bibliography

B i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h yB i b l i o g r a p h y

TOURISM AND THEORY, RESEARCHAND EDUCATION

* employees * internal organization of catering enterprise * Austra-lia and Oceania

An agency theory perspective on the owner/managerrelationship in tourism-based condominiums / ChrisGuilding... [et al.] // Tourism management : research -policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 409-420

* guides, interpreters * East Asia and the Pacific

Human resources development in China / Abby Liu, Ge-offrey Wall // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Scie-nces Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 689-710

TOURISM ANDECONOMY

* cruising * catering - nonaccommodation facilities

The McDonaldization thesis and cruise tourism / AdamWeaver // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social SciencesJournal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 346-366

* cruising * perceptions * satisfaction

The role of affective factors on perceived cruise vaca-tion value / Teoman Duman, Anna S. Mattila // Tourismmanagement : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005),No. 3, 311-323

* efficiency of catering enterprise * hotel industry

Measuring efficiency in the hotel sector / Carlos PestanaBarros // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social SciencesJournal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 456-477

* employees

Investigating structural relations affecting the effe-ctiveness of service management / Inwon Kang... [etal.] // Tourism management : research - policies - practice.Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 301-310

* management of catering enterprise

Knowledge management and tourism / Chris Cooper //Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal.Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 47-64

* tourism and regional development * state and tourism - generaland implementation * sustainable tourism

Collaborative policymaking : local sustainable projects /Jon Vernon... [et al.] // Annals of Tourism Research : a SocialSciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 325-345

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* tourism and regional development * sustainable tourism * SouthAfrica

Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in theOkavango Delta, Botswana / Joseph E. Mbaiwa // Touri-sm management : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26(2005), No. 2, 157-172

* tourism and regional development * tourism and culture, arts* host population attitudes

Heritage, local communities and economic develop-ment / Mark P. Hampton // Annals of Tourism Research: a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 735-759

* tourism and social aspects

Tourism and amenity migration : a longitudinal analy-sis / Walter F. Kuentzel, Varna Mukundan Ramaswamy //Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol.32 (2005), No. 2, 419-438

* tourism satellite account (TSA) * East Africa and Indian Oceanislands

Tourism satellite accounts : implementation in Tanza-nia / Amit Sharma, Michael D. Olsen // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No.2, 367-385

TOURISM MARKET

* consumer behaviour * tourism destination - diverse aspects

Destination appraisal : an analysis of critical incidents /Mark P. Pritchard, Mark E. Havitz // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1,25-46

* consumer safety and security

Risk and responsibility in tourism: promoting sun-safety / Sue Peattie, Philip Clarke, Ken Peattie // Tourismmanagement : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005),No. 3, 399-408

* marketing in tourism - instruments * tourist supply - generaland characteristics * sustainable tourism

Eco-resorts vs. mainstream accommodation providers:an investigation of the viability of benchmarking envi-ronmental performance / Jan Warnken, Melanie Bradley,Chris Guilding // Tourism management : research -policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 367-379

* tourism destination - diverse aspects

Destination stakeholders : exploring identity andsalience / Lorn R. Sheehan, J. R. Brent Ritchie // Annalsof Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32(2005), No. 3, 711-734

* tourist demand - general and characteristics * factors of touristdemand

Factors affecting bilateral tourism flows / Bruce Pride-aux // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Jour-nal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 780-801

Factors affecting bilateral tourism flows / Bruce Pride-aux // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social Sciences Jour-nal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 780-801

* tourist demand - general and characteristics * tourism statistics- theory and methodological problems * world

Modelling multivariate international tourism demandand volatility / Felix Chan, Christine Lim, Michael Mc-Aleer // Tourism management : research - policies - prac-tice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 459-471

* tourist expenditure - general and characteristics * outboundtourism * United Kingdom

Interventions on UK earnings and expenditures overse-as / John Coshall // Annals of Tourism Research : a SocialSciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 592-609

TOURISM AND SOCIETY

* decisions * market research

A grounded typology of vacation decision-making /Alain Decrop, Dirk Snelders // Tourism management :research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 121-132

* image * mega-events * East Asia and the Pacific

Change of images of South Korea among foreign tou-rists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup / Samuel SeongseopKim, Alastair M. Morrsion // Tourism management :research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 233-247

* motivations * tourist demand - general and characteristics* East Asia and the Pacific

Marketing implications arising froma a comparative studyof international pleasure tourist motivations and othertravel-related characteristics of visitors to Korea / SamuelSeongseop Kim, Bruce Prideaux // Tourism management :research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 347-357

* psychology of tourism * surveys

The managementof emotion in collaborative tourismresearch settings / Lisa Beesley // Tourism management :research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 261-275

* sociology of tourism

Sociological impressionism in a hospitality context /Paul A. Lynch // Annals of Tourism Research : a SocialSciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 527-548

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* tourism and philosophy

Reconceptualizing object authenticity / Yvette Reisin-ger, Carol J. Steiner // Annals of Tourism Research : a So-cial Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 65-86

* tourism and social aspects * sociology of tourism * volunteertourism

Social change, discourse and volunteer tourism / NancyGard McGehee, Carla Almeida Santos // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3,760-779

TOURISM ANDSPACE

* climate * recreation

Weather, climate and tourism : a geographical perspec-tive / Belen Gomez Martin // Annals of Tourism Research : aSocial Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 571-591

* historic parks, gardens * United Kingdom

Managing gardens for visitors in Great Britain: a storyof continuity and change / Joanne Connell // Tourismmanagement : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005),No. 2, 185-201

* host population * East Asia and the Pacific

Community decisionmaking : participation in develop-ment / WenJun Li // Annals of Tourism Research : a SocialSciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 132-143

* national parks and specific categories of protection * destinationmarketing * United Kingdom

Relationships, networks and the learning regions: caseevidence from the Peak District National Park / GunjanSaxena // Tourism management : research - policies - pra-ctice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 277-289

* national parks and specific categories of protection * satisfac-tion* East Asia and the Pacific

The relationship among tourists’ involvement, placeattachment and interpretation satisfaction in Taiwan’snational parks / Shiuh-Nan Hwang, Chuan Lee, Huei-JuChen // Tourism management : research - policies - practi-ce. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 143-156

* physical (regional) planning - examples * leisure time * East Asiaand the Pacific

Spatial modeling : suburban leisure in Shanghai / BihuWu, Liping A. Cai // Annals of Tourism Research : a SocialSciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 179-198

* social environment and pollution (impacts) * urban tourism* United Kingdom

The local impacts of tourism : a case study of Bath, UK /A. J. Haley, Tim Snaith, Graham Miller // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3,647-668

* specific attractions * North America

Beer tourism in Canada along the Waterloo-WellingtonAle Trail / Ryan Plummer... [et al.] // Tourism manage-ment : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3,447-458

TOURISM POLICY ANDORGANIZATION

* other methods * cruising

A dynamic game model of strategic capacity invest-ment in the cruise line industry / Byung-Wook Wie //Tourism management : research - policies - practice. Vol.26 (2005), No. 2, 203-217

* sojourn taxes * elasticity of tourist demand * Spain

The short-term price effect of a tourist tay through adynamic demand model. The case of the BalearicIslands / Eugeni Aguilo, Antoni Riera, Jaume Rossello //Tourism management : research - policies - practice. Vol.26 (2005), No. 3, 359-365

* state and tourism - general and implementation * Australiaand Oceania

Tourism policy in the making : an Australian networkstudy / Christof Pforr // Annals of Tourism Research : aSocial Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 87-108

* taxation * East Africa and Indian Ocean islands

Economics of tourism taxation : evidence from Mauri-tius / Nishaal Gooroochurn, M. Thea Sinclair // Annals ofTourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32(2005), No. 2, 478-498

STATISTICS ANDFORECASTINGIN TOURISM

* social and economical planning and forecasting, trends - general* employees

Tourism and glocalization : “local” tour guiding / NoelB. Salazar // Annals of Tourism Research : a Social SciencesJournal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 628-646

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* tourism and informatics - other * surveys * Austria

Determinants of response to customer e-mail enquiriesto hotels: evidence from Austria / Kurt Matzler... [etal.] // Tourism management : research - policies - practice.Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 249-259

TYPES OF TOURISM

* adventure tourism * consumer safety and security * UnitedKingdom

Scoping the nature and extent of adventure tourismoperations in Scotland: how safe are they? / Stephen J.Page, Tim A. Bentley, Linda Walker // Tourism manage-ment : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3,381-397

* adventure tourism * terrorism * South and Central Asia

Tourism, terrorism and turmoil in Nepal / Keshav Bhat-tarai, Dennis Conway, Nanda Shrestha // Annals of Tou-rism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005),No. 3, 669-688

* heritage tourism * host population attitudes * sustainabletourism * Central America and the Caribbean

Hospitality and reciprocity : working tourists in Do-minica / Daniel Heuman // Annals of Tourism Research :a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 407-418

* heritage tourism * image * Eastern Europe * Central Europe

Cultural tourism in Central and Eastern Europe: theviews of ‘induced image formation agents’ / HowardHughes, Danielle Allen // Tourism management : research- policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 173-183

* heritage tourism * perceptions * the Netherlands

Heritage management : motivations and ecpectations /Yaniv Poria, Arie Reichel, Avital Biran // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1,162-178

* heritage tourism * tourism and culture, arts * North America

Coconstructing heritage at the Gettysburg storyscape /Athinodoros Chronis // Annals of Tourism Research : aSocial Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 386-406

* heritage tourism * urban tourism * North America

Streetscape improvements in an historic tourist city asecond visit to King Street, Charleston, South Carolina /Stephen W. Litvin // Tourism management : research -policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 3, 421-429

* mass tourism * summer-holiday tourism * sustainable tourism

The persistence of the sun and sand tourism model /Eugeni Aguiló, Joaquín Alegre, Maria Sard // Tourismmanagement : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005),No. 2, 219-231

* mega-events * sports * Australia and Oceania

Event business leveraging : the Sydney 2000 OlimpicGames / Danny O’Brien // Annals of Tourism Research : aSocial Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 240-161

* mountain tourism * destination marketing * North America

The responsible marketing of tourism: the case of Cana-dian Mountain Holidays / Simon Hudson, Graham A.Miller // Tourism management : research - policies - prac-tice. Vol. 26 (2005), No. 2, 133-142

* rural tourism * market research * United Kingdom

A benefit segmentation of tourists in rural areas: a Scot-tish perspective / Isabelle Frochot // Tourism mana-gement : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26 (2005), No.3, 335-346

* senior citizens’ tourism * tourism destination - diverse aspects* tourism publicity and information - forms and instruments

Destination advertising : age and format effects onmemory / Kelly J. Mackay, Malcolm C. Smith // Annals ofTourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33(2006), No. 1, 7-24

* sustainable tourism * carrying capacity

Development of a tourism sustainability assessmentprocedure: a conceptual approach / Tae Gyou Ko // Tou-rism management : research - policies - practice. Vol. 26(2005), No. 3, 431-445

* sustainable tourism * social costs * West and Central Africa withislands

Community-based ecotourism : the significance of soci-al capital / Samantha Jones // Annals of Tourism Research: a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 303-324

* sustainable tourism * tourism and social aspects * CentralAmerica and the Caribbean

Social adaptation : ecotourism in the Lacandon Forest /Rosa E. Hernandez Cruz... [et al.] // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3,610-627

* sustainable tourism* tourism and social aspects* tourism andculture, arts

Conceptualizing yield : sustainable tourism mana-gement / Jeremy Northcote, Jim Macbeth // Annals ofTourism Research : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33(2006), No. 1, 199-220

* sustainable tourism

Comprehensive and minimalist dimensions of eco-tourism / David B. Weaver // Annals of Tourism Research: a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 2, 439-455

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* tourism for the handicapped

Personal and societal attitueds to disability / PherozaDaruwalla, Simon Darcy // Annals of Tourism Research :a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 32 (2005), No. 3, 549-570

* urban tourism* tourist expenditure - general and characteristics*East Asia and the Pacific

Preferences and trip expenditures - a conjoint analysis ofvisitors to Seoul, Korea / Yong Kun Suh, Leo McAvoy //Tourism management : research - policies - practice. Vol.26 (2005), No. 3, 325-333

* youth tourism* East Asia and the Pacific

Backpacking Southeast Asia : strategies of “lookinglocal” / Hamzah Muzaini // Annals of Tourism Research

: a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 144-161

* youth tourism* perceptions

The mutual gaze / Darya Maoz // Annals of TourismResearch : a Social Sciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1,221-239

* youth tourism* tourism and culture, arts

A postcolonial analysis of backpacking / Peggy Teo,Sandra Leong // Annals of Tourism Research : a SocialSciences Journal. Vol. 33 (2006), No. 1, 109-131

T. Hitrec, K. Tokić

T. Hitrec, K. Tokić

ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLETOURISM GUIDELINES

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Written by Dave Twynam, Margaret Johnston, Bob Payne, and Steve Kingston of Lakehead University,

Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada

Funded byRoyal Caribbean International and Celebrity Cruises’ Ocean Fund

Prepared for The Ecotourism Society, Marine EcotourismGuidelines Project © 1998

PO Box 755 North Bennington, VT USATel: 802-447-2121, Fax: 802-447-2122,

Email: [email protected]; URL: http://www.ecotourism.org

Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Guidelines:An Annotated Bibliography

i

Introduction

This annotated bibliography contains information about published literature and other

sources with relevance to Caribbean ecotourism and sustainable tourism guidelines. The

general theme of the bibliography is the management of tourism through sustainable tourism

frameworks with a focus on references applicable to the Caribbean guidelines project

coordinated by The Ecotourism Society and funded by Ocean Fund in 1998. The practical

element of sustainable tourism, which involves moving from theoretical constructs to

application in particular situations, has spurred a number of initiatives to define, to

encourage and to monitor sustainability. These approaches to application can be divided into

three groups: principle-based, managerial and scientific.

Principle-based approaches in sustainable tourism/ecotourism require all activities,

regardless of their scale, to respect the principles and to follow guidelines or codes of

conduct where they exist. The Charter on Sustainable Tourism is an example of this kind

of approach. The bibliography identifies several relevant examples and also collections

which contain examples of environmental principles, guidelines and codes of conduct. While

principles are the foundational statements of belief about what tourism should be, guidelines

indicate expectations about behaviour and codes of conduct set out specific actions that

should be taken to comply with the principles. Given that The Ecotourism Society intends

to develop a set of guidelines for marine ecotourism in the Caribbean, with potential for

wider applications, this bibliography highlights the principle-based approach.

Managerial initiatives comprise those that focus upon standards of practice which, if

followed, will assure achievement of sustainable tourism/ecotourism goals. The focal point

of all managerial initiatives is the individual organization which is expected to manage its

environmental impact throughout all of its activities. Examples discussed in the bibliography


ii

include industry standards, environmental audits and “best practices” management.

The scientific perspective recognizes that if sustainability is to be a policy or legislative goal,

it will require not only a definition, but also an understanding of cause and effect

relationships in ecosystems. This category is covered least in this bibliography and appears

in references to sustainability indicators.

Also included are other items of relevance generally to questions about controlling

environmental and social costs of tourism, and environmental management in the Caribbean.

While most of the sources cited have been published in traditional formats, the bibliography

also includes several Web sites.

The authors wish to thank Steve Kingston for his assistance in compiling records, and

Elizabeth Halpenny of The Ecotourism Society and Peter Mason of Massey University, New

Zealand for their careful reviews of the document. Also Royal Caribbean International and

Celebrity Cruises should be acknowledged for their financial sponsorship of this project via

Ocean Fund.


1

Reference Anderson, E. M. (1994). Towards Self-regulation forSustainable Tourism. Proceedings from the EcodollarsManagement Industry. Association of Australia, Queensland,1994.

Key Words tourism, sustainable, regulation, code of practice

Purpose C to discuss the role of the tourism industry in providingenvironmental protection through a regulatory practiceshared between industry and government

Content C a list of the Principles of Environmental Managementpublished by the Business Council of Australia

C a discussion of the systematic approach toenvironmental management, with the major focus onbest practice environmental management, specificationfor environmental management systems, andaccredited licensee

C a discussion of the challenge this presents for thetourism industry

Other


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Reference Beck, P. J. (1990). Regulating one of the last tourismfrontiers: Antarctica. Applied Geography 10, 343-356.

Key Words tourism, regulation, Antarctica

Purpose C to provide an outline of the current regulations for andmanagement of tourism and the debates overapproaches to future tourism guidelines in Antarctica

Content C a discussion of the current Antarctic regulations andguidelines for tourist activities

C an outline of the weaknesses of the existing code ofbehaviour

C a discussion of the respective merits of either theadoption of more comprehensive national legislationor the introduction of an international Antarctictourism regime

Other


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Reference Boo, E. (1994). The Ecotourism Boom: Planning forDevelopment and Management. Wildlands and Human NeedsTechnical Paper Series (Paper #2). Washington D.C., U.S.A.:World Wildlife Fund.

Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, management

Purpose C to review general issues and components ofecotourism

C to create an ecotourism strategy for protected areas tobetter manage tourists

Content C a review of ecotourism to dateC a description of potential benefits and costs of

ecotourismC an outline of the role of conservationists in ecotourismC a description of guidelines to assist park managers

develop an ecotourism strategy

Other


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Reference Borja, J.F.C. and Sanchez, M.M. (1993). Geoecodynamicassessment to improve the landscape tourist resources inCancun, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. In P.P. Wong, Tourismvs Environment: The Case for Coastal Areas (pp. 55-65).Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Key Words coastal zone, planning

Purpose C to examine the coastal environment of Cancun in orderto present opportunities and barriers for tourismplanning

Content C a description of the development of tourism and theregional setting of Cancun

C an examination of the features of the coastalenvironment

C a discussion of the proposed master plan and policiesto protect the environment from tourism

Other


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Reference Bottrill, C. G., and Pearce D. G. (1995). Ecotourism:Towards a key elements approach to operationalising theconcept. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 3(1), 45-54.

Key Words ecotourism

Purpose C to operationalize the concept of ecotourism

Content C a classification based on a set of measurable keyelements covering the participant, operator, andresource management perspectives

C a description of the survey of 22 nature-based tourismoperators in British Columbia

C the results and highlights from the study (eg. only fiveof the 22 ventures surveyed were classified asproviding ecotourism; the majority of ventures wereexcluded based on a protected area criterion)

Other


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Reference Brandon, K., and Margoluis R. (1996). Structuringecotourism success: Framework for analysis. Plenary paperpresented at “The Ecotourism Equation: Measuring theImpacts” International Society of Tropical Foresters, YaleUniversity, New Haven, Connecticut, April 12-14, 1996.

Key Words ecotourism, conservation, benefits

Purpose C to argue that the distinguishing feature of ecotourismshould be that it benefits biodiversity conservation

Content C an outline of five benefits to conservation whichshould be evident in any tourism activity which claimsto be ecotourism

C an outline of steps which need to be undertaken duringproject design which help identify links betweenproject design and project evaluation

Other


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Reference Briassoulis, H. (1995). The environmental internalities oftourism: Theoretical analysis and policy implications. In H.Coccossis, and P. Nijkamp, Sustainable Tourism Development(pp.25-39). Brookfield, U.S.A.: Avebury.

Key Words tourism policy, sustainable tourism

Purpose C to conceptualize the issue of tourism’s internalities C to offer a theoretical analysis of the tourism-

environment relationship C to suggest appropriate planning and policy approaches

to achieve sustainable tourism development

Content C a discussion of tourism’s features and its differencesfrom other economic sectors

C an analysis of the tourism-environment relationshipand clarification of the distinction between theenvironmental externalities and internalities of tourism

C an outline of public and private sector policies neededfor effective tourism planning and management

C a discussion of future research directions

Other


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Reference Buhalis, D., and Fletcher J. (1995). Environmental impacts ontourist destinations: An economic analysis. In H. Coccossis,and P. Nijkamp, Sustainable Tourism Development (pp.3-24).Brookfield, U.S.A.: Avebury.

Key Words tourism, impacts, sustainable development

Purpose C to argue that environmental impacts of tourism can begenerated within sectors directly or indirectly relatedto the tourism industry

C to assess the environmental impacts of tourism with aninput-output model

Content C a discussion of the relationship between tourism andthe environment

C an illustration of the major factors which affect theenvironmental assets at a destination level, namelylocal people, tourists, local enterprises, tour operators,and national tourist organizations

C an outline of the major economic factors whichinfluence the environment in the tourism destination

C an outline of some of the major tourism trends andstrategies worldwide

Other


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Reference Cater, E., and Lowman, G. (1994). Ecotourism: ASustainable Option? Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons.

Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development

Purpose C provide a compilation of papers mainly from theproceedings of a Royal Geographical Societyconference on ecotourism

Content C definitions of ecotourism and sustainabilityC a description of the four possible outcomes (win-win,

win-lose, lose-win, and lose-lose) betweenenvironmental and developmental interests

C several papers on the state of ecotourism in the worldC a paper on environmentally responsible marketing of

tourismC several papers on ecotourism in various destinations

around the world, including the Caribbean basin(chapter 10)

Other C description of contributors


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Reference Conlin, M.V. (1996). Revitalizing Bermuda: Tourism policyplanning in a mature island destination. In L.C. Harrison andW. Husbands, Practicing Responsible Tourism: InternationalCase Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development(pp. 80-102). Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Words planning, policy, tourism growth, Bermuda

Purpose C to examine planning and policy issues related to smallisland destinations

Content C a discussion of a variety of planning theories andC a history of tourism development and policy in

Bermuda, including the work of the Tourism PlanningCommittee

C a discussion of future growth strategies and thepotential for inclusive community planning

Other


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Reference Consulting and Audit Canada (1996). What TourismManagers Need to Know: A Practical Guide to theDevelopment and Use of Iindicators of Sustainable Tourism.Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization.

Key Words tourism, indicators, sustainable tourism

Purpose C to facilitate the development of practical indicators forthe sustainable management of tourist destinations

C to guide managers and administrators in the use ofindicators in decisions regarding tourism and theenvironment

Content C a description of core indicators of sustainable tourism(site protection, stress, use intensity, social impact,development control, waste management, planningprocess, critical ecosystems, consumer satisfaction,local satisfaction, tourism contribution to localeconomy, carrying capacity, site stress, andattractivity)

C a short description of supplementary of destination-specific indicators, including ecosystem-specificindicators and site-specific management indicators

Other C supplementary indicators of sustainable tourismC summaries of pilot studiesC key barriers to sustainable tourism C glossary of indicator types


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Reference D’Amore, L. J. (1993). A code of ethics and guidelines forsocially and environmentally responsible tourism. Journal ofTravel Research 31,64-66.

Key Words ecotourism, code of ethics

Purpose C to describe efforts at the global scale, and particularlyin Canada, to develop guidelines and codes of ethics toshape ecotourism

Content C general data on global environmental changesC a description of responses of the world tourism

industry and Canada to the challenge outlined by theBrundtland Commission

C examples of realized benefits to companiesdemonstrating environmental responsibility

Other C contact address for Tourism Industry Association ofCanada


13

Reference Davis, P. B. (1995). Antarctic visitor behaviour: Areguidelines enough? Polar Record 31(178), 327-334.

Key Words tourism, guidelines, visitor management, Antarctic

Purpose C to provide results from a visitor survey on tourists’assessments of their own behaviour and that of othertourists

C to discuss the effectiveness of voluntary visitorguidelines developed by an industry association(International Association of Antarctic TourOperators)

Content C a general discussion of visitor management in theAntarctic

C a description of the effects of sex, age, educationallevel, and cruise trip on guideline violation oradherence

C a discussion of the management challenges presentedby potential passenger violations of guidelines

Other


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Reference Dickinson, G. (1995). Environmental impacts in the LochLomond area of Scotland. In H. Coccossis, and P. Nijkamp,Sustainable Tourism Development (pp.159-168). Brookfield,U.S.A.: Avebury.

Key Words tourism, impacts, case study, management

Purpose C to examine the nature of recreational impacts, theirrole in overall environmental change in the area, andresource management strategies for the Loch Lomondregion

Content C an examination of recreation and tourism in the LochLomond area, environmental impacts, recreation andother factors causing environmental degradation, andrecreation and conservation management strategiesand systems

Other


15

Reference Driml, S. and Common, M. (1996). Ecological economicscriteria for sustainable tourism: Application to the GreatBarrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas,Australia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(1), 3-16.

Key Words tourism, sustainable, Australia

Purpose C to examine the extent to which tourism in the GreatBarrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas issustainable

Content C definitions of sustainable tourism and protected areas C an outline of principles and characteristics of

sustainable tourismC a description of tourism and its management in the

two heritage areas

Other


16

Reference Eagles, P. F. J. (1995). Management in parks: The experiencein Australia. Paper presented to State of Western AustraliaAnnual Tourism Conference on June 9, 1995: Perth,Australia.

Key Words ecotourism, issues, management

Purpose C to discuss the most important issues regarding existingmanagement structure of nature-based tourism inparks

Content C an outline of travel motives and motivations ofCanadian tourists

C a discussion of limits of acceptable change and parkzoning, management of tourist use, allocation oftourism access, market specialization, management ofrecreation conflict, enforcement and monitoring ofpolicies and programmes, consumer assurance ofquality, facility design, community development,financial viability, and public and private sectorcooperation

Other C list of references


17

Reference Eagles, P. F. J., and Nilsen P. (1997). Ecotourism: AnAnnotated Bibliography for Planners and Managers. (4thedition) North Bennington, Vermont: The EcotourismSociety.

Key Words ecotourism, bibliography, planning, management,development, infrastructure, economics, conservation,marketing

Purpose C an annotated bibliography reflecting growing interestin ecotourism as a global conservation and sustainabledevelopment tool

Content C list of 384 ecotourism related publications andpresentations

Other


18

Reference Edwards, F., editor, (1988). Environmentally Sound Tourismin the Caribbean. Proceedings of the Workshop onEnvironmentally Sound Tourism Development, April 1987,Barbados. Calgary, Alberta: The University of Calgary Press.

Key Words environmentally sound tourism, Caribbean, management

Purpose C objectives of the conference were to identify andstrengthen strategies for intergrating tourism and theenvironment and to promote better coordinationbetween tourism development and management of theenvironment

Content C nine chapters plus an introduction (not annotatedseparately)

C an emphasis on understanding tourism patterns in theCaribbean and the planning challenges faced in theregion

Other C list of conference participantsC report on a related conference (1985)C synthesis of workshop findings


19

Reference Edwards, J. (1996). Visitor management and the sustainabletourism agenda. In L. Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari, and G.Wall, Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States:Issues and Policies (pp. 137-147). New York, U.S.A.:Pinter.

Key Words sustainable tourism, visitor management

Purpose C to discuss the role of visitor management inameliorating the undesirable impacts of tourism andthe potential for moving tourism towards a moresustainable approach

Content C a brief discussion of the concept of sustainabilityC a review of various visitor management approaches

from a range of clearly-defined destinationsC a discussion of the balance between the needs of the

visitor and the needs of the resourceC a discussion of managing tourists on islands

Other


20

Reference Farrell, T. (1995). A research framework to assess thebiophysical impacts of nature-based tourism: A thesisproject. In Proceedings of the 1995 Northeastern RecreationResearch Symposium (General Technical Report NE-218,pp.267-273). Saratoga Springs, New York: United StatesDepartment of Agriculture.

Key Words ecotourism, impacts, management

Purpose C to propose a general research framework to setnature-based tourism industry standards, influencepolicy decision making, and establish linkagesbetween biophysical impacts and the activities ofnature tour operators, guides, and tourism

Content C a discussion of the positive and negative biophysicalimpacts linked to tourism activities

C a description of the general research frameworkdesign

C an examination of a case study in Belize, CentralAmerica, to determine the availability of researchrelated resources and consider factors affecting theproposed framework’s ability to establish linkagebetween impacts and activities

C recommendations for the general research framework


21

Reference German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. (1997).Biodiversity and Tourism: Conflicts on the World’s Seacoastsand Strategies for their Solution. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.

Key Words biodiversity, tourism protocol, sustainable development

Purpose C to outline problems associated with tourismdevelopment along seacoasts and to present solutionsto these problems

Content C case studies examining tourism uses and solutions toproblems

C a discussion of legal aspects and the need forregulations

C a review of the global situation regarding tourism andcoastal biodiversity

C a focus on European marine and coastal ecosystems

Other C Appendices include tourism statistics for theCaribbean (Appendix E) and several relevantdocuments


22

Reference Harris, R., and Leiper, N. (1995). Sustainable Tourism: AnAustralian Perspective. Newton, U.S.A.: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development

Purpose C to examine how tourism industry businesses andorganizations are responding to the challenge oflinking development, environment, and society topromote the goal of sustainable development

C to provide examples of how selected tourism industryassociations, government departments, andconservation bodies have facilitated this response

Content C an overview of sustainable development within thetourism industry

C a description of 19 case studies to detail how selectedfirms and organizations have responded to thechallenge of sustainable tourism development

C case studies were selected to represent either a naturalattraction and management authority, organization,accommodation provider, or tour operator

Other C a suggested reading list on sustainable developmentand tourism


23

Reference Holder, J.S. (1996). Maintaining competitiveness in a newworld order: Regional solutions to Caribbean tourismsustainability problems. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands,Practicing Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies inTourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 145-173).Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Words carrying capacity, waste disposal, coastal pollution, Caribbean

Purpose C to examine issues related to the sustainability oftourism in the Caribbean

C to address sustainability in a regional framework

Content C a description of the history of tourism in the Caribbeanregion

C an outline of current issues and perspectivesC a discussion of product quality, profitability, regional

promotion, transportation, security and linkages

Other


24

Reference Hunter, C. (1997). Sustainable tourism as an adaptiveparadigm. Annals of Tourism Research 24(4), 850-867.

Key Words tourism, sustainable, principles and practices

Purpose C to show that the concept of sustainable tourism hasevolved in isolation from that of sustainabledevelopment, resulting in the emergence of a simplisticand inflexible paradigm of sustainable tourism whichfails to account for specific circumstances

Content C a discussion of reconnecting the concerns ofsustainable tourism with those of sustainabledevelopment

C a review of the foundations of sustainabledevelopment and a discussion of the implications forthe principles and practice of sustainable tourism

Other


25

Reference Hunter, C. and Green, H. (1995). Tourism and the Environment. NewYork, NY: Routledge.

Key Words tourism, environment, sustainability, management

Purpose C to provide an analysis of the relationship between tourismdevelopment and environmental quality, with sustainable tourismdevelopment as the central theme

C to review relevant tourism and environmental managementliterature and discussions held at international conferences

Content C a review of the impacts of tourism on the quality of the natural,built, and cultural resources which support tourism

C a discussion of sustainable development and the principles andimplications of sustainable tourism development

C an outline of appropriate policy directions for sustainable tourismdevelopment

C a discussion of land use planning and Environmental ImpactAssessment as instruments in putting the principles of sustainabletourism development into practice

Other


26

Reference International Fund for Animal Welfare, Tethys ResearchInstitute, and Europe Conservation (1996). Report of theWorkshop on the Scientific Aspects of Managing WhaleWatching in Montecastello di Vibio, Italy 30 March - 4th th

April 1995. East Sussex, United Kingdom: International Fundfor Animal Welfare.

Key Words whale watching, management

Purpose C to develop a framework to guide the process ofdefining new rules and modifying existing rules forwhale watching

C to provide a list of recommendations for furtherresearch

Content C an outline of the variables associated with whale-watching impacts

C a list of parameters that can be used to measure theimpacts of whale watching

C a description of short-term and long-term impacts ofwhale watching and possible causal links

C rules and recommendations for whale watching

Other C list of workshop participants


27

Reference Johnston, M. E. (1997). Polar tourism regulation strategies:Controlling visitors through codes of conduct and legislation.Polar Record 33(184), 13-20.

Key Words tourism, visitor management, Arctic, Antarctic

Purpose C to summarize several approaches to visitor regulationin polar regions in order to illustrate the ways in whichconcerns about tourist impacts are being addressed

Content C a description of tourist behaviour regulation andgeneral issues of strategy effectiveness

C an examination of the approaches to visitor regulationused in the Antarctic and on Svalbard as examples thatmay be of use in the further development of strategiesin the Arctic

C a discussion of an evolving strategy for control in theNorthwest Territories, Canada

Other


28

Reference Lake Superior Bi-National Program (1995). EcosystemPrinciples and Objectives: Indicators and Targets for LakeSuperior. Discussion Paper.

Key Words ecosystem, principles, indicators, Lake Superior

Purpose C to expand the broad objectives of ‘A Vision for LakeSuperior’ into more specific principles and objectives

C to facilitate progress towards a set of informationecosystem indicators with quantitative targets

C to provide guidance for land and water management inLake Superior ecosystems

Content C a description of the general objectives and targets ofthe Lake Superior Work Group

C a detailed outline of indicators and targets to meet theobjectives for terrestrial wildlife, habitat, humanhealth, sustainability, social infrastructure, and culturalvalues

Other C list of contributors


29

Reference Leon, C., and Gonzalez M. (1995). Managing theenvironment in tourism regions: The case of the CanaryIslands. European Environment 5, 171-177.

Key Words tourism, environment, management, Canary Islands

Purpose C to focus on the main environmental problems in theCanary Islands resulting from the development processand to show how local authorities are dealing withthese problems

Content C a list of the local and regional sources ofenvironmental problems with respect to social,economic, geographical, and ecological aspects

C a discussion of the main environmental issues faced bymanagers within the Canary Islands (e.g., wastemanagement, water resources, water management,water legislation, land resources, land regulation,tourism act, and energy and transportation demands)

C an outline of the Canary Islands Environmental ActionPlan

Other


30

Reference Lindberg, K., and Hawkins D.E. (1993). Ecotourism: AGuide for Planners and Managers. North Bennington,Vermont: The Ecotourism Society.

Key Words ecotourism, principles, planning, management

Purpose C to fill the void in the practical aspects of ecotourismplanning and management

Content C an outline of challenges in the field of ecotourism andadvice on addressing them, including the tools to lookat demand, use and impact, income distribution,resource inventory, policy formulation, planning,management, training, and local participation

Other C list and description of editors and contributorsC country and site index


31

Reference Mason, P. (1994). A visitor code for the Arctic. TourismManagement 15(2), 93-97.

Key Words tourism, codes of conduct, visitor management, Arctic

Purpose C to investigate the use of visitor codes as a technique intourism management

Content C a discussion of the development of ecotourism in thecontext of the use of codes

C a discussion of the nature and use of visitor codes in anumber of developed and developing countries,including a critique of the use of the codes

C a suggested draft of visitor codes for the Arctic thatincludes some ideas obtained from the author’s ownexperiences and from the World Wide Fund for NatureArctic Programme Director

Other


32

Reference Mason, P. (1997). Tourism codes of conduct in the Arctic andSub-Arctic Region. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(2), 151-165.

Key Words tourism, codes of conduct, Arctic

Purpose C to investigate the nature and use of tourism codes ofconduct in the Arctic and sub-Arctic region within thecontext of the Arctic Environmental ProtectionStrategy and the recently created Arctic Council

C to consider tourism codes in relation to the WorldWide Fund for Nature’s initiative to develop Arctictourism guidelines

Content C a discussion of the scale and nature of tourismactivities in the region and the environmental andsocio-cultural impacts of tourism

C a review of Arctic and sub-Arctic tourism codes ofconduct with particular reference to aims, authorship,audience, and content

C a discussion of issues in relation to the use, limitations,and potential for codes of conduct; includingsuggestions on overcoming problems

Other


33

Reference Mason, P., and Mowforth, M. (1996). Codes of conduct intourism.Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research 2 (2), 151-166.

Key Words tourism, codes of conduct

Purpose C to outline the types of organizations which haveproduced codes of conduct for use in the touristindustry

Content C a discussion of codes of conduct aimed at the tourist,industry, and hosts

C a presentation of the essential elements of each type ofcode

C a disacussion of issues C essential elements include: monitoring and evaluation

of codes of conduct, use of codes as a form ofmarketing, the regulation or voluntary self-regulationof the use of codes, and the variability between codesand the resulting need for coordination

Other


34

Reference Mihalic, T. (1996). Ecological labeling in tourism. In L.Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari, and G. Wall, SustainableTourism in Islands and Small States: Issues and Policies (pp.197-205). New York, U.S.A.: Pinter.

Key Words tourism, marketing, label

Purpose C to discuss labelling of the tourist product from theecological view point

Content C definitions of the nature of the tourist product and themeaning of ecological labels

C a description of the distinction between labels used forindustry and those used for tourism

C a discussion of the importance of labelling to small-island states

Other


35

Reference Nitsch, B., and Straaten J. (1995). Rural tourismdevelopment: Using a sustainable tourism developmentapproach. In H. Coccossis, and P. Nijkamp, SustainableTourism Development (pp.169-185). Brookfield, U.S.A.:Avebury.

Key Words tourism, case studies, sustainable tourism

Purpose C to investigate the implementation of sustainabletourism in La Sierra in La Rioja in Spain, and in theNorthern Pennines in the United Kingdom

Content C a description of previous field studies undertaken in LaSierra and the Northern Pennines in 1992 and 1993

C an investigation of how effectively sustainable tourismcould be realized in these regions, the initiatives ofregional authorities, and the role of the EuropeanUnion in these regions

C a discussion of the obstacles and barriers for attainingsustainable tourism in these regions

Other


36

Reference Orams, M. B. (1995). Towards a more desirable form ofecotourism. Tourism Management 16(1), 3-8.

Key Words ecotourism, definition

Purpose C to review definitions of the term ecotourism andpresent them as a continuum where, at one pole, alltourism can be viewed as ecotourism and, at the other,no tourism can be viewed as ecotourism

Content C a discussion of the origins and definitions of the termecotourism

C an outline of a conceptual framework describing thetransition and form that ecotourism should take

C a description of indicators which can be used tomeasure progress towards a more desirable state ofecotourism

Other


37

Reference Orams, M. B. (1996). Using interpretation to manage nature-based tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(2), 81-94.

Key Words tourism, impact, management

Purpose C to provide an argument for educating tourists as aneffective means of reducing negative impacts onnature-based tourism

Content C a discussion of the rapid growth of nature-basedtourism and outline of concerns being expressed overthe impacts of this industry

C arguments for interpretation-based managementstrategies

C an outline of several specific educational techniquesC a list of questions for empirical research in the area of

tourism management

Other


38

Reference Parks Canada (1996). Best Practices for Parks Canada Trails:A Spectrum of Appropriate Trail Activities, Services, andFacilities. Canada: Parks Canada.

Key Words parks, trails, best practice, guidelines

Purpose C to provide a snapshot of appropriate visitor activitiesand services under the jurisdiction of Parks Canadathat must be supported by trails and their associatedfacilities

Content C an analysis of information on trail-related visitoractivities, services, and facilities in National Parks,Historic Sites, and Canals

C a description of guidelines for existing trail standardsand for future trail installations and recapitalization ofolder trails

C a presentation of a spectrum of best practice examplesand standards that reflect harmony among protectionof heritage values, public safety, visitor activityrequirements, and aesthetics (such as scale, form, andtexture) in ways that are appropriate to the setting

Other


39

Reference Place, S.E. (1998). How sustainable is ecotourism in CostaRica?. In C.M.Hall and A.A. Lew, Sustainable Tourism: AGeographical Perspective (pp. 107-118). New York, U.S.A.:Longman.

Key Words ecotourism, parks, impacts, local people

Purpose C to explore whether ecotourism is playing a role ineconomic development and providing benefits to localpeople

Content C a description of ecotourism, park-based tourism andtourism generally in Costa Rica

C a case study of the development of tourism inTortuguero, on the Caribbean coast

C an assessment of the sustainable tourism potential ofTortuguero

Other


40

Reference Saleh, F., and Karwacki J. (1996). Revisiting the ecotourist:The case of Grasslands National Park. Journal of SustainableTourism 4(2), 61-80.

Key Words ecotourism, profile, Grasslands National Park

Purpose C to define the demographic, sociographic, andpsychographic attributes of ecotourists, especiallythose who travel independently

C to provide insight into travel motivations, preferences,and satisfaction pertaining to the ecotourist

C to develop recommendations for ecotourism plannersand managers

Content C a review of recent literature on ecotouristsC a summary of the results of two studies conducted in

Grasslands National Park and comparison to existingknowledge on attributes of ecotourists

C a discussion of the managerial implications thatemerge from the two studies

Other


41

Reference Sirakaya, E. (1997). Attitudinal compliance with ecotourismguidelines. Annals of Tourism Research 24(4), 919-950.

Key Words ecotourism, guidelines

Purpose C to examine the compliance attitudes of ecotourismoperators with industry codes of conduct delineated inThe Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Based TourOperators

Content C a discussion of positive and negative influences ofecotourism

C a discussion of the regulations, guidelines, andcompliance of ecotourism operators including asummary of The Ecotourism Society’s EcotourismGuidelines for nature tour operators

C a description of compliance theory and the researchmethodology

Other


42

Reference Sirakaya, E. And Muzaffer, U. (1997). Can sanctions andrewards explain conformance behaviour of tour operatorswith ecotourism guidelines? Journal of Sustainable Tourism5(4), 322-11.

Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, compliance

Purpose C to explore the value of sanctions and rewards aspotential predictors of compliance behaviour amongecotourism operators

Content C a discussion The Ecotourism Society guidelines fornature based tour

C a description of utility theory, rewards and sanctionsand their application to ecotourism operators

C a discussion of the implications of results formanagement and policy options

Other


43

Reference Splettstoesser, J. and Folks, M. C. (1994). Environmentalguidelines for tourism in Antarctica. Annals of TourismResearch 21(2), 231-244.

Key Words tourism, impact, guidelines, Antarctica

Purpose C to discuss the need for and the current environmentalguidelines for tourism in Antarctica

Content C a discussion of the history of tourism in AntarcticaC a discussion of the need for tourism guidelinesC an outline of guidelines for Antarctic Tour Operators,

Antarctic Visitors, and Conservation

Other


44

Reference Stabler, M. J., and Goodall, B. (1996). Environmentalauditing in planning for sustainable island tourism. In L.Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari, and G. Wall, SustainableTourism in Islands and Small States: Issues and Policies (pp.170-196). New York, U.S.A.: Pinter.

Key Words sustainable tourism, planning, case studies

Purpose C to examine how sustainable tourism might contributeto the introduction of environmental auditing by theindustry in small island destinations, including theprocedures for its conduct and the subsequentmonitoring of its effects

Content C a discussion of the role of planning in pursuingsustainable development and tourism’s relationship toit

C an outline of the tourism base and examination ofenvironmental auditing within the context of smallislands

C examples to illustrate the current situation and thepotential for implementing environmental auditingwithin existing planning structures

C the identification of the organization and structure fordeveloping auditing and the required private sectorresponses to ensure sustainable tourism development


45

Reference Sweeting, J. (n.d.). Marine Ecotourism Information Package.North Bennington, U.S.A.: The Ecotourism Society.

Key Words ecotourism, marine, coral reefs

Purpose C to present guidelines for responsible marineecotourists

Content C a description of coral reef and ecosystem destructionand the challenge facing marine ecotourism

C an outline of general rules a responsible marineecotouist should follow for wildlife viewing,recreational boating, and snorkeling/scuba diving

C a description of how ecotourists can help amelioratethe problem of marine ecosystem degradation

Other C list of marine organizations


46

Reference The Ecotourism Society (n.d.). A Collection of EcotourismGuidelines. North Bennington, U.S.A.: The EcotourismSociety.

Key Words ecotourism, travel ethics, code of conduct/ethics, principlesand practices

Purpose C to provide a collection of papers outlining generalguidelines and ethics with respect to travelers, touroperators, wildlife watchers, and people participatingin ecotourist activities

Content C lists of codes of conduct and ethics for ecotouristsC an outline of principles and practices of ecotourismC guidelines for viewing wildlife, with specific papers on

birding and protecting manateesC guidelines for specific ecotourist activities

(recreational boating, diving, plant collecting, hikingand camping)

C case studies of guidelines and codes of conduct inAntarctica and Gwaii Haanas/South Moresby NationalPark

Other


47

Reference The Ecotourism Society (n.d.). The Ecotourism Society FactSheet Collection. Vermont, U.S.A.: The Ecotourism Society:North Bennington.

Key Words ecotourism, ecotourist profile

Purpose C to provide general ecotourism information andincrease the understanding of patterns of ecotourism

Content C a fact sheet on the importance of ecotourism in theglobal market

C a profile of the general ecotouristC an outline of criteria helpful in seeking a responsible

ecotourism operatorC a list of rules to follow when participating in marine

ecotourism activitiesC an inventory of ecotourism or nature-based tourism

courses offered by universities in the U.S.A. and adescription of the educational format and focus ofthese courses

Other


48

Reference Thomlinson, E., and Donald G. (1996). The question of scalein ecotourism: Case study of two small ecotour operators inthe Mundo Maya region of Central America. Journal ofSustainable Tourism 4(4), 183-200.

Key Words ecotourism, scale, case study, Central America

Purpose C to address the issue of scale in ecotourism withspecific reference to the costs and benefits of largeversus small-scale development, tour groups, and touroperators

Content C a case study of two small ecotourism businessesoperating in the Mundo Maya region of CentralAmerica

C a discussion of comparisons based on organization,tours offered, owners’ opinions, impacts, and issuespertaining to the Mundo Maya business environment

C discussions of important policy, planning andmarketing questions related to ecotourism andsustainable development in this destination, and on thegeneral issue of scale

Other


49

Reference Todd, S. E., and Williams P. W. (1996). From white to green:A proposed environmental management system framework forski areas. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(3), 147-173.

Key Words tourism, management, code of conduct, sustainable tourism

Purpose C to describe the evolution of sustainable tourism fromits concept to practice

Content C a description of three phases to the evolution ofsustainable tourism: development of principles,translation of principles into practice, and creation andimplementation of environmental auditing ormonitoring programmes

C a discussion of the need for a systematic approach tomanaging the ski area industry in a sustainable fashion

C a description of how managers may achieve anenvironmental management system

C reports on the findings of a survey of Canadian andUnited States ski area managers concerningenvironmental management system activities in theiroperations

Other


50

Reference United Nations Environment Programme (1995).Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism: TechnicalReport NE29. Paris, France: United Nations EnvironmentProgramme.

Key Words tourism, codes of conduct

Purpose C to make available to governments, industry, and otherparties a summary of tourism codes, and to providethose who wish to create new codes some guidance asto how this is best done

Content C a review of existing codes of conduct at the nationaland international levels which relate to the industry asa whole and to particular sectors of the industry

C a review of codes related to tourists and to hostpopulations

C suggestions of the key areas to be covered indeveloping codes of conduct for the industry andexamples of clauses from existing codes which coverthese areas

C examples of programmes and initiatives carried out bygovernments, industry associations, companies, andNon-Governmental Organizations in support ofsustainable tourism practices

Other C list of references, useful addresses, and abbreviationsC appendix on the World Tourism Organization’s

tourism bill of rights and tourist code


51

Reference Wahab, S. and Pigram, J.J. (1997). Tourism Development andGrowth:The Challenges of Sustainability. London, England:Routledge.

Key Words sustainable tourism

Purpose C to examine the concept of sustainability as related totourism

Content C 16 chapters discussing sustainability and tourism C sections on trends in tourism and limits to growth;

balancing growth with sustainability; opportunities andchallenges; and perspectives on sustainable tourism

Other


52

Reference Wilkinson, P.F. (1996). Graphical images of theCommonwealth Caribbean: The tourist area cycle ofevolution. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands, PracticingResponsible Tourism: International Case Studies in TourismPlanning, Policy and Development (pp. 16-40). Toronto,Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Words cycle, destination, graphical images

Purpose C to explore the usefulness of the cycle approach inunderstanding tourism patterns in the CommonwealthCaribbean

C to use graphical images as illustration of the cycleconcept

Content C an outline of three models of tourist area cycle ofevolution and a discussion of problems associated withthese

C a description of six case studies using data such visitorexpenditures, stay over visitor numbers, total visitorarrivals and annual tourist nights

C a discussion of the issues for destinations based on thedata exploration

Other


53

Reference Williams, P. W. (1992). Tourism and the environment: Noplace to hide. World Leisure and Recreation 34(2), 12-17.

Key Words tourism, sustainable development

Purpose C to outline some of the current environmental issueswith an effect on the tourism industry and tourism’srole in these

C to recommend policy actions for the tourism industryto move toward a strategy of sustainable development

Content C a discussion of the major environmental problems oftoday (i.e., atmospheric pollution, water pollution,deforestation, wildlife depletion, and soil erosion)

C a discussion of policy and principles of environmentalplanning and management for tourism development

Other


54

Reference World Tourism Organization (1995). Strategy for survival:Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism industry. World TourismOrganization News 5, 9-12.

Key Words tourism, sustainable development, principles, goals

Purpose C to provide an in-depth look at travel and tourism’snew approach to implementing the environmentalaction plan of the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (i.e.Agenda 21)

Content C an outline of three basic approahces to developingsustainable tourism (introduction of new regulations,use of free-market mechanisms, and industry-ledvoluntary programmes)

C an outline of 12 principles of sustainable developmentC a discussion of the nine priorities for governments,

NTAs and trade associations to follow in drafting andimplementing their sustainable tourism programme

C a discussion of ten priority action areas for privateenterprises in the travel and tourism industry

Other C information on obtaining a copy of the 78 pagebooklet of Agenda 21 for the Travel & TourismIndustry


55

Reference Ziffer, K. A. (1989). Ecotourism: The Uneasy Alliance.Conservation International: Ernst & Young.

Key Words ecotourism, policy, strategies

Purpose C to provide background for an evaluation ofecotourism’s viability in promoting and financingconservation and economic development in lessdeveloped countries

C to focus on the market for nature-based travel in theU.S. and the variables which determine the impact oftravel on the destination

Content C a definition of ecotourismC a description of markets for ecotourismC an outline of ecotourism market size and growthC a profile of ecotouristsC a discussion of promoting and financing both

conservation and economic developmentC a list of key success factors for an ecotourism program

Other C bibliography


56

Reference Azkarate, T. (1995). One Europe Magazine: WorldConference on Sustainable Tourism [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.informatic.rwth-aachen.de/AEGEE/articles/oe8/t-worldc.html

Key Words sustainable tourism

Purpose C to describe highlights from the First World Conferenceon Sustainable Tourism in Lanzarote Island

Content C general facts on world tourism industryC a description of the main objectives of the conference

(i.e., draw up bases for sustainable touristdevelopment - with regard to natural resources,natural and cultural heritage and socio-economicdevelopment - and to promote the search foralternatives and new tourist products which respectsthe environment and cultural heritage)

C a discussion of the charter, conclusions, andrecommendations from the conference

Other


57

Reference Conservation International (n.d.). Conservation InternationalField Reports: Ecotourism [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.conservation.org/web/fieldact/c-c_prog/Ecotouri.htm

Key Words ecotourism, web site links

Purpose C to promote ecotourism through education onconservation and sustainable development

Content C discussions on ecotourism as a tool for conservation,history of Conservation International (CI), and CI’scommitment to ecotourism as a tool for ecosystemconservation

C examples of CI involvement in world conservationprojects (e.g., Guatemala, Brazil, Indonesia,Philippines, Papua New Guinea)

C a list of web site links (e.g., ecotourism highlights)

Other C link to Conservation International home page


58

Reference The Earth Pledge Foundation (n.d.). Sustainable Tourism:What is it? [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.earthpledge.org/about/tourism.html

Key Words sustainable tourism, web site links

Purpose C to promote sustainable tourism

Content C a discussion of what sustainable tourism isC web site links to various sustainable tourism articles

(e.g., Overview of sustainable tourism, Regionalsolutions to Caribbean tourism, Marketing sustainabletourism, etc.)

Other C Earth Pledge Foundation discussion on books aboutsustainable tourism


59

Reference Educational Communications (n.d.). Project Ecotourism[HOME page]. URLhttp://home.earthlink.net/~dragonflight/ecotour.htm

Key Words ecotourism, responsible travel

Purpose C to increase awarness of Project Ecotourism, anorganization that promotes ecotourism to conserveecosystems and wildlife and to assist localcommunities through responsible travel that preservescultures and natural environments

Content C a definition of ecotourism and description of theorganization’s goals and services

C a description of ways to be responsible and ecologicalincluding a list of DOs and DON’Ts and questions forconsumers to ask a tour company

Other C link to the Educational Communications home page


60

Reference The Ecotourism Association of Australia (n.d.). TheEcotourism Association [LORENZ page]. URLhttp://lorenz.mur.csu.edu.au/ecotour/EAAHome.html

Key Words ecotourism, codes of conduct, association, Australia, web sitelinks

Purpose C to provide an opportunity for members to get involvedin all aspects of ecotourism and to develop anunderstanding of the ecotourism industry and ofnatural and cultural area management needs

Content C a discussion of reasons why organizations should jointhe Ecotourism Association of Australia, theassociation’s aim, goals of the association, donationsand sponsorships, and services provided by theassociation

C web site links to newsletters, codes of practice,conferences and workshops, contacts, research trendsand case studies, and others

Other


61

Reference Great Outdoor Recreation Pages (n.d.). Ecotourism:Achieving a Balance [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.gorp.com/gorp/features/misc/ecotour.htm

Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, web site links

Purpose C to promote ecotourism and provide seven principles ofecotourism that illustrate the foundation required forecotourism to reach its potential for travelers,indigenous peoples, local business, and the community

Content C a description of the seven principles developed by KirkHoessle (i.e., remote and relatively unaltered naturalenvironments, low impact on the natural environment,educational emphasis, benefit to the local economyand local inhabitants, development must willinglysubject limitations, contribute to local non-profitefforts for environmental protection, and have spirit ofappreciation, participation, and sensitivity)

Other C web site links to other GORP pages (e.g., attractions,activities, locations, books & media, travel)


62

Reference The GreenMoney Journal (1995). Ecotravel: TheAdventurous Journey Towards Sustainability [WWW page].URL http://www.greenmoney.com/gmj/ecotrav1.htm.

Key Words ecotourism, sustainable tourism, code of ethics, web site links

Purpose C to provide a general information package on globalecotravel

Content C general information on ecotourism, includingdefinition, top destinations, monetary value, andpotential impacts

C short descriptions of ecotour operators, travel ideas,and travel resources

C a description of The Ecotourism SocietyC a discussion of ethical travel including an ecotourism

code of ethics for both ecotourists and ecotouroperators

Other C list of numerous links to other ecotravel publicationsand resources: recent articles, books and guidebooks,magazines and newsletters, research expeditions andvolunteer opportunities, ecotravel companies, andecotravel organizations


63

Reference Hill, C. (1998). Eco-Source: Information and ServicesRegarding Ecotourism and Sustainable Development [WWWpage]. URL http://www.podi.com/ecosource/

Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development, web site links

Purpose C to provide links to sustainable development andecotourism for tourists, students, professionals,professors, researchers, and policy-makers

Content C web site links to the global ecotourism community(e.g., destinations, ecotours and tour operators),research and resources (e.g., conservation, designguidelines, statistics, policy), environmental education(e.g., the ecotourism industry and marketplace,environmental issues, biodiversity loss, travelindustry),eco-related web sites (e.g., ecotourism, eco-publications, link list sites), job and career information,and others

Other C web site statistics on the eco-source site


64

Reference Island Resources Foundations (1996). Guidance for BestManagement Practices for Caribbean Coastal Tourism[WWW page]. URL http://www.irf.org/ir_bmp.html

Key Words tourism, impacts, best practices, Caribbean, web site links

Purpose C to promote action to minimize land-based sources ofpollution caused by the tourism industry whichnegatively impact coastal and marine resources

C to determine the level of coastal degradation, the bestapproaches and practices available, and effectivepublic awareness and training activities

Content C an overview of coastal degradation and a three-dimensional framework for analyzing theenvironmental effects of coastal tourism

C a discussion of requirements for management practicesto be addressed by the tourism industry

C guidance for private and public planners, managers,and policy makers in the Caribbean for the adoption ofbest management practices by tourism facilities andsupport services

C list of references

Other C guide to using the web to find best managementpractices

C web site linksC contact address for Island Resources Foundation


65

Reference The Latin American Alliance (1997). Ecotourism ReferenceLinks [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.latinsynergy.org/ecotourism2.htm

Key Words ecotourism, web site links

Purpose C to promote ecotourism and provide an extensive list ofweb site links on ecotourism in Latin America

Content C an extensive list of web site documents on ecotourismarticles and travel information sources in LatinAmerica

Other C web site link to The Latin American Alliance


66

Reference Lewis, S. (1996). Analysis of ISO 14000 ManagementSystems: A Community Environmental Perspective [WWWpage]. URLhttp://www.envirolink.org/envlib/orgs/gnp/iso1.html

Key Words environment, management, guidelines, web site links

Purpose C to evaluate the significance of the ISO 14000 standardfrom a community environmental perspective

Content C a discussion of the International Organization forStandardization (ISO) and criticisms of theprogramme

C an overview of the ISO 14000 series of environmentalmanagement standards

C a discussion of the potential of and limits to ISO14000 as a stand-alone process, including the value ofa management and auditing process, the shortcomingsof a goal-less management process, lack of publicaccountability system, shortcomings of thecertification process, and international preemptionconcerns

C a discussion of regulatory system linkages

Other C a description of the authorC web site links


67

Reference Mader, R. (1998). Eco Travels in the Caribbean [WWWpage]. URLhttp://www2.planeta.com/mader/ecotravel/carib/carib.html

Key Words ecotourism, Caribbean, web site links

Purpose C to promote ecotourism and review environmentalissues and tourism in the Caribbean

Content C an extensive list of web site links on ecotourism in theCaribbean including links to specific destinations (e.g.,Aruba, Bahamas, Bermuda, Belize, DominicanRepublic, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Puerto Rico,Tobago, and others)

C a list of ecotourism resource links

Other


68

Reference Mader, R. (1998). Sustainable Development and theAmericas: Exploring Ecotourism [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.txinfinet.com/mader/ecotravel/etour.html

Key Words ecotourism, sustainable development, Latin America, web sitelinks

Purpose C to provide specific links to ecotourism materials on theEco Travel site and other internet resources of use totravelers, researchers, and entrepreneurs

Content C a description of ecotourism and its definitionC an extensive list of web site links to conferences and

congresses, environmental travel contacts, ecotourismsurveys, general background on what ecotourism is,problems with ecotourism, other academic work, etc.

C a list of web site links to specific areas (e.g.,Honduras, Costa Rica, Mexico, Ecuador)

C a list of web site links to other ecotourismorganizations

Other C link to Eco Travels in Latin America web site(http://www.planeta.com/)


69

Reference National Audubon Society (1989). The National AudubonSociety Travel Ethic for Environmentally Responsible Travel[WWW page]. URLhttp://www.ecotourism.org/textfiles/audubon.txt

Key Words tourism, ethics, guidelines

Purpose C to encourage all tour operators promoting explorationin wilderness areas to adopt appropriate guidelines

Content C a general discussion of the potential and actual conflictbetween tourism development and the naturalenvironment

C a list of seven guidelines for tour operators to followC a discussion of and examples for each guideline

Other


70

Reference Norman, W. C., Frauman E., Toepper L., and Sirakaya E.(1997). Green Evaluation Program and Compliance of NatureTour Operators [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.ecotourism.org/textfiles/sirak.txt

Key Words ecotourism, guidelines, codes of conduct, monitoring

Purpose C to develop and analyze a method for examiningcompliance behaviour of nature tour operators withThe Ecotourism Society’s (TES) guidelines

Content C a general discussion of ecotourism’s growth anddevelopment, with a focus on the formation of codesof conduct, standards, and guidelines to aid in themanagement of the ecotourism product

C a description of TES ecotourism guidelines for natureoperators

C a description of an Ecuadorian ecotourism survey: thespecific goals were to develop an evaluation processfor the performance of nature tour operators usingTES guidelines; to provide information enabling TESto market ecotourism guidelines; and, to implementthe consumer evaluation program in Ecuador

C in-depth results and discussion sectionsC outline of the future use of green evaluations and

recommendations

Other


71

Reference Office of National Tourism (1995). Best Practice Ecotourism:A Guide to Energy and Waste Minimisation [WWW page].URLhttp://www.dist.gov.au/tourism/publications/BPE/Start.html

Key Words ecotourism, best practice, guidelines, web site links

Purpose C to provide a means of assessing energy consumptionand waste generation and offer suggestions forimproving energy and waste management for 25specific activities

Content C discussions of general issues of energy consumptionand waste generation minimisation (e.g., currentindustry practices, towards best practices, assessingcosts and benefits, principles)

C a comprehensive list of guidelines for a variety ofecotourism activities and waste management

C a list of links for assistance and advice

Other


72

Reference Oostdam, B. L., & Billeter, P. A. (n.d.). Integrated CoastalArea Management and Public Perceptions in the CaribbeanIslands [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.millersv.edu/~ccs/tcontents.html

Key Words tourism, management, perceptions, Caribbean Islands, website links

Purpose C to describe public perceptions of the hazards ofearthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, floods andlandslides, as well as the human-caused problems ofmarine pollution, beach mining, coastal erosion anddegradation of vulnerable coastal environments

Content C a description of the integrated coastal areamanagement in the Caribbean Islands

C discussion of several major topics: natural hazards,anthropogenic problems, coastal resources, laws andregulations of Coastal Area Management (CAM), andCAM adjuncts

Other C links and other information on separate study projectsand conferences on the Caribbean Islands

C links to additional tourism/ecotourism information


73

Reference Sierra Club (1993). Sierra Club Policy: Ecotourism [WWWpage]. URL http://www.sierraclub.org/policy/722.html

Key Words ecotourism, policy, principles, management

Purpose C to provide principles for ecotourism planning andmanagement which governmental agencies, planners,and environmental groups promoting or supportingtourism should follow

Content C a description of 11 planning and managementprinciples

Other C link to Sierra Club home page


74

Reference Stringer, L. (1994). Tourism and Costa Rica: Vanguard or oldguard? [Gopher page]. URLgopher://csf.colorado.edu/00/envir.../ecotourism-Costa-Rica.LStringer94

Key Words ecotourism, case study, principles, sustainable tourism

Purpose C to present a critical analysis of ecotourism in CostaRica

Content C a general description of the problems of theconventional tourism in order to create a context bywhich to view ecotourism

C a description of the ideal of ecotourismC an examination of some problems that confront

ecotourism in the progress from ideal to realityC an analysis of the Costa Rican tourist industry toassess

its implementation of the ideals of ecotourism intopractice

Other C listing of 10 principles for sustainable tourism


75

Reference The Ecotourism Society (1997). Ecotourism Explorer: A Sitefor Discovery of the Ecotourism Path for Researchers,Conservationists, and Business People [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.ecotourism.org/index.html

Key Words ecotourism, web site links, The Ecotourism Society

Purpose C to promote ecotourism by providing web site links andother information on ecotourism related issues

Content C an extensive list of web site links to information aboutThe Ecotourism Society (TES) and other ecotourismrelated documents (e.g., about TES, selecting eco-travel destinations, ecotourism research, TES bookstore, TES initiatives, training and education, events,and many others)

Other


76

Reference Thefox’s Home Page (1998). Hanfox Hospitality DenWelcomes You to Our Sustainable Tourism ConstructionZone [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.geocities.com/RainForest/2634/

Key Words sustainable tourism, web site links

Purpose C to provide a list of web site links and other documentson sustainable tourism related literature

Content C an extensive list of web site links to information onsustainable tourism around the world (e.g., definitionof sustainable, code of ethics for tourists, charter forsustainable tourism, regional land use planningimplementation documents, Canadian initiatives, andothers)

Other C links to web building sites


77

Reference Wallace, G. N. (n.d.). Toward a Principled Evaluation ofEcotourism Ventures [WWW page]. URLhttp://www.ecotourism.org/testfiles/wallacea.txt

Key Words ecotourism, principles, indicators, evaluation

Purpose C to discuss a systematic approach to evaluatingecotourism operations in a given locale

Content C a general discussion of regulations, codes of conduct,guidelines, and principles of ecotourism

C an outline of six principles of ecotourism and theassociated indicators

C a description of the methods used for studyingregistered ecotourism lodges in Amazonas Brazil andthe ecotourism operations in Cuyabeno WildlifeRefuge

C comments and suggestions on improving thesystematic approach

C list of references

Other C a short description of George Wallace and contactaddresses for comments on the evaluation process


78

Reference World Travel and Tourism Council. (n.d.) ECoNETT [WWWpage]. URL http://www.wttc.org

Key Words responsible travel, ecotourism, principles, practice

Purpose C to provide coverage of sustainable tourism initiatives

Content C library contains 850 filesC measures/initiatives contains sections on codes of

conduct, awards and eco labels, and good practice

Other

Resource Guide in Extraordinary Experiences: Understanding and Managing the Consumer Experience in Hospitality, Leisure, Events,

Sport and Tourism

Introduction

One thing that the Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism sectors have in common is that they all exist to provide consumers with experiences. Figure 1 shows a range of examples of “experience” products offered, all of which aim to provide something extraordinary, something which will stand out from everyday life and from all the competition for people's spare time and disposable income.

ExtraordinaryExperiences

Hotels-boutique-designer

Food-gastronomy-service and presentation-local/organic distinctiveness-branding & marketing

Retail-retail theatre-leisure shopping-environments

Attractions-theme parks-’experiences’-interpretation & staging

Catering-themed bars andrestaurants-chameleon bars-design and ambience

MICE-unusual venues for confex-incentive travel

Tourism-adventure-wildlife-cultural-destination brands

Corporatehospitalitysponsorshipeventsbrand experiences

Sports-spectators & stadia-sports tourism-participation-extreme sports

Events-special/hallmark-festivals

Travel-cruise ships-heritage trains-business class

Figure 1

This guide aims to provide teachers and students with key readings and concepts that will help them analyse these experiences and evaluate the management activities involved in designing and staging them. It brings together two strands of literature about experiences, one from management and the other from the consumer perspective.

Experience Management It is the growth of these sectors, and the examples of high-profile companies like Disney and Starbucks, which have led to the concept of the experience economy and experience management. The latter is seen as an answer to the problems of how to remain competitive in markets where global competition and internet technology have turned products and services into commodities, bought and sold on price alone.

Pine and Gilmore (1999) say that sustainable competitive advantage can only be gained by giving the customer a unique and memorable experience. This is done

Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, January 2007 1

through treating 'work as theatre and every business a stage'. As this guide will show, this draws on Schechner's (1988) Performance Theory and the service-as-drama metaphor of Grove, Fisk and Bitner (1993). Their approach has led to a growing number of management books on how to make the customer experience the centre of the organisation's strategic planning, marketing and operations. (Schmitt 1999, Shaw 2005, Smith and Wheeler 2002). The growth of Experiential Marketing is also significant for our sectors through the increased use of corporate hospitality and events, sports and arts sponsorship to associate brands with memorable experiences involving the senses and the emotions.ne and Gilmore (1999) say that sustainable competitive advantage can only be gained by giving the customer a unique and memorable experience.

As an example of the commercial adoption of the concept, Customer Experience Management (CEM) software systems are being developed to monitor every contact a person has with the company. As a result, the term CEM is in danger of being reduced from a potentially revolutionary business philosophy to the narrow sense of a tool for call-centre management, (just as Customer Relationship Management is often seen simply as a form of database marketing).

Later work (Holbrook, 2001; Nijs, 2003) Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004) has criticised the emphasis on staging performances as superficial and product-centred. These writers call for a more strategic approach based on shared values, allowing the customer to create their own experiences in a search for personal growth. In this way the management strand is converging with the consumer strand.

Consumer Experience On the consumer side, a focus on experiences has arisen in response to the limitations of seeing consumer behaviour purely in terms of cognitive information processing. As Holbrook and Hirschmann (1982) said, experiences are subjective, emotional states laden with symbolic meaning. Consumption is hedonic not utilitarian, particularly in leisure situations.

A distinction is often made between everyday and extraordinary experiences (Abrahams 1986). Many of the products in Figure 1 involve skilled consumption (Scitovsky 1976), physical or intellectual challenge and the sharing of experience with a community of like-minded people (Beard and Ragheb 1983). The desired effect is the state of absorption in the activity (Csikszentmihalyi 1976) calls Flow. Motivation is a complex mixture of escapism, socialisation and self-actualisation (Ryan 1997).

These insights can be used to explain the growing interest in participative and extreme sports (Arnould and Price 1993), and in new types of cultural, adventure, sports and creative tourism (Richards and Wilson 2006)

Research implications Where the managerial and consumer perspectives converge is in their view of consumer satisfaction as something that emerges over the course of the whole experience, rather than as a response to individual attributes of the service. This requires new forms of research such as Experience Mapping (Schmitt, 2003) or theatrical scripting (Harris et al, 2003) of the critical moments of truth (Carlzon 1987). Ethnographic and narrative research (e.g. Arnould and Price, 1993) are more likely to provide insights than quantitative methods.


The common goal Both strands of literature also come together in seeing the consumer as the product (Pine and Gilmore) but also the co-creator of the product (Prahalad and Ramaswamy). The goal of extraordinary experiences is personal growth and fulfilment (Arnould and Price) leading to transformation (Pine and Gilmore). It is by providing a stage (Pine and Gilmore) or space (Prahalad) for this to happen that a company can attract and retain its customers.

Annotated Bibliography

Experience Management: The Evolution of the Concept

Toffler, A (1970) Future Shock. Bantam Books Toffler predicted that, as one consequence of the accelerating pace of technological change, people would soon be collecting experiences as consciously and passionately as they once collected things. This seems to have been borne out by the rapid growth since then of the leisure and tourism industries.

Schechner, R. (1988) Performance Theory. Routledge Schechner combines anthropological and literary analysis of Greek drama and tribal rituals to identify the key elements of all enactments - drama, scripts, theatre and performance. The drama is the domain of the author, whose idea is then realised through scripts, directions, sets and actors to become the performance experienced by the audience. He applies this to any activity where one group of people perform in front of another - rituals, games, sport, music and dance - and others (e.g. Pine and Gilmore 1999) have extended it to analyse encounters between service staff and customers.

Carlzon, J (1987) Moments of Truth Harper Collins An influential management book based on Carlzon's transformation of Scandinavian Airline Systems (SAS), through improved staff/customer interaction. The Moments of Truth are the points in the process of booking, checking-in and travelling where customers come into contact with employees. To manage these contacts will lead to an improved customer experience. Carlzon's approach focuses on the Human Factor, training staff to be aware of their own emotions and how they can influence the way customers respond to them.

Grove, S.J. Fisk, R.P., Bitner, M.J. (1992) Dramatising the service experience: a managerial approach in Advances in Services Marketing and Management (Swartz, T. A. Brown, S. and Bowen, D. eds) Greenwich, CT. JAI Press Inc. [Reprinted in Gabott, M and Hogg, G. (1997) Contemporary Services Marketing: a reader. Dryden Press] They apply 'the drama metaphor' to analyse services management as an encounter between actors and audience in a setting. They see this as an extension of Booms and Bitner's extra 3 Ps of services marketing - people, processes and physical evidence. The practical implications of the metaphor are an increased attention to the impact of staff performance, settings and scripts on consumer experience and satisfaction.

Pine, B.J. and Gilmore, J.H. (1999) The experience economy: work is theatre and every business is a stage. Boston Mass: HBS Press. With globalisation and the internet turning service markets such as travel, books and music into commodity markets, the fastest growth in prices and share of GDP has


come from the experience industries, defined as those that charge admission - cinema, rock concerts, theme parks. From this, Pine and Gilmore suggest that the way to retain competitive advantage for a brand is to turn a service into an experience, performed in a unique, memorable way which involves the customer as a participant. Drawing on Schechner they analyse the way any company can turn work into theatre. However, the most effective experiences are those that offer the consumer lasting transformation - health, education and training, lifestyle change.

[An edited version is available in Pine and Gilmore (1998) Welcome to the Experience Economy Harvard Business Review July 1998]

Schmitt, B (1999) Experiential Marketing: How to Get Customers to sense, feel, think, act and relate to your company and brands. Free Press Schmitt takes an experiential view of marketing and branding strategy, focusing on what the brand means to the customer and how they interact with it. Companies need to re-evaluate how their consumers 'Sense, Feel, Think, Act and Relate' to the brand. He uses a variety of well-known business cases to show how companies use visual identity, communications, product presence, web sites and service to create different types of customer experiences.

Jensen, R, (1999) The Dream Society McGraw Hill Jensen, the Danish futurologist, develops a similar theme to Pine and Gilmore. For companies to gain a sustainable advantage they will need to have a story that engages the customer's emotions and touches their aspirations, hopes and dreams. In the future scenario he envisages, imagination and creativity will replace information technology as the source of business innovation, and stories will be the most precious resource. Such stories will need to be credible and in tune with the customer's values so there will be a premium on ethical responsible and environmentally sustainable activities, an aspect not so prominent in the other authors.

Experience Management - Critiques and Developments

Ritzker, G. & Liska, A. (1997) ‘McDisneyization’ and ‘Post-Tourism’: Complementary Perspectives on Contemporary Tourism, in Rojek, C. & Urry, J. eds. (1997) Touring Cultures: transformations of travel and theory. London: Routledge. Ritzer, G. & Stillman, T. (2001) The Post-modern Ballpark as a Leisure Setting: Enchantment and De-McDonaldization, Leisure Sciences. 23. pp. 99-113. Ritzker, G. (2004) The McDonaldization of Society, (Revised new century Ed.) London. Ritzer and his colleagues explore the concept of the enchantment of leisure consumption experiences. They distinguish between authentic spaces and simulated environments. They discuss the impact of this on the leisure experience and provide a critique of the experience-management emphasis on staging performances.

Holbrook, M. B. (2001) Times Square, Disneyphobia, HegeMickey, the Ricky Principle, and the downside of the entertainment economy, Marketing Theory, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 139-163. In a review of academic interpretations of Disney, Holbrook refers dismissively to experiential marketing theories such as Schmitt, Pine and Gilmore, as ' a gloriously


upbeat, positive and opportunistic picture of consumer culture full of millennial optimism'.

Nijs, D (2003) Imagineering : Engineering for Imagination in the Emotion Economy. In Creating a Fascinating World, Breda, The Netherlands, NHTV Nijs criticises the Experience Economy approach as too concerned with sensation and too rooted in US ‘masculine’ culture. She supports Jensen’s approach as being more effective in ‘feminine’ European cultures. She advocates a ‘value economy’ where the social and environmental values of the company create added emotional value for the customer. Imagineering is her word for the strategic process of basing the company around the values it shares with its target ‘community’.

Harris, R., Harris, K. and Baron, S. (2003) ‘Theatrical service experiences’, International Journal of Service Industry Management Vol. 14, No. 2: pp. 184-199. This much-cited paper applies the concept of service as drama to an analysis of critical incidents or moments of truth in a retail organisation. The process of dramatic script development with employees is demonstrated through the identification of the drama, the creation of the playtext and the exploration of subtext. The authors say it can be employed by any face-to-face interactions between employees and customers..

Carù, A. & Cova, B. (2003) Revisiting consumption experience: A more humble but complete view of the concept, Marketing Theory, 3 (2), pp. 267-286. [G] This article gives an overview of various definitions of the concept ‘experience’. Carù and Cova conclude that there are two typologies that have emerged in the literature: a consumer behaviour (sociological) view and an operational, marketing management perspective. The first stream describes an experience as having emotional, symbolic and transformational significance for the individual involved, whilst the second sees an experience as a type of product or service offering to be added to merchandise to give an added value offering. They argue that there has been an over-emphasis on the extraordinary at the expense of the quiet pleasures of daily life.

Prahalad, C.K. and Ramaswamy, V. (2004) The Future of Competition: Co-creating unique value with customers. Boston, Harvard Business School Press Prahalad is best known for his concept of 'core competencies' as the source of competitive strategy. This new book suggests that these may lie not within the firm or even the supply-network but in the interaction between the firm's supply network and communities of consumers to 'co-create' value through personalised experiences. This, they say, goes beyond 'experiential marketing `a la Disney ...which is still production centric' and sees the customer as 'a human props in a carefully-staged performance'. True co-creation occurs when firms create 'experience spaces' where dialogue, transparency and access to information allow customers to develop experiences that suit their own needs and level of involvement. The book discusses the implications for strategy, branding and management. Examples used include Amazon, E-bay and MIT's Open Course Ware learning programmes.

Management books There is a growing number of books on Customer Experience Management and Marketing aimed at a practitioner readership. These are written by consultants who promote their own trademarked models, but common themes can be seen in all. They argue the need to go beyond product and service orientations as a way of


gaining competitive advantage, avoiding the trap of price-led commoditisation and meeting the changing aspirations of affluent and well-informed consumers looking for authentic experiences. They advise a close analysis of the process, the dynamic interface (Schmitt), by which the customer interacts with the company, as well as the outcomes. This involves considering all the senses - sight, sound, touch, smell and taste- and understanding the emotional impacts of 'combustion points' (Shaw, 2005) which require sensitive handling. This new understanding of customer value is then designed into the company's 'brand experience' (Smith and Wheeler, 2002) as the basis for competitive strategy. All the authors emphasise, however, that the design is only the starting point, and a consistent and valued experience needs to be built into the organisation's structures, systems and culture, its 'DNA'. This calls for visionary leadership and well-chosen, trained and motivated staff. The 'triad' of Marketing, HR and Operation (Smith and Wheeler) needs to be aligned to achieve this. Examples from current prominent brands are presented, often uncritically, as evidence of the effectiveness of the approach.

Lewis, D and Bridger, D (2000) The Soul of the New Consumer: Authenticity - What We Buy and Why in the New Economy Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd This book's argument is that "new consumer" defies traditional marketing pigeon-holing. In reaction to a synthetic, processed and packaged world, their main drive is for an "authentic experience" used as a means for the individual to define him or herself. In their words, the book outlines "the practical steps that manufacturers, suppliers and service providers must take in order to grasp the opportunities and grapple with the challenges represented by the rise of the new consumers."

See also the following for more on this topic:

Boyle, D (2003) Authenticity: brands, fakes, spin and the lust for real life. London, Flamingo/HarperCollins.

Honeywill, R. & Byth, V. (2001) I-Cons: The Essential Guide to winning and keeping high-value customers. Sydney, Random House Australia. ]

Smith, S. and Wheeler, J. (2002) Managing the Customer Experience: turning customers into advocates. Harlow, FT Prentice Hall A practical guide to implementing the ideas of Pine and Gilmore, Schmitt etc by creating 'branded customer experiences'. To create consistent, intentional, differentiated and valuable experiences, they say, requires rethinking the whole business. A new brand of leadership should focus on defining customer values, designing the experience and equipping people to deliver consistency. The 'triad' of Marketing, HR and Operations needs to be harnessed to achieve this. The book ends with a Resource Kit to analyse the Customer Experiences provided by a company.

Smith S and Mulligan A (2002) Uncommon Practice: People who deliver a great brand experience Financial Times Prentice Hall Uncommon Practice explores the creation of outstanding brand experiences delivered through people, with interviews with senior executives and front-line managers. It offers a behind-the-scenes look into brands including Tesco, PizzaExpress, Amazon.com, Virgin, easyGroup, First Direct, Harley Davidson, Krispy Kreme and Pret A Manger

See more on Shaun Smith and his methods: http://www.shaunsmithco.com/


http://www.shaunsmithco.com/

Schmitt, B H (1999) Experiential Marketing: How to Get Companies to Sense, Feel, Think, Act, and Relate to Your Company and Brands Free Press Schmitt, B H (2003) Customer Experience Management: a revolutionary approach to connecting with your customers, Hoboken NJ, John Wiley and Sons Schmitt follows up his previous book with a guide to achieving customer experience management through five steps which give an experience-centred rethinking of the marketing management process. This includes enthnographical research methods, positioning based on the experience rather than the product, and equal importance given to the design of the customer/company interface as to the tangible branding.

See more on Schmitt and his ideas: http://www.meetschmitt.com/

Shaw, C (2005) Revolutionize Your Customer Experience Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan Shaw says that companies can be naive (product-led) transactional, enlightened or naturally customer-focussed in the way in which they manage their customers’ experiences. He offers a method of analysing the company orientation and practical steps to secure competitive advantage through understanding the role of emotion and the senses in shaping the customer experience.

See more on Shaw's model: http://www.beyondphilosophy.com/

Consumer Experience The nature of the consumer experience can be explored through a number of perspectives -drawing on psychology, anthropology, sociology, economics, literary theory or human geography. This next section presents a selection of influential insights.

Scitovsky, T. The joyless economy, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1976). Scitovsky questioned was why consumption was so unsatisfactory for so many. In spite of producing an overwhelming array of consumption goods, Americans seemed not to be satisfied with their experiences. He identified a problem with the rise of unskilled consumption—activities such as watching TV that are based on external stimuli. This he contrasted with skilled consumption, which is based on internal stimuli and the development of capabilities and skills of the consumers themselves The argument put forward by Scitovsky is that skilled consumption will grow as consumers become increasingly dissatisfied with short-term, unskilled experiences.

Abrahams, R.D. (1981) Ordinary and Extraordinary Experiences. In The Anthropology of Experience ed Turner V. Chicago, University of Illinois Press pp 45-72 Abrahams reflects on the meanings of the word experience, and distinguishes between the everyday flow of experiences and those Big Events which serve as rites of passage, moments of self authentication or of communal celebration, 'tying together meanings and feelings'. He points out that the search for intense extraordinary experiences for their own sake may be rooted in the individualism of American culture and history.

Holbrook, M.B. and Hirschmann, E.C. (1982) The Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Fantasies, Feelings and Fun. Journal of Consumer Research 9, 2 pp 132-9. This article challenged the dominant focus of consumer behaviour on cognitive


http://www.meetschmitt.com/

http://www.meetschmitt.com/

http://www.beyondphilosophy.com/

http://www.beyondphilosophy.com/

information processing and drew attention to the consumption experience. This they saw as a subjective state of consciousness shaped by hedonic responses,

symbolic meanings and aesthetic criteria - i.e. fantasies, feelings and fun. This experiential view they see as important to the understanding of leisure activities, play and artistic endeavours.

Csikszentmihalyi, M (1992) Flow: the classic work on how to achieve happiness Rider paperbacks. This book summarises Csikszentmihalyi's writings since 1976 on the flow experience. He says that we are at our happiest and most fulfilled when absorbed in the task in hand. The optimal flow of consciousness is likely to occur when the task is challenging but the participant has developed the skills needed to complete it. This kind of experience can be found through concentration at work or in sports, arts, and other leisure activities including reading and listening to music.

Arnould, E.J. and Price, L.L (1993). River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter. Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (June) 24-35. [Reprinted in Gabott, M and Hogg, G. (1997) Contemporary Services Marketing: a reader. Dryden Press] An extended programme of research into a white-water-rafting adventure holiday explores the nature of extraordinary experiences as hedonic consumption, flow, ritual pilgrimage, and as a means of social integration and personal growth. It raises questions of how consumer satisfaction with such experiences can be defined and measured. A widely quoted article outside the confines of tourism literature.

Experiences in Tourism, Leisure, Hospitality and Sport

The growing number of articles applying the experience concepts to HLST sectors are not easy to classify by specific sectors, so a selection is present here in chronological order.

Beard, J. and Ragheb, M.G. (1983) Measuring Leisure Motivation Journal of Leisure Research 15 (3) 219-28. Their Leisure Motivation Scale is based on four elements: intellectual motivation (to learn, explore, discover new things); social motivation, which is not only the desire to socialise but also to derive a sense of identity and belonging; the desire for competence and mastery of skills and abilities, usually through physically challenging activities; and stimulus-avoidance motivations leading to the need to escape, seek solitude or relaxation. All these goals are essentially experiential.

Lee, Y; Dattilo, J; Howard, D (1994) The complex and dynamic nature of leisure experience. Journal of Leisure Research. Arlington.Vol.26, Iss. 3; pg. 195. To reveal the multi-dimensional nature of leisure experience, this study used in-depth interviews, and self-initiated-tape-recording method to explore "extraordinary" experiences in leisure. This showed although the retrospective views of leisure were often expressed by the pleasant nature of experiences (i.e., "fun," "enjoyment," "relaxation"), the immediately recollected experience were reported as containing stressful experiences too.

Otto, J E and Ritchie, J B (1996) The service experience in tourism, Tourism Management 17, 3. 165-174 After a review of experiential perspectives including meaning, motivation, satisfaction and service quality, the authors test a methodology for measuring the customer


service experience. The dimensions of this model are hedonics, excitement, novelty etc), peace of mind (comfort, security, privacy) involvement (given information, choice and control) and recognition (being treated seriously as an important customer). The importance of each dimension varies at different stages of the holiday experience eg on airlines, in hotels and on tours.

Ryan, C (Ed.) (1997, 2002) The Tourist Experience Thomson Written to explore the complexities of tourism 'not fully covered by a positivist approach', the book is a good introduction to theories of experience, motivation and satisfaction. Ryan in the first three chapters draws on Maslow, Csikzentimahalyi, Zeithaml et al's SERVQUAL and Beard & Ragheb’s (1983) Leisure Motivation Scale to propose a model of the tourist experience. This combines the external experience of travel and destination with social interactions, personal factors and what he calls responsive mechanisms. These are ways in which the tourist responds and adapts to situations, good and bad, in an effort to achieve a flow experience.

Among other contributions, a chapter by Baum reviews the impact of HRM on the tourist experience, using Carlzon's (1987) Moments of Truth approach.

Hopkinson, G C and Pujari, D (1999) A factor analytic study of the sources of meaning in hedonic consumption, European Journal of Marketing, 33. 3&4. Pp.273-290. This study takes the theory developed in earlier qualitative papers such as Arnould and Price (1993), and uses a quantitative method (factor analysis) to endorse and extend the theory. The study does this by identifying the underlying dimensions of meaning of consumption for UK participants in kayaking.

Gyimóthy, S (2000) Odysseys: analysing service journeys from the customer’s perspective, Managing Service Quality, 10. 6. pp. 389-396. This paper suggests that the typical approaches to analysis of the temporal flow of service processes (blue-printing, walk-through audits, service-mapping) are based on an operational perspective, rather than that of the consumer. Whilst service journey studies (Johns & Clark, 1993) analyse moments-of-truth (Carlzon, 1987), they still take an operational point of view. This is inappropriate, as tourists perceive the destination as an extraordinary, holistic experience. Her study takes an alternative, linguistic approach, and finds that there is a consistency between visitors holiday ideals and the way that they evaluated service providers.

Suvantola, J. (2002) Tourist's Experience of Place Ashgate Based on a PhD thesis, thi book has a good review of the literature on experience from philosophical, anthropological and sociological viewpoints as well as a central focus on humanistic geography. Tourists do not simply encounter the physical space of a destination but construct their own experiential space from it according to their motivations and interpretations.

Mitchell, M A & Orwig, R A (2002) Consumer experience tourism and brand bonding, Journal of Product & Brand Management, 11. 1. pp.30-41. This conceptual paper considers the growing use of manufacturing plant tours, company museums, and company visitor centres to strengthen the bond between consumers and brand. The intention is that such tourism will increase the level of personal product involvement and brand loyalty in the visitor, and that they will in turn spread positive word of mouth if their experience is an intense one.


Lee B and Schafer S C (2002) The dynamic nature of leisure experience: an application of Affect Control Theory, Journal of Leisure Research, 34. 3. p 290. A useful review of the literature of leisure experience. The ACT says that responses to an 'event' or incident depends on an 'evaluation, potency, action' framework influenced by the consumer's self-image.

King, J. (2002) Destination marketing organizations – Connecting the experience rather than promoting the place, Journal of Vacation Marketing (8) 2, pp. 105-108. King criticises destination marketing organisations for being too focussed on promoting the physical attributes of the destination, despite travel being “increasingly more about experiences, fulfillment and rejuvenation than about places and things”. King goes on to suggest that in this new marketing environment that the role, structure and skills required by DMO’s need to be reconsidered, given that it will be in the relevance of the experience that they offer the customer that sustainable competitive advantage lies.

Gilmore, J. and Pine II, B., (2002). Differentiating hospitality operations via experiences: why selling services in not enough. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, June, pp. 87-96. Drawing from the hospitality sector, the creators of the ‘experience economy’ give examples of best practice, and recommendations for improving the consumer experience.

Erdly, M. & Kesterson-Townes, L. (2003) “Experience rules”: a scenario for the hospitality and leisure industry circa 2010 envisions transformation, Strategy and Leadership, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 12-18. In this “how-to” article, the authors lay out strategies for hospitality industry managers to change their manner of operation to accommodate a changing marketplace, where guests are described as being “demanding, better informed, more global, more discerning and more varied in their desires’. The approach suggested is referred to as ‘customer experience-centric’, and is basically an industry-based version of generic texts like Pine and Gilmore, or Schmitt.

Poulsson, S. H.G.; Kale, S.H. The Experience Economy and Commercial Experiences The Marketing Review, Volume 4, Number 3, Autumn 2004, pp. 267-277(11) By providing an operational definition of the experience phenomenon, this paper separates the experience offering from the offering of goods and services. It also discusses how experiences create value for consumers. For an experience to provide meaningful utility, it should be perceived as personally relevant and should include elements of novelty, surprise, learning, and engagement. The authors conclude this discussion by stating that not all goods and services should be marketed as experiences in order to be successful in the marketplace

Petkus, E. (2004) Enhancing the application of experiential marketing in the arts International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. London: Feb 2004.Vol.9, Iss. 1; pg. 49, 8 pgs Petkus discusses the implications of Pine and Gilmore's work for two specific areas of arts marketing: the unique dimensions of the arts experience, and the strategic and tactical steps involved in staging an experience. The case of the Blackfriars


Playhouse, in Staunton, Virginia, USA is used to illustrate the relevance of their formula.

Quan, S & Wang, N (2004) Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: an illustration from food experiences in tourism, Tourism Management, Vol. 25, pp. 297-305. This paper also uses the social science versus managerial framework for discussing the concept of experience, claiming that the former concentrates on ‘peak experiences’ and the latter on the ‘everyday’. The authors suggest that too much emphasis has been placed on the ‘tourist gaze’ at the expense of the consumers’ other senses and that in order to balance this visual bias, more research needs to be undertaken into the non-visual experiential components of tourism and hospitality. These include soundscapes, smellscapes, tastescapes, and the ‘geography of touch’.

Gibson, H. (2004) Moving beyond the “what is and who” of sport tourism to understanding “why”, Journal of Sport Tourism, 9, 3, p247-265. Gibson, H (2005a) ‘Understanding sport tourism experiences’, In Higham, J. (ed) (2005) Sport Tourism Destinations: Issues, Opportunities and Analysis, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann. Gibson, H (2005b) Towards an Understanding of ‘Why Sport Tourists Do What They Do’, Sport in Society Special Issue: Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories, 8, 2, p198-217. Gibson suggests the need to move the study of sport tourism past the “what” and towards the “why”, examining some conceptual tools that could be applied to understanding and explaining sport tourism behaviour. There is a need to move beyond profiling sport tourists to understanding and explaining these profiles. The author argues for a multi-disciplinary approach that addresses both motivation and socio-economic characteristics, which will provide for a better understanding of sport tourism experiences.

She concludes that the manager who understands the underpinnings of social behaviour will be able to better predict and cater to the needs and wants of their clients. In tourism, a satisfied guest is one who is more likely to return and will speak positively to friends and family about the experiences that they achieved at the sport tourism destination. [see also Weed 2005 below]

Forlizzi, J and Mutlu, B D (2004) A Study of How Products Contribute to the Emotional Aspects of Human Experience. In Emotion and Experience Proceedings of the Design & Emotion Conference 2004, Ankara, Turkey. Forlizzi and Mutlu present a study that examines how ‘physical evidence’, in this case sports products, contribute to the functional and emotional experience of female athletes. Results were classified as creating the potential for a new experience, extending a current experience or recalling a past experience. The authors found that some products may be chosen for practical functions that enable athletes to remain motivated, and possibly entering ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi). Other products were chosen for emotional and intellectual aesthetic qualities that ‘motivate, scintillate and help to reinforce values that assert one’s identity as an athlete’.

http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:57LU7nEcllAJ:www.bilgemutlu.com/publications/DT_DE04_Forlizzi.pdf+A+Study+of+How+Products+Contribute+to+the+Emotional+Aspects+of+Human+Experience.&hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=1


http://www.bilgemutlu.com/publications/DT_DE04_Forlizzi.pdf






Jennings, G. & Nickerson, N.(Ed) (2005) Quality Tourism Experiences, Elsevier. The book's overarching tenet is that 'quality' and 'experiences' are socially constructed terms. Experiences are 'brokered' or 'mediated' by an exchange between the tourists and the tourism industries. The authors investigate the role of the mass media, the role of travel providers, the role of host communities, the role of tourists, and the role of "government" at all its levels. The book draws together writers from different backgrounds and interdisciplinary interests and research methodologies, to provide a model of the way researchers can work together to illuminate the area

Weed, M. (2005) Sports Tourism Theory and Method – Concepts, Issues and Epistemologies: Guest Editorial, European Sport Management Quarterly, 5,3, p229-242 Weed suggests that in the field of sport tourism research on experiences has been descriptive, and does not investigate why the experience is enjoyable and why participants would like to repeat the experience. The reason appears to come from the positivist, quantitative research design with descriptive results that are often devoid of any theoretical discussion.

Uriely, N. (2005) The tourist experience: Conceptual developments, Annals of Tourism Research, 32. 1. pp. 199–216. By reviewing relevant literature, including the definition of the tourist role, typologies, authenticity, post-modern, and heritage tourism, Uriely identifies four developments in the academic understanding of the tourist experience. The first is a reconsideration of the distinctiveness of tourism from everyday life experiences; secondly, a shift from portrayals of the tourist as a general type (in the manner of early work such as Cohen or Plog), to depictions that capture the multiplicity of the tourist experience. Uriely’s third development sees a shifted focus from the displayed objects provided by the industry to the subjective negotiation of meanings as a determinant of the experience; and lastly a movement from contradictory and decisive academic discourse, which conceptualizes the experience in terms of absolute truths, toward relative and complementary interpretations.

Le Bel, J L (2005) Beyond the friendly skies: an integrative framework for managing the air travel experience, Managing Service Quality, 15. 5. pp. 437-451. Le Bel aims to integrate prior research in both the American (Parasuraman et al) and European (Grönroos) service quality traditions, and experience marketing, in order to develop a framework for experience marketing in the airline industry. This framework accounts for the temporal unfolding of the experience, and makes suggestions for implementation by management. Sits in the ‘experiential marketing’ category.

Curtin, S. C. (2005) Nature, Wild Animals and Tourism: An Experiential View, Journal of Ecotourism. Vol 4. No.1 pp1-15. This paper reviews the experiential aspects of wildlife tourism consumption. It highlights the ethnocentric and anthropomorphic attraction of animals; the human desire to interact with and interpret animal behaviour, and how urbanisation has had a profound affect on our psychological and physical relationship with nature. Particular attention is given to the notions of place, existential space, authenticity and anthropomorphosis. Understanding such concepts in relation to wildlife tourism implies a new phenomenological framework for research to further explore the experiences of wildlife tourists.


Williams, J A & Anderson, H H (2005) Engaging customers in service creation: a theatre perspective, Journal of Services Marketing, 19. 1. pp.13-23. As experiences are becoming more participatory, the line between the role of the customer and the service provider has become blurred. This conceptual paper considers the application of drama production principles to situations where consumers co-create the service offering, taking the theatre concept further than mere scripting. The authors provide a tourism example: a potential tourist who does much of her own research may be the major designer (scriptwriter) of the experience, but a travel agent may still act as a director to co-ordinate the transport and accommodation (lead actors) that the traveller will use. Incidental aspects of the trip would correspond to the supporting cast.

Williams, A (2006) Tourism and hospitality marketing: fantasy, feeling and fun, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18. 6. pp. 482-495. Williams argues that tourism and hospitality marketing has failed to take up the concept of experiential marketing, despite it being a ‘fundamental change(s) in the orientation of marketing’. Like King (2001) he feels that the emphasis should be less on destinations than contemporary consumers themselves, who ‘use their consumption to make statement about themselves … to create their identities and develop a sense of belonging through consumption’. The paper provides a clear introduction to the topic of tourism and experience, and discusses the work of Pine and Gilmore, Petkus, Schmitt, Ritzer, as well as Williams’ own previous work, for example: Williams A (2002) Understanding the Hospitality Consumer. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinmann

Richards, G and Wilson, J (2006) Developing creativity in tourist experiences: A solution to the serial reproduction of culture? Tourism Management 27, 6. 1209-1223 As more and more places try to use cultural tourism, cultural events and creative quarters as differentiation, the authors percieve a commodification or McGuggenheimisation effect. The answer they suggest may be in creative tourism, which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences which are characteristic of the holiday destination where they are undertaken.

Jackson, C. (2006). The experiential impact of events, Events and Festivals: Education, Impacts and Experiences eds. Fleming, S. and Jordan, F. Eastbourne, Leisure Studies Association Publications This article aims to develop further an understanding of the ‘event experience’ through a review of the experience management literature. Event Mangement writers have covered the staging of the event more in terms of the technical aspects rather than a focus on the affect that the sound, lighting and set will have on the guests, and how to programme the activities to ensure engagement with them. It then explores the methods of assessing the ‘experience’ in the context of the ‘customers’ involved in an event. Morgan, M. (2006) Making space for experiences Journal of Retail and Leisure Property October 2006

To understand the elements of the visitor experience and the way in which they evaluate their satisfaction, this article suggests a holistic model of the interaction between the management and the visitor in a leisure space. It suggests that the physical and operational attributes are evaluated not through a checklist of individual features but as hinderances to the visitor's desire to make best use of the time.


Visitors also evaluate the experience in the light of their own values and concerns, passing judgement on the values communicated by the management.

[See also Morgan, M. Festival Spaces: understanding the visitor experience Event Management (publication pending) for a fuller discussion of this research]

Daengbuppha, J., Hemmington, N. & Wilkes, K, (2006), Using Grounded Theory to Model Heritage Visitor Experiences: Theoretical and Practical Issues, Qualitative Market Research; an International Journal, accepted for publication in Vol.9 No.3, 2006, in press. This paper present grounded theory as an alternative approach for modelling the consumer experience, using case studies conducted at three World Heritage Sites in Thailand. The results are a rich and deep understanding of the ways the visitors interact with the site, their interpretations of the site and the meaning it has for them.

Hemmington, N.R. (2007), From Service to Experience; understanding and defining the hospitality business, The Service Industries Journal, accepted for publication in Vol.27 No.6, September 2007, in press.

Also in the conference proceedings:

Hemmington, N.R. (2006) .“Commercial Hospitality: from service to experience”, Council for Hospitality Management Education (CHME) Research Conference, Nottingham Trent University, 10-12 May 2006. This article suggests that, by redefining hospitality as behaviour and experience, a new perspective emerges that has exciting implications for the management of hospitality businesses. A framework to describe hospitality in the commercial domain is proposed. This framework suggests a focus on the host-guest relationship, generosity, theatre and performance, “lots of little surprises”, and the security of strangers; a focus that provides guests with experiences that are personal, memorable and add value to their lives.

Implications for Teaching and Learning

Very little has been written about the implications of the experience perspectives on the curriculum and teaching methods of HLST degree courses.

Morgan, M E (2004) From production line to drama school: higher education for the future of tourism, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 16, 4, 2004 Morgan asks whether the business management focus of most tourism courses is the best preparation for the future development of tourism. In the future, tourism will be part of the 'experience economy' with a new theatrical metaphor replacing the current 'military' strategy model. To succeed in this economy, he argues, graduates will need to draw on qualities of self-awareness, imagination and creativity. Higher education in tourism may need to rediscover these liberal humanistic values in order to fulfil its managerial objectives of creating successful business managers.

For an example of a course based on the experience perspective:


Master in Imagineering NHTV University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands In a creative economy there is a growing need for high level professionals who can create and innovate value from the experience perspective. This Master in Imagineering is designed as a roadmap for that new ‘outside-in enterprise logic’. Nowadays, people are driven much more by values of self-expression rather than those of rudimentary survival. They have a deep need to make sense of their lives in ways that are unique and personal. One of the most distinct ways in which this is manifested, is the new individual’s consumption pattern, by means of their choices they create their own identity. In our society, consumption is an absolute necessity, not a luxury.

http://www.nhtv.nl/

Suggested Delivery and Assessment

The key points of the Experience Management concept can be delivered as a single lecture, for example as part of an introductory module in a Hospitality, Leisure Sport Events or Tourism programme. However, as we hope this Guide has demonstrated, a focus on consumer experiences has implications for a range of disciplines such as Strategic Management, Marketing, Consumer Behaviour and Operations Management across all our sectors. The readings in the Guide can be used by tutors in these disciplines to make students question conventional approaches and suggest how the insights of the experience-perspective can be implemented.

A good starting point for learning exercises would be the students' own experience. They could be asked to go out to a leisure venue such as a club, restaurant, attraction or activity and make notes or an audio diary. They could then report back on the experience under a number of headings from the literature such as those of Beard and Ragheb (1983), Otto and Ritchie (1996) Pine and Gilmore (1999) Quan & Wang (2004) or Morgan (2006) - covering both the external Experience Management and the internal Consumer Experience elements.

The fields of Consumer Experience and Experience Management can provide interesting topics for dissertations at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, for example exploring:

What are the elements of a particular leisure or tourism experience? How do consumers evaluate their experience? How can managers enhance it to gain competitive advantage?

Dissertations of this kind will need to consider alternative, qualitative methods to produce insights into the minds of the consumers. This therefore has implications for the content of the Research Methods modules used to prepare students for their dissertations. This guide contains a number of examples of such methodologies for students and their supervisors to draw on.

Annotated Guide to Internet Resources

Searching for Customer Experience Management websites will mainly result in sites selling CEM software, or the services of consultants such as those mentioned under Management Books above. The following sites may provide useful academic or practical sources.


http://www.nhtv.nl/

http://www.nhtv.nl/

http://www.nhtv.nl/

Lapland Centre of Expertise for the Experience Industry (LCEEI), Finland The Experience Institute -project http://www.oske.net/in_english/centres_of_expertise/lapland/

University of Lapland http://www.ulapland.fi/contentparser.asp?deptid=8073

Kylänen, M (ed.)(2006) Articles on Experiences, 2nd. Ed. Rovaniemi, University of Lapland Press This online publication is a collection of thirteen papers with a multi-disciplinary approach to the concept of the experience economy – including design, tourism, psychology, marketing, consumer research, sociology and business economics. Four of the articles are in English, but the remainder are in Finnish. http://www.elamystuotanto.org/?deptid=21889

Great Hospitality, Auckland, New Zealand: Extraordinary Experiences A commercial website that showcases the firm’s use of extraordinary experiences for high levels of customer satisfaction. http://www.greathospitality.co.nz/php/summary.php?id=4

Eirepreneur: Doing microbusiness in Ireland A blog recounting a personal instance of an extraordinary experience. http://eirepreneur.blogs.com/eirepreneur/2005/06/my_experience_o.html

European Centre for the Experience Economy, Universiteit Van Amsterdam http://www.experience-economy.nl/

Trendwatching An independent consumer trends firm that relies on a global network of 8,000 spotters in more than 120 countries worldwide. Offers a trends database, and e-mail newsletter subscription. http://www.trendwatching.com/

Conferences

Hahhti, A(ed.), (2001) Proceedings of the First Entrepreneurship In Tourism And The Contexts Of Experience Economy Conference, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, 4-7 April 2001.

Proceedings of the Second Entrepreneurship In Tourism And The Contexts Of Experience Economy Conference, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, 4-7 April 2003.

The themes of this guide will be explored in an Extraordinary Experiences conference, Bournemouth University, September 3 & 4, 2007: http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/services-management/news_events_conferences/exordin_exper_conf.html


http://www.oske.net/in_english/centres_of_expertise/lapland/



http://www.ulapland.fi/contentparser.asp?deptid=8073

http://www.ulapland.fi/contentparser.asp?deptid=8073

http://www.elamystuotanto.org/?deptid=21889

http://www.greathospitality.co.nz/php/summary.php?id=4

http://www.greathospitality.co.nz/php/summary.php?id=4

http://eirepreneur.blogs.com/eirepreneur/2005/06/my_experience_o.html

http://eirepreneur.blogs.com/eirepreneur/2005/06/my_experience_o.html

http://www.experience-economy.nl/

http://www.experience-economy.nl/

http://www.trendwatching.com/

http://www.trendwatching.com/

http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/services-management/news_events_conferences/exordin_exper_conf.html




About the Author

This Resource Guide was compiled by Michael Morgan and Pamela Watson with assistance from other members of the School of Services Management, Bournemouth University, UK.

© Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network 2007


5 Elements of Research5 Elements of Research(Lecture 1)(Lecture 1)

‘A good piece of research is very much like a good movie’

- Bernard Lew

Research Problems & ApplicationsResearch Problems & Applications

Problems are Problems are distinctdistinctCommunicated Communicated clearlyclearly

Problem:

•Vampires living in day time

•Vampires falling in love with the “prey”

•When you can live forever, what do you live for?

Communicate/application?

•Vampires looking like humans (visual)

•Twilight- neither day nor night

•Appeal to Gen Ys

2: Hypotheses & Objectives2: Hypotheses & Objectives

Research Questions ( a kind of speculation)Research Questions ( a kind of speculation)

When you can live forever, what do you live for?When you can live forever, what do you live for?PropositionProposition

(Well if you are )(Well if you are )Vampire(sVampire(s)), then you can , then you can fall in lovefall in love with with humans after you are bored with vampires.humans after you are bored with vampires.Hypothesis (Scoped down)Hypothesis (Scoped down)

The closerThe closer a vampire gets to a human a vampire gets to a human the more he/she the more he/she wants to eatwants to eat that human being rather than love them.that human being rather than love them.ObjectiveObjective

1.1. To To convinceconvince Gen Gen YsYs that vampires are lovable creatures.that vampires are lovable creatures.2.2. To To demonstratedemonstrate that some vampires can live in broad that some vampires can live in broad

daylight.daylight.3.3. To To showshow that some human beings are worst than that some human beings are worst than

vampires.vampires.

Conceptual Framework & Conceptual Framework & Best PracticeBest Practice

AcceptedAcceptedComprehensiveComprehensive

Accepted and comprehensive plot:

The entire series is based around the classic journey of the hero -- in the case of "Star Wars," Luke Skywalker --but the first three films are focused on Luke's father, Anakin, who becomes the evil Darth Vader.

Knows nothing

Trains & masters

Corrupt & Evil

4:Kind of Data & 4:Kind of Data & Research InstrumentResearch Instrument

Relevance (Suitable?)Relevance (Suitable?)Feasible (Can it be completed?)Feasible (Can it be completed?)

Can kids follow? Animated & minimal talking

Is the saga complete?

#5 Bibliography#5 Bibliography

Famous? Beginning

RelevanceRelevance

SourceSource

Documented proofDocumented proof

Ending

Lecture 2:Writing the Research Proposal

By

Bernard Lew

The research ‘onion’Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

Philosophy and Motivation

What is Hospitality and Tourism research?“Social science research is carried out using the methods and traditions of social science. Social science differs from the physical or natural sciences in that it deals with people and their social behaviour, and people are less predictable than non-human phenomena. People can be aware of the research being conducted about them and are not therefore purely passive subjects; they can react to the results of research and change their behaviour accordingly. People in different parts of the world and at different times behave differently. The social world is constantly changing, so it is rarely possible to replicate research at different times or in different places and obtain similar results.”

(Veal, 2006)

The Research Process

A general approach:1. Desire/need to do research (motivation)2. Formulating and clarifying the topic (proposal)3. Reviewing the literature (background, theory and

approach)4. Choosing a research strategy (research design)5. Collecting data (primary and secondary)6. Analysing data (statistics-descriptive and inferential)7. Reporting the findings (dissertation write-up)

Why Do We Do Research?(Babbie, 1995; Veal 2005)

Exploration (“what if?”, “is it so?”)– Uncovering issues of concern– Increasing understanding of the problem

Description– Finding out, describing what is– What is the situation? Where are we now?

Why Do We Do Research?(continued)

Explanation (“why”, “because”)– Explaining how or why things are as they are (and

using this to predict)– Answering questions, solving problems, testing

theoriesEvaluation research (“should”, “ought”, “good”, “bad”) – evaluation of policies, strategies, programs and

practices.

*Gastronomy and Tourism: Motivation of Research

Our sensory perceptions play a major psychological and physiological rolein our appraisal and appreciation of food, as they do for other experiences at adestination. Consumption of food especially when dining out is a pleasurablesensory experience, hence the pleasure factor or the “feel good” factor as aresult of food consumption at a destination is a “pull factor” and a marketingand merchandising tool that must not be underestimated. For this reason, onecan argue that tourists often place considerable emphasis on how they feel at adestination, and how they experience what the destination offers, by carefullyselecting that special restaurant and/or food that might fulfill a particular personaldesire (Richards, 2002). Although many studies identify and address factorsthat affect destination choice and image, very few empirical studies addressthe role that gastronomy plays in the way tourists experience the destination.Equally, although the relationship between gastronomy and tourism is affirmedin select social sciences literature, very few studies are reported in the hospitalityliterature that specifically address the gastronomy and tourism relationship.

source:*Kivela, J. and Crotts, J.C. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy:gastronomy’s influence on how touirsts experience a destination, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(3):354-377.

There are two main research approaches: deduction and induction.

With deduction, a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses) are developed and a research strategy designed to test the hypothesis.

With induction, data are collected and a theory developed as a result of the data analysis.

Indicative Area and Title

Indicative Areas (Veal, 2005)Existing touristsPotential touristsStaffingIndustry/business performanceCompetitorsLegal issues SalesProducts/Services Organizational cultureProductivityOrganizational & Country StrategyQuality (service & experience)

Business and government policyFinance and revenue managementTraining and staff developmentInformation technologyHuman Resources & Industrial relationsOrganisational environmentManagerial effectivenessCommunicationOrganisational development

Example of Dissertation Topics

Good :A qualitative study of youth travelers’ preferences and motivation on the infrastructure investments in Berjaya Beach Resort Tioman.

Poor:Potential of Event Management in Hotels

Another Topic: Tourism and Gastronomy

Tourism and gastronomy: gastronomy’s influence on how tourists experience a destination.– Nature of research: gastronomy and its link to destination

image– Scope-Keywords: gastronomy, tourism, dining-out

experience; Hong Kong

source:*Kivela, J. and Crotts, J.C. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy:gastronomy’s influence on how touirstsexperience a destination, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(3):354-377.

Literature Review & Theoretical Foundation

The Literature Review

What is the current thinking (state- of- the art or science)?Where are the gaps in knowledge?Who are the key thinkers and contributors?How is research conducted in this area?When- sequence of the issues.(chronology)

Theories

Theories are nets cast to catch what we call “the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer.

Karl R. Popper

A theory is …

“A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena”(Zikmund 2003, p41).

An example of a theoretical Framework

Labor market conditions, number of

organizations, etc

Perceived ease of movement (e.g. job

satisfaction)

Perceived desirability of movement (e.g. job

satisfaction)

Equity of pay, job complexity,

participation in decision making, etc

Job performance Intention to quit Voluntary job turnover

(Zikmund 2003, p45)

Research Design and Sampling Frame

3. Specification of level of analysisIndividual or aggregate data collection\analysisImplications for data collection, analyses, prediction, generalizability, and explanation

What units of Analysis?

Individuals: (e.g. residents, workers, voters, parents, students). Key term - population Groups (e.g. gangs, families). Their characteristics may be derived from the characteristics of their individual members -age, ethnicity, education of the head. Organizations (e.g. corporations, churches, colleges, army divisions, academic departments). their characteristics may be derived form facts like number of employees, et annual profits, assets, contracts . Social Artefacts (automobiles, clothes, building, pottery, jokes, scientific discoveries.)

What Points of Focus ?

Profiles: e.g. sex, age height, marital statusOrientations: e.g. attitudes, beliefs, personality traits etc. Behaviour/fads/concerns: e.g. eco-friendly, starting young, sustainability

What Time Dimension?

Cross-sectional: mostly descriptive and exploratory Longitudinal: permitting observations over an extended period of time (trend studies, cohort studies, panel studies: same set of people studied all the time) -

Analyses and Discussions

Tasks:

Chart a mind map/keep a journal that contains:

• Information on sources (publication, issues)

• Description of likely relationships between source (What was said, reasoning)

Step 1:Descriptive Aspects (Good)

Source: www.isiccard.co.nz

Issues:Descriptive:•Lifestyle (mobility)•Economics (expenditure)•Geo-political constraints(policies)

What is the Scope?

Step 1: Descriptive Aspects (poor)

Source: http://www.events.ie/files/admin/uploads/W95_F_Image_4_8156.jpg

Issues:

Definition instead ofdescription:

•What is a event?•What is management?

Tasks:

Chart a mind map/keep a journal that contains:

• Information on sources (publication, issues)

• Description of likely relationships between source (What was said, reasoning)

What is the Scope?

Step 2: Explanative Aspects (Good)

Tasks• Identify a theoretical framework

that establishes relationships.• What theory can I use? Depends on

the area

Issues:Sources of motivation and perception:•Collective behavior-sociology of youth tourism•Individual preference-psychology of tourism

Source:http://www.ryerson.ca/~cgeo802lf/course/Wk0903/sld002.htmReasons, Reasons,

Reasons!

Step 2:Explanative Aspects (poor) Issues:

Stating instead of explaining -repeating standard theory

•Functions of Management

•SWOT analysis

Source:http://www.nscozarks.org/images/occupational/occupational_consulting_graphic.gif

Reasons, Reasons,

Reasons!

Tasks• Identify a theoretical framework

that establishes relationships.• What theory can I use? Depends on

the area

Step 3 :Applicative/evaluative Aspects (Good)

Tasks:We have a description …We have an explanation…We need a context!

Issues:Marketing implications for

Berjaya beach resorts-Tioman, Malaysia:

• Domestic youth market share• International youth market

share (promotional programs)• Youth customer feedback

(satisfaction)• Perception/expectation of

infrastructure (investments levels)

Source: www.berjayaresorts.com

Make it practical!

Step 3: Applicative Aspects (poor)

No application but just a write up on the topic of event management

•Does not state the context for application- company, country etc. Source:

http://petitebrigitte.files.wordpress.com/2007/08/cinema.jpg

Make it practical! Tasks:We have a description …We have an explanation…We need a context!

Summarizing the Research

A qualitative study of youth travelers’ preferences and motivation on the infrastructure investments in Berjaya

Beach Resort Tioman.Title keywords Example

Area Infrastructure investments

Nature of Research Qualitative study

Focus group Youth TravelersQualitative features Preferences (variables)

Motivation (variables)

Context Berjaya Beach Resort

Potential of Event Management in Hotels(Poor)

Title keywords Example

Context Hotels (general?)

Nature of Research Impact study?

Focus group unknown

Quantitative/qualitative features

What are the variables?

Area Event management

Suggestions and exercises

Written -“mini drafts”These ‘mini drafts’ will be the skeleton from which the rest of the contents of the dissertation will be developed.Corresponds to the requirements in the six sections of the “Dissertation Discussion Log”-consult dissertation templateDeliverables brought to class for tutor feedback

Problem Formulation & Problem Formulation & Applicability of Research Applicability of Research

(Lecture 3)(Lecture 3)

•Unique and Distinct

•Bounded and scoped

•Clearly Communicated and Articulated

•Of Significance to the Industry

Can someone please tell me what this

movie is all about?

UniquenessUniquenessFills a gap?Fills a gap?People can understand on first People can understand on first viewing/reading?viewing/reading?With the help of the Autobots, the soldiers of NEST, and an old adversary-turned-ally, Sam and Mikaela must uncover the secret history of the Transformers presence on earth, and the sacrifices that have to be made to save it from an ancient threat sworn on returning here for revenge... an ancient Decepticon named THE FALLEN.

What Gap?What Gap?Knowledge GapKnowledge Gap

TheoryTheory≠≠PracticePracticeWhat do we What do we not knownot know??

--The present The present ““realityreality”” is not is not RealityReality--Our present understandingOur present understanding

is wrongis wrong??

Bounded and ScopedBounded and ScopedContext Context StakeholderStakeholder

What category does this movie belong to?

What begins must endWhat begins must endNo multiple readings (multiple No multiple readings (multiple endings/beginnings)endings/beginnings)

No need to cultivate a knowledge baseNo need to cultivate a knowledge base(have you read the book?)(have you read the book?)

Significance to the IndustrySignificance to the IndustryUnderstandingUnderstandingDecisionsDecisionsPracticePractice

Lecture 4

Writing the Problem Statement

The term research philosophy relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge.

Philosophy ties Theory to Practice

Research Philosophy Impacting on Problems

Your research philosophy contains important assumptions about the way in which you view the world.Practice:This relates to a personal issue; a teacher or text book cannot provide the right answer, they can only supply suggestions and explanations.Theoretical: To use the suitable theories in your research project, you must identify those which best fit with you and your views

Balancing Theory and Practice

AxiologyAxiologyEpistemologyEpistemology

Positivsim

Realism

Objectivism

Interpretivism

Pragmatism

OntologyOntology

Philosophical Components and Stand in Research

There are three major ways of thinking about research philosophy: – Epistemology, – Ontology and – axiology.

Each contains important differences that will influence the way in which you think about the research process and problem.

Epistemology concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study.Epistemology deals with the questions:

– "What is knowledge?",

– "How is knowledge acquired?",

– "What do people know?", http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/What-Is-Epistemology.htm

http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/What-Is-Epistemology.htm

Epistemology Summary

What is knowable and worth knowing?

Ontology is a branch of philosophy which is concerned with the nature of social phenomena as entities.Ontology deals with the questions:– "What exists",

– "What is",

– "What am I",

Ontology Summary

What is my/kind of reality?

Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgments about value.It includes thinking on ethics:– The identification of what is ‘good’ and the means by which this ‘good’

state is achieved.And aesthetics:– The understanding of seeing and perceiving the world.

An understanding of axiology is very important to identify and analyse the influence of bias and prejudices on research.

Axiology Summary

What do I cherish and hold as being important?

Social science paradigms can be used in management and business research to generate fresh insights into real life issues and problems. Paradigms draw together a number of complimentary theories.The four paradigms explained in the chapter were: – functionalist; – interpretive; – radical humanist; and – radical structuralist.

Functionalists see society as a result of the mass interaction between individuals.This interaction, over time develops a complex society, something like the development of a living organism, or like evolution.Rules and regulations order the interaction between individuals.Criticism of functionalist thinking says that it does not account for major changes to society, such as revolutions.It is also criticised for being teleological – describing rather than analysing society.

Also known as Interactionism, the Interpretive paradigm identifies the individual as possessing the capacity to change society.Individuals social interactions are analysed to identify specific actions which have major impacts on their society and surroundings.This paradigm can be criticised for being too specific, findings are deliberately limited to each case and are never more broadly applicable. This can therefore limit findings to substantive theories and research.

In this view the consciousness of man is dominated by the ideological superstructures with which he interacts, These drive a cognitive wedge between himself and his true consciousness, which prevents human fulfilment. These theorists are mainly concerned with releasing the social constraints that bind potential. Most of this paradigm is actually anti-organisation.

Radical Structuralists believe that radical change is built into the nature of societal structures.

"Contemporary society is characterised by fundamental conflicts which generate radical change through political and economic crises”.

It is based on mature Marx, followed by Engles, Lenin and Bukharin.

http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/org_theory/Scott_articles

/burrell_morgan.html

Different Problem Angles to the Same Topic

Cultural, Historic, Scenic & Recreation Resource Preservation

Problem Statement #1 (Identify)How do we identify historic, cultural, aesthetic, scenic and recreation resources in the Highlands region given that many are unknown and some private landowners are reluctant to volunteer presence of resources on their properties?


Problem Statement #2 (Educate)How do we promote the protection of cultural, historic, scenic and recreation resources in communities, with a special focus on those areas identified as appropriate for growth?

Promotion analogy : traffic lights and notices


Problem Statement #3 (Conserve)How do we ensure that the security and safety of sites are not compromised when resources are publicly identified?

“Not compromised” analogy : the zebra crossing


Problem Statement #4 (Brand)How do we develop a regional identity for the Highlands to promote tourism and in the process protect historic, cultural scenic, archaeological and recreation resources

Identity analogy : the picture speaks on its own


Problem Statement #5 (Enforce)What mechanisms and resources are needed to support stewardship of historic, archaeological, cultural and recreation resources on public lands? How do we reconcile potential conflicts between activities that promote tourism and recreationand natural/historic resource protection goals of the Highlands?

Research Hypotheses & Research Hypotheses & Objectives Objectives (Lecture 5)(Lecture 5)

Motivations

Propositions

Hypotheses

Objective:

Life isn't measured in minutes, but in moments

Tells the story of Benjamin Button, a man who starts aging backwards with bizarre consequences.

Significance: Love across the age gap & overlap

PropositionsPropositionsDavid Fincher (director): Yes, everybody dies.

Source of transcript: http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/feb/03/david-fincher-interview-transcript

David Fincher: [I also have rules of thumb about dialogue.] For example, I feel that most people, when they speak, are lying. So, I'm looking at the eyes, David Fincher: "My best stuff was when I had a lot of energy after my mochaccino and now my energy's gone,"

Research QuestionsResearch QuestionsProposition #1:Proposition #1:““ I was born under unusual I was born under unusual circumstances.circumstances.””-- Benjamin Button Benjamin Button Q1 : What happens if Q1 : What happens if ““ (You) I was (are) (You) I was (are) born under unusual circumstancesborn under unusual circumstances““??Proposition #2 :I've always been Proposition #2 :I've always been impressed by your visual flair and impressed by your visual flair and atmosphere of your films. atmosphere of your films. Q2: How do you conceive that look and Q2: How do you conceive that look and feel in your mind and how do you convey feel in your mind and how do you convey that to your cinematographer? that to your cinematographer?

HypothesesHypotheses……because as you get older you lose fat tissue in because as you get older you lose fat tissue in your face and so your eyes recede. It's called your face and so your eyes recede. It's called ""skullingskulling". ". And people get gaunter as they get older, and we And people get gaunter as they get older, and we couldn't do that with traditional makeup couldn't do that with traditional makeup techniques. techniques.


Research ObjectivesResearch Objectives

To Cast To Cast –– ““So what we decided to do was cast So what we decided to do was cast actors to play Benjamin at different heights, and actors to play Benjamin at different heights, and got them to wear blue socks on their heads and got them to wear blue socks on their heads and lopped their heads off and put Brad's head on lopped their heads off and put Brad's head on them, which is easier than it sounds.them, which is easier than it sounds.””


• To makeup- “So we wanted the audience to go, "Wow, those are his ears, just bigger and droopier. That is his nose, just a little bit bigger and droopier."

Significance of ResearchSignificance of Research

David Fincher:David Fincher: I just thoughtI just thought the final image of a 74the final image of a 74--yearyear--old old woman holding a sevenwoman holding a seven--monthmonth--old baby and helping him through old baby and helping him through death, death, I just thoughtI just thought it was a beautiful way to end a love story. it was a beautiful way to end a love story.


David Fincher: We live in a silly time, and people go to the movies to see something that they haven't seen before, and you have to promise to show them that.

Lecture 6-Abstraction & Operationalization

Theory

Hypothesis

MentalConstructs

Sensory Experience1 32

Observationinduction

testingImmanuelKant

Physical Reality

deductionanalogy

Flow of a InvestigationGeneral Specific General– general hypothesis conceptual variables operational

definitions measured variables specific predictions– determine population select sample measure sample

descriptive statistics– if predicted relationship is observed in sample, use inferential

statistics to decide whether relationship is likely to be found in population

– if so, then we generalize our conclusions from the sample to the population

Scientific Method involves:1. Theory = an integrated set of principles

that explain and predict facts2. Hypothesis = a prediction of what is the

case (fact) based on theory3. Observation = a comparison of hypothesis

to what is the case

Brief Review of Research Model / Hypothesis

Research is Argument

Conceptual Model …Hypothesis

Different Levels of Abstraction

Most abstract -------- Conceptual Model

Grand Theory

Middle-range theory

Most concrete ------- Empirical research methods

Concept

A concept is a word or phrase that summarizes the essential characteristics or properties of a phenomenon.

A proposition is a statement about a concept or a relation between concepts.

A construct usually means a concept that is complex or inferred.A variable refers to the concrete, measured values.

Hypothesis

Hypotheses are special types of propositions that represents conjectures about the concepts of middle-range theories stated in empirically testable forms.

(Concepts are linked to empirical indicators. But many reports use concepts directly in the hypothesis.)

Example 1

Proposition: There is a phenomenon known as X.Hypothesis: The phenomenon known as X is

empirically demonstrated by X’

X

X’

Example 2

Proposition: There is a relation between X and Y.Hypothesis: X’ and Y’ are related.

X

X’

Y

Y’

Example 3

Proposition: There is a negative relation between loneliness and cognitive functioning.

Hypothesis: The higher the score on the Revised Loneliness Scale, the lower the score on the Mental Status Examination.

Example 4Proposition: There is a strong positive relation between walking

exercise and physical functioning, such that moderate walking exercise is associated with much better physical functioning than usual care.

Hypothesis: The difference in scores on the 12-minute walk test between the experimental moderate walking exercise program group and the control usual care group signify a large effect size, with higher scores for the experimental group.

Example 5

Hypothesis: Groups will make fewer spreadsheet development errors than will individuals working alone.

What are the constructs & relations?

Example 6

Hypothesis: If individuals sustain a distinction between entities and attributes, they will recall an item that represents an entity first during a recall task.

What are the constructs & relations?

Examples (bad)

Hypothesis: Gender has higher speed.

Hypothesis: Good interfaces lead to better interaction.

Hypothesis: Old men have higher anxiety about computer applications.

Checks 1) How are these measured?

2) How are the measurements to be related?

3) What are the comparison groups?

Conceptual Model

A conceptual model is a set of relatively abstract and general concepts and the propositions that describe or link those concepts.

A conceptual model shows the relevant phenomena, while ignoring less important phenomena.

Theory

A theory is a set of relatively concrete and specific concepts and the propositions that describe or link these concepts.

Grand theory: broader, more abstractMiddle-range theory: narrower, more concrete (could be tested)

Theories allow us to explain or unite phenomena.

Theory –Example 1

Technology acceptance model- constructs: perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use,

intention to use

- Relations among constructs- Measurement items

PU

PEOU

IU

Theory –Example 2

Fitts’ Law- Movement time (for a device) is a function of the

distance and width of the target.- MT=a + b log2(D/W + 1)

Theory –Example 3

Hick’s Law- Time taken to choose between a number N of

alternative targets.- Time=a + b log2(N + 1)

Theory –Example 4

Levels of analysis theoriesA 4-level theory (Foley et al., 1995)

Conceptual level (user’s mental model)Semantic level (input/output meanings)Syntactic level (sequence of input actions)Lexical (precise mechanisms for input)

See Ch 2 of Shneiderman & Plasiant

Theory –Example 5

Stages of action model (Norman, 1988)Cycles of action and evaluationForming goal, forming intention, specifying action, executing action, perceiving system state, interpreting system state, evaluating outcome.Gulf of execution / evaluation


Theory –Example 6

GOMS model (Card et al., 1983)Goals (e.g. to delete some words)Operators (mouse, delete key)Methods (the sequence of actions)Selection (rules to choose among alternative methods)


Types of Theory

Descriptive – what is (descriptive)Explanatory – why (correlational)Predictive – does an intervention result in the intended effect (experimental)

Theory / HypothesisTheory – General statements regarding the relationship between two or more variables. An attempt to classify, explain, predict, and to understand the ‘why and how’ of real events that deal with crime and criminal justice issues. In contrast, methodology attempts to explain ‘what is.’

Hypothesis – Specific statements regarding the relationship of two or more variables which are derived from general theories.

Qualitative versus Quantitative

Qualitative or “ethnographic” research tends to sensitize concepts as a basis for fundamental understanding

(verstehen). Examples include participant observation, field studies, and interviews.

Quantitative or “empirical” research is designed to operationalize and numerically measure variables for

statistical analysis.

Problems-> Questions->HypothesesProblems(observation)

Declining visitors at a leisure/tourism site

What solutions am I seeking?

Questions(context)

Why have visitors declined in 2007 at Museum Negara?

I am seeking an answer for?

Hypotheses(hunch)

Visitors at Museum Negara declined because of the emergence of other museums in K.L.

I want to test/prove “true” or “false” for a statement/view that I hold to.

Steps Towards Framing the Problem, Questions and Hypotheses

Step 1: Frame the problem- make sure your problem is in a specific applied area (e.g. rate of visits to a tourist destination).

Step 2: Ask relevant questions-brainstorm or use your mind map or research diary to identify possible descriptions of relationships (e.g. what kind of visitors? Which tourist attraction? What year?).

Step 3: Formulate hypotheses-based on a literature search that provides a tentative explanation (e.g. decline in awareness, substitute attractions, government policies etc.).

Step 4: If step 3 cannot be achieved. Repeat steps 1 through 3.

Problems(observation)

Successful tourist destinations(destination management)

I can solve the problem of sustainability (long term success)

Questions(context)

What aspects of the butterfly farm contributed to its success as tourist destination?(success factors)

I know what the contributors to (factors of) success are. How these factors are linked to long term success.

Hypotheses(hunch)

It is possible to come up with a common success recipe for all nature destinations.(tool for measurement)

The usefulness of this tool is tested by using it on a butterfly farm and a cactus farm

Good Example: A Conceptual Tool to Measure the Success of Tourist Attractions: Case Study of a Butterfly & Cactus Farm in Cameron

Highlands

Problems(observation)

Customer satisfaction What does the organization have to do to go beyond sales and achieve customer loyalty?

Questions(context)

What are the three levels of customer expectation?

The research mentioned 3 levels of customer expectations but was unable to objectively show the difference between them.

Hypotheses(hunch)

Customer satisfaction suffers when the company fails to deliver on:

“Moments of truth”(MT)“Word of mouth” (WM)

The research needs to show: satisfaction= expectations metexpectations =MT +WMexpectations can be treated as a hierarchy of three levels.

Poor Example: A Research on Customer Satisfaction

Operationalization

Subjectivity is Bad for Research

In the “customer satisfaction” example subjectivity takes the form:3 levels of expectations (assumptions, meeting requirements and delightfulness)WM and MT cannot be measured effectively.If expectations have three levels to it then where should we fit WM and MT.

Concept (or Construct)

“A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name” (Zikmund 2003, p41)Building blocks that abstract reality – “leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale”– “gross national product,” “asset,” and “inflation”

Vegetation Vegetation

Fruit Fruit

Banana Banana

Reality Reality

Incr

easi

ngly

mor

e ab

stra

ct

A ladder of abstraction for concepts

(Zikmund 2003, p42)

CONCEPTS

OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS AND EVENTS (REALITY)

EmpiricalLevel

AbstractLevel

Concepts are abstractions of reality

(Zikmund2003, p42)

Theory, abstraction and reality

Theories Theories

Propositions Propositions

Concepts Concepts

RealityReality

Incr

easi

ngly

mor

e ab

stra

ct

Conceptual Frameworks & Best Conceptual Frameworks & Best Practices Practices (Lecture 7)(Lecture 7)

•Accepted

•Comprehensive

•Variations on a theme

The Power of Universal Mythology- Joseph Campbell’s Hero With a Thousand Faces.

AcceptanceAcceptance

•Where do you get your plot (research) templates?

•Accepted and authoritative sources

Source: http://traubman.igc.org/hero.gif

(Separation)

Comprehensive

Variations on a theme

CausalCausal-- Explanative FrameworkExplanative Framework

Origin versus End ; Higher versus Lower Order

ProcessProcess--Procedural FrameworkProcedural Framework

Necessary versus Sufficient

Lecture 8-Research Design and Sampling

By

Bernard Lew

Checklist1. Have you formulated a hypothesis (hunch) that suggest

how things should work out?2. Do your research questions (not questionnaire

questions) clarify relationships and contexts?3. Is your research problem in a specific applied area?4. Have you discussed these issues with your tutor?5. Have you shown your part 1 (draft) to your tutor?

Planning your proposal

Objectives

List each of the research objectives.

Info Required

For each objective

develop a list of the

information required

Type of data

Identify the type of data

for each item of information

Method or Source

Identify a method of

obtaining each piece of

information and the the

source of that information

Analysis

Specify likely analysis

techniques that might

affect how the data should be

gathered

Research Objectives: Tourism and Gastronomy

*This study’s objective is to identify areas of commonality in the way tourists perceive and experience gastronomy while visiting a destination. Specifically:

1. Is there a gastronomy-tourism market segment? 2. Does a destination’s gastronomy contribute to the

tourists’ quality of experiences while visiting the destination?

*Kivela, J. and Crotts, J.C. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy:gastronomy’s influence on how touirsts experience a destination, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(3):354-377.

Poor Example: Organic FoodResearcher SUPPOSED TO HAVE INVESTIGATED:

Current situation in organic market MalaysiaPerceptions of market players towards organic sector Problems faced by farmers when planning for organic farming and applying for certificatesProblems faced by wholesalers and retailers in their business Problems faced by customers during purchase the organic productsProblems faced by government to implement the certification system

BUT INSTEAD INVESTIGATED:

Levels of involvement (current situation?)Sensitivity to prices (current situation?)Frequency of consumptionTypologies of consumers Accessibility (problems faced by customer?)

1. Consumption pattern (focus of research)2. Cake house vs. non-cake house (units of

analysis)3. (Factors/determinants) of concern when

purchasing such products (health, convenience and pleasure)

4. (Application/recommendation) What cake house concept is preferred and where to locate among 4 areas (can be inferred from 1 through 3)

Good Example: Patterns of Consumption Between Cake House and Non-Cake House

Sample SelectionA sample is intended to be representative of a particular population

Since we do not have all the time and money in the world we need a “representative sample” (ie. “mini”population): a sample whose characteristics and behaviors accurately reflect those of the population. Such that the results we get from the sample are similar to the results we would get if we actually measured the entire population

Sampling Procedure

How do we get a representative sample?– Best way: random sampling of individuals from the

population– Avoiding “selection bias”: every member of the

population should have an equal chance of being selected for the sample

– When problems arise what is the alternative?• Purposive sampling, theoretical sampling, stratified

sampling

Methods for estimating sample size

JudgementStatistical precisionCost limitations

Industry standards

Standard Error

Sample size

Factors indicating a small sample

Populations are homogeneousAnalysis does not require investigation of sub-samplesBudget and/or time constraintsWhen costs increase dramatically as sample size increasesMore may not be better

Arguments often used to support the need for large samples sizes

Decisions made on the basis of the data have significant consequencesA high level of confidence is required in all estimates

Industry standards

Survey - 200/1000Concept tests - 100/200 per variantAdvertising tests - 200/300 per variantFocus groups - 6/8 sessions per region

Source: Adapted from Dillion, 1993Richard D Irwin

Formulas for sample size determination

Based on meansn = desired sample sizeS = standard deviation pilot study or rule of thumbz = confidence interval judgement or calculationE = magnitude of error judgement

2

⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛=

EzSn

Poor Example: Organic Food

Statistically insignificant:

Interviewed 2 farmers from highlands (Cameron Highlands) and 1 farmer from lowlands (Kajang)Interviewed 4 wholesalers and 4 retailers in Klang Valley. Selected the bigger companies or major players for the interview.Interviewed 15 consumers who are loyal consumersInterviewed 2 other players in macro-environment who are government (SOM) and private sector (CETDEM)

Good Example: Patterns of Consumption Between Cake House and Non-Cake house

Elements Particulars

Sampling Size 240 (Qualified: 203, Disqualified: 37)

Ulu Tiram Kota Tinggi

Skudai Tampoi

Age Group

18 & below 19 – 24 25 – 31 32 – 37

12%18%35%18%

38 – 43 44 – 49 50 & above

10%5%2.5%

Gender Male 28% Female 72%

Monthly Income

RM1,000 & below RM1,001 – RM2,000 RM2,001 – RM 3,000RM3,001 & above

51%28%12%9%

Education LevelPrimary & below Secondary Tertiary

1%53%46%

Occupation

StudentManagerial AdministrativeSelf-Employed

20%18%24%5%

HousewifeRetired Others

3%1%29%

Table 3.1 Profile of Respondents

Sampling Area

A. Reports of Fact - self-disclosure of some objective information (e.g., profiles: age, gender, education, behavior)

B. Ratings of Opinion or Preference - evaluative response to statement (e.g., rankings: satisfaction, agreement, like\dislike)

C. Reports of Intended Behavior - self-disclosure of motivation or intention (e.g., open-ended/exploratory: likeliness, willingness)

Types of Data Collected

Poor Example: Organic FoodData collection instruments/methods cited:

Face interviews (but no interview transcripts) Email reply (but no samples of questions) Telephone interviews (but no samples of these) Faxes (but no samples of these) Direct observation (can be implied through statements made. But place, time, venue not mentioned)

Note: it is quite unrealistic that all of these could have been employed. Even if this was the case- should have mentioned the benefits of triangulation.

Definition and Measurement

Validity– extent to which a procedure measures what it is

intended to measure (accurate operationalization of concepts.)

Reliability– If another researcher uses your procedure will

he/she obtain the same results? (replicable and consistent results)

Gastronomy: Concept ValidityEtymologically, the word gastronomy is derived from Greek gastros, meaningstomach, and gnomos, knowledge or law. Culinaria, on the other hand, is aterm often used in the context of gastronomy that describes a country’s orregion’s dishes, foods, and food preparation techniques, which give rise to thecountry’s or region’s distinctive cuisine. Hence, for the purposes of this study,the term gastronomy will be used to represent food, wine, and culinaria.Gastronomy is a body of knowledge with its roots in all major classical civilizations; despite this, however, in the hospitality and tourism contexts gastronomy is a new area of study.

Source:*Kivela, J. and Crotts, J.C. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy:gastronomy’s influence on how touirsts experience a destination, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(3):354-377.

The Questionnaire1. Follows from the hypotheses/questions identified in Part

I of your dissertation.2. Sets of questions corresponding to specific research

questions/hypotheses.3. Decision on the types of data to be collected.4. Piloting the questionnaire and refining it.

(there are bound to be misinterpretation of questions and practical difficulties that are overlooked.)

Cake House Market Non-Cake House Market

Part 1

Q1-Q6 Current behaviour

Q7 Identify market segment

Q8 & Q 11 Identify competitors

Q9 & Q12 Factors influencing them to purchase

Q10 Intention to visit cake house in the future

Q13 Preference

Q14 Satisfaction level on current cake house

Q15 & Q16 Identify the potential of offering seasonal products

Q 17 Concept of Upcoming Cake House

Part 2 Demographics

Good Example: Patterns of Consumption between Cake House and Non-Cake house

What is to be measured

ConceptA generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes

Operational definitionSpecifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under investigation

Media Skepticism“Conceptual Definition”

Media skepticism - the degree to which individuals are skeptical toward the reality presented in the mass media. Media skepticism varies across individuals, from those who are mildly skeptical and accept most of what they see and hear in the media to those who completely discount and disbelieve the facts, values, and portrayal of reality in the media.

Media Skepticism“Operational Definition”

Please tell me how true each statement is about the media. Is it very true, not very true, or not at all true?

1. The program was not very accurate in its portrayal of the problem.

2. Most of the story was staged for entertainment purposes.

3. The presentation was slanted and unfair.

Scale

A scale is a series of items arranged according to value for the purpose of quantificationTypes of scales– Nominal– Ordinal– Interval– Ratio

Nominal Scale

Nominal scale is a scale “in which the number or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for identification or classification”

Gender0=Male1=Female

Postcodes

Zikmund, William G, (2003) “Business Research Methods, 7th Edition” The Dryden Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Orlando, Florida, pp 296.

Ordinal Scale

Rank order, Preferences– Most preferred– 2nd most preferred– …– …

Ordinal scale is a scale “that arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitudes”


Interval Scale

Consumer Price Index (Base 100)Fahrenheit temperature

Interval scale is a scale “that arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitudes but also distinguishes this ordered arrangement in units of equal intervals”


Ratio Scale

WeightDistance

Interval scale is a scale “having absolute rather than relative properties and possessing an absolute zero, where there is a absence of a given attribute”


Scale

Scale

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Number system

Unique definition of numerals (0, 1, 2, ..

9)

Order of numerals (0<1<2....<9)

Equality of differences(2-1=7-6)

Equality of ratios(2/4=4/8)

Examples

BrandsGender

Store type

AttitudesPreferences

AttitudesOpinions

Index numbers

AgeCosts

Number of customers

Permissible statistics

PercentagesMode

Binomial testChi-square test

PercentilesMedian

Rank order correlation

RangeMean

Standard deviationFull range of

inferential statistics

Reliability and Validity

Reliability – “The degree to which measures are free from random error and therefore yield consistent results”

Validity – “The ability of a scale to measure what was intended to be measured”

Zikmund, William G, (2003) “Business Research Methods, 7th Edition” The Dryden Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Orlando, Florida, p 300 and p 302.

Low Reliability High Reliability Reliable but NotValid

Reliability and Validity

Zikmund, William G, (2003) “Business Research Methods, 7th Edition” The Dryden Press, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Orlando, Florida, p 304.

Attitude Measurement

An attitudes is “an enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given matter”


Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs

The term hypothetical construct is used to describe a variable that is not directly observable, but is measurable by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behavior - attitudes are considered to be such variables.

Three Components of an Attitude

Affective – The feelings or emotions toward an objectCognitive – Knowledge and beliefsBehavioral – Predisposition to action, Intentions, Behavioral expectations

Measuring Attitudes

RankingRatingSortingChoice

Ranking

Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank order a small number of objects in overall performance on the basis of some characteristic or stimulus.

Rating

Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses. The respondent’s position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object.

Sorting

Sorting might present the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

Choice

Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement - it is assumed that the chosen object is preferred over the other.

Physiological measures

Physiological measures of attitudes provide a means of measuring attitudes without verbally questioning the respondent. for example, galvanic skin responses, measure blood pressure etc.

Simple Attitude Scaling

In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that an individual agree with a statement or respond to a single question. This type of self-rating scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories;

THE CHAIRMAN SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

Category Scales

A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories - it provides more information. Questions working is an extremely important factor in the usefulness of these scales.

How important were the following in your decision to visit TASMANIA (check one for each item)

VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOOIMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT

CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS _________ ___________ ___________FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

Category Scales

The Likert Scale

An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.

Likert Scale Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match tan to play an easy one.___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

Likert ScaleMeasuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

There is really no such thing as a tennis strokethat cannot be mastered.___Strongly Agree___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

Playing tennis is a great way to exercise.___Strongly Agree___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

Likert Scale Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

Semantic Differential

A series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are – 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or – +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

Semantic Differential Scales

Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Complex

Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Active

Attitudes Toward Tennis

Numerical Scales

Numerical scales have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space’ or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).

Constant sum scale

Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand:Brand A _________Brand B _________Brand C _________

Stapel Scales

Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer.

A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

DepartmentStore Name

+3+2+1

Wide Selection-1-2-3

Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. the more accurately you think the work describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the large the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.

3 2 1Very VeryGood Poor

Graphic Rating scale, stressing pictorial visual communications

Behavioural Intentions and Expectations

How likely is it that you will purchase brand x in the next week

___ I definitely will buy___ I probably will buy___ I might buy___ I probably will not buy___ I definitely will not buy

Behavioral Differential

The behavioral differential instrument has been developed for measuring the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects. A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales. For example:

A 25-year old woman sales representativeWould ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not

Ask this person for advice.

Paired Comparisons

In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two objects at a time and asked to pick the one they prefer. Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a few products are compared, but as the number of items increases, the number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2). If the number of comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue and no longer carefully discriminate among them.

Selecting a measurement scale

What method should be used (ranking, sorting, rating or choice)?Should a monadic or comparative scale be used?Why type of category label should be used?How many scale categories or response positions are needed?Should balance or unbalanced rating scales be used?Should respondents be given a forced-choice or a non-forced-choice scale?Should a single measure or an index measure be used?

Monadic Rating Scale

A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept

Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup.

Completely Very Fairly Well Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by comparing it with a benchmark

Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.

TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE

A Comparative Rating Scale

An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale

How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union?

Neither Satisfied Quite VerySatisfied Nor Dissatisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied

An unbalance scale

Questionnaire design

A questionnaire is only as good as the questions it asks


Questionnaire Design

1. What should be asked?2. How should each question be phrased?3. In what sequence should the questions be

arranged?4. What questionnaire layout will best serve the

research objectives?5. How should the questionnaire be pretested?

Does the questionnaire need to be revised?

What Should Be Asked?

Questionnaire relevanceQuestionnaire accuracy

Phrasing Questions

Open-ended questionsFixed-alternative questions

Structured Unstructured

Undisguised

Disguised

Example:

Typical descriptive surveywith straight-forward, structured questions

Example:

Survey with open-endedquestions to discover “new”answers or focus group interview

Example:

Survey interview to measurebrand A’s image versuscompetitive brands’ images or brand recall (unaided recall)

Example:

Projection techniques usedmostly for exploratory research

Classifying Surveys by Degree of Structure and Degree of Disguise

Guidelines for phrasing questions

Avoid Complexity: use simple, conversational languageAvoid leading and loaded questionsAvoid ambiguity: be as specific as possibleAvoid double-barreled itemsAvoid making assumptionsAvoid burdensome questions

1. Do you believe that private citizens have the right toown firearms to defend themselves, their families, and property from violent criminal attack?

Yes No Undecided

2. Do you believe that a ban on the private ownershipof firearms would be significantly reduce the number ofmurders and robberies in your community?

Yes No Undecided

Poorly phrased questionsLeading Questions

Poorly phrased questionsComplex phrasing

In the past year, how often did you become intoxicated while drinking any kind of alcoholic beverage?

How would you rephrase this question?

Poorly phrased questionsComplex/Loaded phrasing

How’s this for an alternative?

Sometimes people drink a little too much beer, wine or whiskey so that they act different from usual. What word would you use to describe people when they get that way? ....

Occasionally, people drink on an empty stomach or drink a little too much and become ______. In the past year how often did you become ______ while drinking any kind of alcoholic beverage?

Poorly phrased questionsDouble-barreled

Do you believe the McDonald’s has fast and courteous service?

1a. How many years have you been playing tennis on a regular basis? Number of years: __________

b. What is your level of play?

Novice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 Advanced . . . . . . . -4Lower Intermediate . . . . . -2 Expert . . . . . . . . . -5Upper Intermediate . . . . . -3 Teaching Pro . . . . -6

c. In the last 12 months, has your level of play improved, remained thesame or decreased?

Improved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 Decreased. . . . . . . -3Remained the same . . . . . -2

Improved phrasing

2a. Do you belong to a club with tennis facilities? Yes . . . . . . . -1No . . . . . . . -2

b. How many people in your household - including yourself - play tennis?Number who play tennis ___________

Improved phrasing

Improved phrasing

3a. Why do you play tennis? (Please “X” all that apply.)

To have fun . . . . . . . . . . -1To stay fit. . . . . . . . . . . . -2To be with friends. . . . . . -3To improve my game . . . -4To compete. . . . . . . . . . . -5To win. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -6

b. In the past 12 months, have you purchased any tennis instructional books or video tapes? Yes . . . . . . . -1

No . . . . . . . -2

Questionnaire Design

Question sequence– Order bias– Funnel technique– Filter bias

Question layout

Layout for Internet Questionnaires

Graphical User Interface (GUI)Paging layout going from screen to screen Scrolling layout gives the respondent the ability to scroll down Push buttons Status bar

4 Common Question Displays on a Computer Screen

Radio button Drop-down boxCheck box Open-ended boxes

Pretesting is Important

All aspects of the questionnaire should be pretestedThe pretest should be conducted in an environment identical/very similar to the one that will be used in the final surveyA debriefing procedure should be used

Exercises and SummaryMeasurable concepts(Define and measure)

What is the best way to define and measure an abstract concept?

Sample selection(Specify size and composition)

How can I avoid biasness and yet achieve representativeness?

Draft of Questionnaire(Categorization and sequencing of questions)

Am I asking questions that serve to verify/falsify my hypotheses? Or questions that clarify understanding in an area?

Kinds of Data and Kinds of Data and Research InstrumentResearch Instrument

(Lecture 9)(Lecture 9)

Relevance (Concept and Data)Relevance (Concept and Data)Feasible (Research Design)Feasible (Research Design)

RelevanceRelevanceConceptConceptDataData

•Realism

•Models

FeasibilityFeasibilityResourcesResources

•Time•Dimensionality

ConceptsConcepts--> Dimensions> Dimensions-->Variables>Variables

InductionInduction--InferencesInferences

SuggestSuggestFilter and isolateFilter and isolateBig picture to eventBig picture to event

DeductionDeduction-- PredictionPredictionPostulatePostulateEvent to big pictureEvent to big pictureAnticipateAnticipate

Lecture 10-Data Collection and Analysis

By

Bernard Lew

1.Measuring ConceptsHave you decided on the best way to define and measure concepts in your research?

2.Sample selectionIs the sampling size big enough?Is the sample representative of the population under study?

3.Right kinds of questions and types of data collectedAre you asking the kind of questions that:

Verify/falsify your hypotheses Directly relate to your research objectives

Checklist

Types of research and approaches to analysis

Research type SPSS procedures

Descriptive research FrequenciesMeansGraphics

Explanatory research Cross tabsRegression Graphics

Evaluative research Comparisons using frequencies & means

Note: your research may involve all three research types/aspects

Response rate = _____________________________Mail or Email

Number of completed questionnaires

Number of eligible respondents

Response rate = _______________________________Personal

Number of completed interviews

Completed + Refusals + Terminations

Calculating response rates

Calculating response rates for internet surveys is problematic because it is difficult to determine the number of “eligible”respondents

Pretesting

A trial run with a group of respondents to iron out fundamental problems in the instructions of survey design

DATA ANALYSIS

DATA ENTRY

ERROR CHECKING

ANDVERIFICATION

CODING

EDITING

Stages of Data Analysis

Editing

The process of checking and adjusting the data– for omissions– for legibility– for consistency

And readying them for coding and storage

CONSISTENCYCONSISTENCY COMPLETENESSCOMPLETENESS QUESTIONS QUESTIONS ANSWEREDANSWERED

OUT OF ORDEROUT OF ORDER

Reasons for Editing

Coding

The process of identifying and assigning a numerical score or other character symbol to previously edited dataCodes are:– The rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording

data in the coding process– The actual numerical or other character symbols

Rules for Coding

Categories should be exhaustiveCategories should be mutually exclusive and independent

1a. How many years have you been playing tennis on a regular basis? Number of years: __________

b. What is your level of play?

Novice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 Advanced . . . . . . . -4Lower Intermediate . . . . . -2 Expert . . . . . . . . . -5Upper Intermediate . . . . . -3 Teaching Pro . . . . -6

c. In the last 12 months, has your level of play improved, remained thesame or decreased?

Improved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 Decreased. . . . . . . -3Remained the same . . . . . -2

2a. Do you belong to a club with tennis facilities? Yes . . . . . . . -1No . . . . . . . -2

b. How many people in your household - including yourself - play tennis?Number who play tennis ___________

3a. Why do you play tennis? (Please “X” all that apply.)

To have fun . . . . . . . . . . -1To stay fit. . . . . . . . . . . . -2To be with friends. . . . . . -3To improve my game . . . -4To compete. . . . . . . . . . . -5To win. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -6

b. In the past 12 months, have you purchased any tennis instructional books or video tapes? Yes . . . . . . . -1

No . . . . . . . -2

4. Please rate each of the following with regard to this flight, if applicable.

Excellent Good Fair Poor1 2 3 4

Courtesy and Treatment from the:Skycap at airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airport Ticket Counter Agent . . . . . Boarding Point (Gate) Agent . . . . .Flight Attendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Your Meal or Snack. . . . . . . . . . . . .Beverage Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Seat Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carry-On Stowage Space. . . . . . . .Cabin Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . Video/Stereo Entertainment . . . . . .On-Time Departure . . . . . . . . . . . .

Alternative coding schemes

Strongly agree 1Mildly agree 2Neither agree

nor disagree 3Mildly agree 4Strongly disagree 5

Strongly agree + 1Mildly agree + 2Neither agree

nor disagree 0Mildly agree - 1Strongly disagree - 2

I believe that people judge your success by the kind of car you drive.

Coding Open-Ended Responses

Code BookIdentifies each variableProvides a variable’s descriptionIdentifies each code name and position on storage medium

Data Entry

The process of transforming data from the research project to computers.Optical scanning systems– Marked-sensed questionnaires

Basic Data Analysis:Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Analysis

The transformation of raw data into a form that will make them easy to understand and interpret; rearranging, ordering, and manipulating data to generate descriptive information

Type ofMeasurement

Nominal

Twocategories

More thantwo categories

Frequency tableProportion (percentage)

Frequency tableCategory proportions

(percentages)Mode

Type of descriptive analysis

Permissible descriptive statistics

Type ofMeasurement


Ordinal Rank orderMedian


Type ofMeasurement


Interval Arithmetic mean


Tabulation

Tabulation - Orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary formatFrequency tablePercentages

Frequency Table

The arrangement of statistical data in a row-and-column format that exhibits the count of responses or observations for each category assigned to a variable

Image Importance Cumulative CumulativeQ6 Frequency Percent Frequency PercentExtr Important 14 14.0 14 14.0Very Important 15 15.0 29 29.0Smwt Important 14 14.0 43 43.0Neither 17 17.0 60 60.0Smwt Unimportant 9 9.0 69 69.0Very Unimportant 17 17.0 86 86.0Extr Unimportant 14 14.0 100 100.0

Measure ofCentral Measure of

Type of Scale Tendency Dispersion

Nominal Mode NoneOrdinal Median PercentileInterval or ratio Mean Standard deviation

Descriptive statistics

Variable Label Mean Std DevQ3 Bottles Consumed per Week 8.080 11.4191758Q4 Number Days Beverage Consumed per Week 2.020 2.0299774Q5 Price Importance 4.140 2.3007245Q6 Image Importance 3.990 2.0175743Q7 Taste Reaction 59.250 18.8703043Q9 Purchase Probability 45.100 37.8859266

Cross-Tabulation

A technique for organizing data by groups, categories, or classes, thus facilitating comparisons; a joint frequency distribution of observations on two or more sets of variablesContingency table- The results of a cross-tabulation of two variables, such as survey questions

Cross-Tabulation

Analyze data by groups or categoriesCompare differencesContingency tablePercentage cross-tabulations

Cross-tabulation

Cross-tabulation

Elaboration and Refinement

Moderator variable– A third variable that, when introduced into an

analysis, alters or has a contingent effect on the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.

– Spurious relationship• An apparent relationship between two variables that is not

authentic.

Quadrant analysis

Higher order scales can readily be Higher order scales can readily be translated into lower order scales, translated into lower order scales, but not vice versa.but not vice versa.

Because higher order scalesBecause higher order scalescontain more information (e.g. per contain more information (e.g. per

day), detail is lost going to a lowerday), detail is lost going to a lower--order scale of measurement. (e.g. order scale of measurement. (e.g. per second)per second)

Collapsing a five point scale

Charts and Graphs

Pie chartsLine graphsBar charts– Vertical– Horizontal

Line Graph

643 Networking213 print ad179 Online recruitment site112 Placement firm18 Temporary agency

How did you find your last job?

7006005004003002001000

Networking

print ad

Online recruitment site

Placement firm

Temporary agency

55.2 %

18.3 %

15.4 %

9.6 %

1.5 %

WebSurveyor Bar Chart

Microsoft Excel -Data Analysis

The Paste Function Provides Numerous Statistical Operations

Interpretation

The process of making pertinent inferences and drawing conclusionsconcerning the meaning and implications of a research investigation

15.3

50.7

25.1

5.93.0

0102030405060

Perc

enta

ge %

RM 2 &below

RM3 -RM6

RM 7 -RM 10

RM11 -RM 14

RM 15 &above

RM

Spending per Visit

Descriptive Research- Percentages (proportion of sample)

Mean Monthly Gross Household Income

In Current Prices (RM)

Average Annual Growth Rate (%)

1994 2004 2000-2004

Bumiputera 1,984 2,711 6.4

Chinese 3,456 4,437 5.1

Indian 2,702 3,456 5.0

Others 1,371 2,313 11.0

Malaysia 2,472 3,249 5.6

Ethnic Groups

Source: Department of Statistics – Household Income Surveys, 1999 and 2004

Malaysia Mean Monthly Gross Household Income by Ethnic Group, 1994 and 2004

Explanatory Research-Cross tab

Factors Affecting the Buying Behaviour of Cake House Market (n=113)(Scale: 1 = Not Important, 2 = Least Important, 3 = Important, 4 = Very Important)

Factors N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Freshness 113 1 4 3.58 .548

Cleanliness 113 3 4 3.56 .499

Taste 113 2 4 3.51 .569

Product Variety 113 2 4 3.35 .579

Packaging 113 1 4 3.33 .674

Price 113 1 4 3.28 .661

Customer Service 113 2 4 3.19 .532

Environment 113 2 4 3.19 .648

Convenience 113 1 4 3.19 .620

Market Trend 113 1 4 2.94 .919

Freshness is the major concern for the respondents when buying bakery and pastry products. Followed by cleanliness of the cake house and the taste of the products. [Suggesting that] people are becoming more focus on quality and flavor] of the products consumed or purchased. Product variety, packaging and pricing are roughly ranked third in the overall set of criteria. [This seems to suggests] that consumers are increasingly demanding for more products varieties in terms of multiple tastes and flavors as people’s appetite for bakery and pastry products continues to grow].

Evaluative Research-comparing means

Some Common Pitfalls With Collection and Use of Data

Collecting data for the sake of collecting data– “Filing cabinet/bookcase effect”

Making generalizations that are not supported by the data– No clear linkage between research goals, concept

measures and methodology employed

Pointers-Check to Avoid Pitfallso Data discrepancies can arise from different sources:

- Conceptual level-change of definitions and concepts- Collection level-mix/change in collection methods

o Use of different estimation or convention to fill data gaps (international and national sources)

o Lack of care in weighting results (interpretation of data)

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

A variable caused by another –the presumed effect.

Outcome

“Y”

Examples: Crime, recidivism, sentence length, poverty

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

A variable that influences another variable – the presumed cause.

Predictor – precedes in time the dependent variable.

“X”

Examples: age, race, gender, poverty, type of crime, etc.

Causation and Association

Causation: the concept that the action of one phenomenon affects the behavior of another, i.e., causal effect*: the finding that the change in one variable leads to the change in another variable.

– Example of a causal effect: Individuals exposed to media violence are more likely to engage in violent behavior than similar individuals who have not been exposed to media violence.

Direction of association: positive (when the independent variable moves in the same direction as the dependent variable);negative (when the independent and dependent variables move in opposite directions); or, no direction (if the independent variable is categorical).

Interpretation of Results

Nature of statement

Poor- Unqualified Good-Probabilistic

Descriptive 10 per cent of managers use Macs

10 per cent of managers use Macs compared with 90 per cent who use PCs.People with high incomes use Macs more than people with low incomes

We can be 95 per cent confident that the proportion of managers who use Macs is between 9% and 11%.

Comparative The proportion of PC users is significantlyhigher than the proportion of Mac users (at the 95 per cent level of probability)

Relational There is a positive relationship between level of income and use of Mac computers (at the 95 per cent level of probability).

It is only possible to estimate the probability that results obtained from a sample are true of the population –therefore statements on findings are probabilities.

Appendix 1: Tasks and TestsTask Data Format # of

var’sTypes of variable Test

Relationship between two variables

Crosstabulation of frequencies/ counts

2 Nominal Chi-square

Difference between two means - paired

Means - whole sample

2 Two scale/ ordinal t-test – paired

Difference between two means -independent samples

Means -two sub-groups

2 1.scale/ ordinal (means)2. nominal (2 grps)

t-test -independent samples


Means – 3 or more sub-groups

2 1.scale/ ordinal (means) 2. nominal (3 or more groups)

One-way ANOVA

Appendix 2: Tasks and TestsTask Data Format #

varsTypes of variable Test

Relationship between three or more variables

Means -Crosstabulated

3+ 1.scale/ ordinal (means) 2. Two or more nominal

Factorial ANOVA


Individual measures

2 Scale or ordinal (2) Correlation

Linear relationship between two var’s

Individual measures

2 Scale or ordinal (2) Linear regression

Linear relationship between 3+ var’s

Individual measures

3+ Scale or ordinal (3+) Multiple regression

Relationships between large numbers of var’s

Individual measures

Many Large numbers of scale/ordinal var’s

Factor/Cluster analysis

Bibliography, References and Sources Bibliography, References and Sources (Lecture 11)(Lecture 11)

•Sources

•Gurus

•Brain bank

Your research is only as good as your source material- Bernard Lew

Primary SourcesPrimary SourcesDatesDatesPlatform (discipline/field)Platform (discipline/field)AuthorAuthor

Vetting and AuthenticationVetting and Authentication

Has implications to :

•Relevance

•Feasibility

Research is Collaborative WorkResearch is Collaborative WorkHow complete is your brain bank?How complete is your brain bank?

Know the beginning from the endKnow the beginning from the endKeywordsKeywordsHow recent is the research?How recent is the research?How thorough is the researcher?How thorough is the researcher?PedigreePedigreeType of research?Type of research?Publication platform?Publication platform?AffiliationsAffiliations

CitationCitationFormat (Journals)Format (Journals)

In the Reference page:

Canestrelli, E., and Costa, P. (1991). Tourist Carrying Capacity: A Fuzzy Approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 18:295-311.

In text:

Canestrelli and Costa (1991)- in context. Or

(Canestrelli and Costa, 1991)- in passing.

1. Immerse in the source (genre): read, active learning

2. Brainstorm to externalize the most salient features (melodic themes): reflect and associate

3. Network the ideas (harmonize): understand the structure

4. Cluster ideas according to hierarchical order (rhythmic pattern): depth and coherence

5. Linearize the argument through a writing engine (performance): style and comprehensibility

From Music to Research Writing

(Lecture 12)

Formatting & Compiling the Dissertation

Literature Review: Research Procedure: From brand personality to destination personality

Systematically analyzed and synthesized

Globalization ->Distinctiveness -->Destination Marketing Destination Personality Define Destination

Personality What are the components of destination personality?-- No common theory- using the concept as applied to brands and products--

extension to tourism studies- the impact of destination personality on behaviour…

Literature Review: Research ProcedureFrom brand personality to destination personality

Gist (essence not just a pure summary)

“Blackstone (1993) showed that users and nonusers perceived credit cards differently, although the two groups were virtually identical in their demographic and socioeconomic profiles. Guthrie (1997) explained why anthropomorphism is so natural by means of familiarity and comfort theories.”

Contribution to your work (e.g. how you could extend it)

“The preceding arguments suggest that human and destination personality may share a similar conceptualization, but they may differ in how they are formed.”

Literature Review: Research Procedure

Limitations or features extendedAccordingly, the aim of this study is to address the paucity (small number) of empirical research on destination personality by applying Aaker’s (1997) brand personality scale to tourism destinations.------

from theory to application; applicability in another domain (i.e.products to destinations)

Formal PresentationConsistency between theory and questions, methods and

results (conclusions)

1.Theory- products and brands possess a personality.(Aakers, 1997)

2.Questions- do destinations have a personality?3.Method-adopt brand personality (Aakers, 1997) scale to develop

a destination personality scale.4.Summary of results-yes its possible to attribute personality to

destinations in terms of a) sincerity b) excitement and c) conviviality (hospitality)

ReferencingTypes of publication and their referencingBooksHenry, I.P. (1993) The Politics of Leisure Policy, Basingstoke: Macmillan

JournalsWitt, C.A. and Muhlemann, A.P. (1994) The implementation of total quality management in tourism: some guidelines, Tourism Management, Vol. 15(6), pp. 416-24

Websites:Rough Guides (No date), Australia [on-line], Available from: http://www.hotwired.com/rough/australia [accessed 13 April 2000]

http://www.hotwired.com/rough/australia

Referencing

If possible specific and to original source readings (not anthologies or secondary sources)

Morgan, N., and A. Pritchard (2002). “Contextualising Destination Branding.” In Destination Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposition, edited by N. Morgan, A. Pritchard, and R. Pride. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 11-41.

INSTEAD OF

Morgan, N., Pritchard, A., and R. Pride (2000). Destination Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposition, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Excerpts and examples taken from

Ekinci, Y., and Hosany, S. (2006) Destination Personality: An Application of Brand Personality to Tourism Destinations, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 45, pp. 127-139

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DOI: 10.1177/0263276405057188 2005; 22; 1 Theory Culture Society

John Urry The Complexity Turn

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The Complexity Turn

John Urry

A flock of birds sweeps across the sky. Like a well-choreographed dancetroupe, the birds veer to the left in unison. . . . The flock is organized withoutan organizer, coordinated without a coordinator. Bird flocks are not the onlythings that work that way. Ant colonies, highway traffic, market economies,immune systems – in all of these systems, patterns are determined . . . bylocal interactions among decentralised components. (Resnick, 1997: 3)

THE SOCIAL and cultural sciences have experienced a whole array ofincursions over the past few decades. These have included Marxismin the 1970s, the linguistic turn and postmodernism in the 1980s, the

body, performative and global culture turns in the 1990s. Many of theseturns are reflected in and partly promoted within TCS journals and bookseries.

This new Special Issue seeks to reflect upon, to develop and in partto evaluate yet another turn, the complexity turn. This turn derives fromdevelopments over the past two decades or so within physics, biology, math-ematics, ecology, chemistry and economics, from the revival of neo-vitalismin social thought (Fraser et al., 2005), and from the emergence of a moregeneral ‘complex structure of feeling’ that challenges some everyday notionsof social order (Maasen and Weingart, 2000; Thrift, 1999).

Within these scientific disciplines, an array of transformations tookplace, loosely known as chaos, complexity, non-linearity and dynamicalsystems analysis. There is a shift from reductionist analyses to those thatinvolve the study of complex adaptive (‘vital’) matter that shows orderingbut which remains on ‘the edge of chaos’. Self-assembly at the nanoscale isa current example of new kinds of matter seen as involving emergentcomplex adaptive systems. At the nanoscale the laws of physics operate indifferent ways, especially in the way that molecules stick together andthrough self-assembly can form complex nanoscale structures that could bethe basis of whole new products, industries and forms of ‘life’ (Jones, 2004).

■ Theory, Culture & Society 2005 (SAGE, London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi),Vol. 22(5): 1–14DOI: 10.1177/0263276405057188

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The properties of nano, it seems, cannot be understood through reduction-ism (see Wynne, this volume).

More generally, the term ‘complexity’ is ‘present’ and doing metaphor-ical, theoretical and empirical work within many social and intellectualdiscourses and practices besides ‘science’. These include alternativehealing, architecture, consultancy, consumer design, economics, defencestudies, fiction, garden design, geography, history, literary theory, manage-ment, New Age, organizational studies, philosophy, politics, post-structuralism, small world analyses, sociology, stock car racing, townplanning (see Mackenzie, this volume; Thrift, 1999). Searches of Amazonindicate 1221 current complexity titles.

Some significant original and ‘popular’ books within the complexityfield include Stewart’s Does God Play Dice? The Mathematics of Chaos(1989); Kauffman’s The Origins of Order (1993); Cohen and Stewart’s TheCollapse of Chaos (1994); Casti’s Complexification (1994); Arthur’s Increas-ing Returns and Path-Dependence in the Economy (1994); Nicolis’ Introduc-tion to Non-Linear Science (1995); Luhmann’s Social Systems (1995);Krugman’s The Self-organizing Economy (1996); Capra’s The Web of Life(1996); Prigogine’s The End of Certainty (1997); Jervis’s System Effects(1997); Rescher’s Complexity (1998); Holland’s Emergence (1998); Byrne’sComplexity Theory and the Social Sciences (1998); Kelly’s New Rules for theNew Economy (1998); Cilliers’ Complexity and Post-modernism (1998);Hayles’ How We Became Posthuman (1999); Watts’ Small Worlds (1999);Rycroft and Kash’s The Complexity Challenge (1999); Rasch and Wolfe’sObserving Complexity (2000); Capra’s The Hidden Connections: A Science forSustainable Living (2001); Gladwell’s Tipping Points: How Little Things CanMake a Big Difference (2002); Buchanan’s Small World: Uncovering Nature’sHidden Networks (2002); Wolfram’s A New Kind of Science (2002); DeLanda’s Intensive Science and Virtual Philosophy (2002); Barabási’s Linked:The New Science of Networks (2002); Taylor’s The Moment of Complexity:Emerging Network Culture (2003); Watts’ Six Degrees: The Science of aConnected Age (2003); Surowiecki’s The Wisdom of Crowds (2004); andBall’s Critical Mass: How One Thing Leads to Another (2004).

It is in the late 1990s that the social sciences begin to go complex,with an array of books, articles, conferences and workshops appearing (andindeed showing up in this list above). I note below that in 1996 theGulbenkian Commission on the Restructuring of the Social Sciences,chaired by Wallerstein and including non-linear scientist Prigogine,reported and advocated breaking down the division between ‘natural’ and‘social’ science through seeing both characterized by ‘complexity’ (Urry, thisvolume; Wallerstein, 1996). From then on we can say the complexity turntakes off within the social and cultural sciences (early collections includeEve et al., 1997; Keil and Elliott, 1996).

Moreover, ‘complexity’ practices can themselves be viewed as a self-organizing global network spreading ‘complexity’ notions around the globe.Complexity researchers deploy the techniques of PR and branding,

2 Theory, Culture & Society 22(5)

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international meetings with ‘star’ speakers, guru worship, the use of globalmedia and publishing, funding and branding by large corporations, andnetworking especially centred on nodes such as Santa Fe in Arizona (seeHelmreich, 1998; Waldrop, 1994) or the various research institutes namedafter the late Nobel prizewinner Ilya Prigogine (see Prigogine and Stengers,1984).

Overall, complexity approaches both signify and enhance a new ‘struc-ture of feeling’; one that combines system and process thinking (Thrift,1999). Such an emergent structure involves a sense of contingent opennessand multiple futures, of the unpredictability of outcomes in time-space, ofa charity towards objects and nature, of diverse and non-linear changes inrelationships, households and persons across huge distances in time andspace, of the systemic nature of processes, and of the growing hyper-complexity of organizations, products, technologies and socialities. On thelast of these we can note the huge increase in the number of componentswithin products. The Eli Whitney musket of around 1800 had 51components while the space shuttle of the late 20th century contained 10million (Rycroft and Kash, 1999). Even by 1970, the most valuable productsin world trade were simple products produced by simple processes. But aquarter of a century later, nearly two-thirds of the most valuable productsin world trade involve complex processes and complex products, involvingvast numbers of components, cybernetic architectures and sociotechnical orhybrid systems. This increasing complexity of products, processes andorganizations is linked with the proliferation of computerized networks thatself-reproduce themselves around the globe, forming and reforming newways by which ‘everything is connected to everything else’ (Barabási, 2002).

In part, the complexity sciences developed to research the behaviourof phenomena characterized by large numbers – and to use the computingpower emergent from the 1980s onwards (see Waldrop’s account of this atSanta Fe). As Kelly expresses this: ‘Emergence requires a population ofentities, a multitude, a collective. . . . More is different . . . large numbersbehave differently from small numbers’ (1995: 26). And the social world hasof course some very large numbers to contend with, over 6 billion people,700 million cars, 1 billion Internet users, 44,000 multinational corporations– although these are many fewer than the 10 billion nerve cells and 1000billion synapses that students of the brain examine (Casti, 1994: ch. 3).

Complexity though is not the same as simply complicated. Complexsystems analyses investigate the very many systems that have the ability toadapt and co-evolve as they organize through time. Such complex socialinteractions are likened to walking through a maze whose walls rearrangethemselves as one walks through; new footsteps have to be taken in orderto adjust to the walls of the maze that are adapting to each movement madethrough the maze. Complexity investigates emergent, dynamic and self-organizing systems that interact in ways that heavily influence the proba-bilities of later events. Systems are irreducible to elementary laws or simpleprocesses.

Urry – The Complexity Turn 3

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In particular, pre-20th-century science had operated with a view oftime as Newtonian: that is invariant, infinitely divisible into space-likeunits, measurable in length, expressible as a number and reversible. It istime seen essentially as a kind of Cartesian space comprising invariantmeasurable lengths to be moved along, forwards and backwards. Objectsare viewed as being contained within such boundaries of absolute time andspace (Coveney, 2000; Coveney and Highfield, 1990).

In the 20th century, the sciences dismantled such notions andprepared the way for the complexity turn (see Capra, 1996). Einstein showedthat there is no fixed or absolute time independent of the system to whichit refers. Time is a local, internal feature of any system of observation andmeasurement. It varies on where and how it is measured. It can stretch andshrink. Further, time and space are not separate from each other but arefused into a four-dimensional time–space curved under the influence ofmass. Time and space are ‘internal’ to the processes by which the physicaland social worlds themselves operate, helping to constitute their powers, asWhitehead (1985) analyses. Space and time are dynamic qualities: when abody moves, or a force acts, it affects the curvature of space and time, andin turn the structure of space–time affects the way in which bodies moveand forces act. The subsequent development of quantum theory describesa virtual state in which electrons try out instantaneously all possible futuresbefore settling into particular patterns. Quantum behaviour is instantaneous,simultaneous and unpredictable. The interactions between the parts are farmore fundamental than the parts themselves (Zohar and Marshall, 1994).

The development of chaos theory involved rejecting the common-sensenotion that only large changes in causes can produce large changes ineffects (and vice versa; Gleick, 1988). Chaos theory is based upon iteratinga relatively simple mathematical algorithm. Following a deterministic set ofrules, unpredictable yet patterned results can be generated, with smallcauses on occasions producing large effects and vice versa. The classicbutterfly effect, accidentally discovered by Lorenz in 1961, demonstratedthat minuscule changes at one location can theoretically produce, ifmodelled by three coupled non-linear equations, very large weather effectsvery far away in time and/or space from the original site of the hypotheti-cal flapping wings (Casti, 1994: 96; Maasen and Weingart, 2000: 93–4;Mackenzie, this volume). Relationships between variables can be non-linearwith abrupt switches occurring, so the same ‘cause’ can, in specific circum-stances, produce different effects.

Thermodynamics further shows the irreversible flow of time. An arrowof time results in loss of organization and an increase in randomness ordisorder over time within systems. This accumulation of disorder or positiveentropy results from the Second Law of Thermodynamics. However, there isnot a simple growth of disorder. Prigogine shows how new order arises butis far from equilibrium (see Capra, 1996, this volume). There are dissipa-tive structures, islands of new order within a sea of disorder, maintaining oreven increasing their order at the expense of greater overall entropy.


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Prigogine describes how such localized order ‘floats in disorder’. The arrowor flow of time results in futures that are unstable, relatively unpredictableand characterized by multiple possibilities.

The irreversibility of time can be seen in the research that showed howthe universe expanded following the singular event of the ‘big bang’ 15billion or so years ago. The scientific discovery of this cannot be reconciledwith laws of the physical world that see time as reversible, deterministicand involving ‘classes of phenomena’. The big bang is a one-off phenom-enon like nothing else ever to occur within the known universe. Laws ofnature are historical, including those of time and space. The big bang appar-ently created in that very moment both space and time. There was no pre-existing space and time: ‘any attempt to explain the origin of the physicaluniverse must perforce involve an explanation of how space and time cameinto existence too’ (Davies, 2001a: 57, 2001b). There is therefore no ‘time’and space before the big bang; they appear spontaneously created, suddenlyswitched on, through an unpredictable and yet apparently irreversiblequantum change (Hawking, 1988).

Central, then, to complexity is the idea of emergence. It is not that thesum is greater than the size of its parts – but that there are system effectsthat are different from their parts (see Jervis, 1997, on system effects).Complexity examines how components of a system through their interaction‘spontaneously’ develop collective properties or patterns, even simple prop-erties such as colour that do not seem implicit, or at least not implicit inthe same way, within individual components (Nicolis, 1995). These are non-linear consequences that are non-reducible to the very many individualcomponents that comprise such activities. Such emergent characteristicsemerge from, but are not reducible to, the micro-dynamics of the phenom-enon in question. Recently Surowiecki has described how this works in thesocial world as exemplifying the ‘wisdom of crowds’, that many ‘agents’ canbe much smarter than the few (2004).

Moreover, if a system passes a particular threshold with minor changesin the controlling variables, switches occur such that a liquid turns into agas, a large number of apathetic people suddenly tip into a forcefulmovement for change (Gladwell, 2002). Such tipping points give rise tounexpected structures and events whose properties can be different fromthe underlying elementary laws.

In analysing these non-linearities, positive feedback loops are especi-ally significant, as opposed to the negative feedback mechanism analysedby earlier systems theory in the 1940s to 1970s (see Urry, this volume).Positive feedback loops exacerbate initial stresses in the system, so render-ing it unable to absorb shocks and re-establish the original equilibrium.Such positive feedback can be seen in analyses of the increasing returnsthat generate path dependence found in the history of various economic-technological systems (such as the VHS video system replacing the techno-logically superior Betamax; see Arthur, 1994; Waldrop, 1994). Suchirreversible path dependence occurs when contingent events set into motion


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institutional patterns or event chains over time that have deterministic prop-erties through what Arthur terms ‘lock-ins’ (1994). Path dependenceanalyses show that causation can flow from contingent events to generalprocesses, from small causes to large system effects, from historically orgeographically remote locations to the general. ‘Path dependence’ showsthat the ordering of events or processes through time very significantly influ-ences the non-linear ways in which they eventually turn out, decades oreven centuries later. Path dependence is thus a process model in whichespecially hybrid systems irreversibly develop through ‘lock-ins’, but withonly certain small causes being necessary to prompt their initiation, as withthe contingent design of the QWERTY keyboard. The importance of thelock-in means that institutions matter a great deal to how it is that systemsdevelop over the locked-in longer time.

Complexity analyses can also show that there is no such thing as‘nature’s balance’, no real or primordial nature that would be in equilibriumif only humans had not intruded (Budiansky, 1995). The effects of humansare subtly and irreversibly woven into the very evolution of landscape. Andany ecological system is immensely complex so that there are rarely obviouspolicies that simply restore nature’s balance, partly because of the signifi-cance of ‘critical thresholds’ (see Resnick, 1997: 107–8, on forest fires).Ecological systems are on the edge of chaos without a ‘natural’ tendencytowards equilibrium, even if all humans were to depart forever from thescene. Indeed, many ecological systems themselves depend not upon stablerelationships but upon massive intrusions, of extraordinary flows of speciesfrom other parts of the globe and of fire, lightning, hurricanes, high winds,ice storms, flash floods, frosts, earthquakes and so on. The ‘normal’ state ofnature is thus not one of balance and repose; the normal state is to berecovering from the last disaster.

Moreover, as former UK Chief Scientist Robert May showed, the popu-lation size of species shows no tendency to stability or ‘equilibrium’, andespecially not to rise smoothly to the presumed carrying capacity of theirenvironment and then to level off and remain stable (May, 1981). Rather,populations of most species demonstrate extreme unevenness, with popu-lations often rising rapidly when introduced into an area and then almostas rapidly collapsing. The food consumption of animal species responds ina non-linear and time-lagged fashion to changing circumstances, and thisproduces massive unevenness of population size with no natural or equilib-rium size. Indeed the chaotic properties of biological systems also makepredictions of what favours the protection of a particular species more orless impossible.

Simultaneously, the contemporary world seems to involve highlyadaptable viruses, such as Aids and ebola, new superbugs, newly lethalpathogens such as prions, and the reappearance of TB, cholera and thebubonic plague, and the development of terrorism (see Knorr Cetina, thisvolume; Van Loon, 2002). These phenomena appear to stem from newpatterns of global travel and trade, the heightened ineffectiveness of


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antibiotics that encounter increased ‘resistance’, and the development ofnew powerful risk cultures beyond and especially within ‘medicine’. Davissuggests that southern California seems especially characterized by thecatastrophic coincidence of extreme events. This seems not a randomdisorder but a dynamic pattern of escalating feedback loops. Extremeevents, especially extreme weather events, demonstrate the principle of non-linearity where small changes in driving variables or inputs – magnified bypositive feedback – can produce disproportionate, or discontinuous,outcomes (Davis, 2000).

Something similar can be seen in the case of accidents that appear tooccur ‘normally’ when the system is tightly coupled, that processes happenvery fast and cannot be turned off, when the failed parts cannot be isolatedand when there is no other way to keep the system going. With such tightlycoupled systems, recovery from the initial disturbance that may have beenrelatively trivial is impossible. The consequences will spread quickly,chaotically and irreversibly throughout the system, so producing normal‘system accidents’ (Perrow, 1999).

Overall, systems are often conceptualized as autopoietic (Luhmann,1995; Maturana, 1981; Mingers, 1995). Autopoiesis involves the idea thatliving systems entail a process of self-making or self-producing. There is anetwork of production processes in which the function of each componentis to participate in the production or transformation of other components inthe network. In this way, the network comes to make itself. It is producedby the components and this in turn produces the components and itsenvironment. In a living system the product of its operation is its ownorganization, with the development of boundaries specifying the domain ofits operations and defining the self-making system (Hayles, 1999: ch. 6).Such autopoietic features have been especially studied in systems of urbangrowth. Small local preferences mildly expressed in the concerns of indi-viduals, such as wanting to live with those who are ethnically similar,produces very strongly segregated self-organizing neighbourhoods as inlarge American cities. Krugman argues that residential patterns are unstablein the face of random perturbations: ‘local, short-range interactions cancreate large-scale [self-organizing] structure’ (1996: 17).

Capra argues therefore that nature turns out to be more like humannature – unpredictable, sensitive to the surrounding world, influenced bysmall fluctuations (Capra, this volume). This suggests enormous interdepen-dencies, parallels, overlaps and convergences between analyses of physicaland of social worlds. Indeed the very division between the ‘physical’ andthe ‘social’ is a socio-historical product and one that is dissolving. De Landashows that individual bodies and selves, those subjects of social science,are mere ‘transitory hardenings’ in the more basic flows of massive amountsof minerals, genes, diseases, energy, information and language (1997:259–60). Moreover, emergent properties are never purely ‘social’ and thekinds of processes that generate them are also not simply social. Complex-ity would argue against the thesis that ‘phenomena’ can remain bounded,


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that social causes produce social consequences. Causes are always over-flowing, tipping from domain to domain and especially flowing within andacross the supposedly distinct physical and social domains. For complex-ity, the emergent properties are irreducible, interdependent and mobile (seeDe Landa, 2002, on Deleuzian approaches here).

The complexity sciences thus elaborate how there is order anddisorder within all physical and social phenomena including, according toKauffman, within the nature of evolution though the concept of a ‘fitnesslandscape’ (1993). Complex systems are thus seen as being ‘on the edge ofchaos’. Physicists describe many states as being ‘metastable’, which meansthat they are next to stable (rather than simply unstable; Ball, 2004: 201).Order and chaos are in a kind of balance where the components are neitherfully locked into place but yet do not fully dissolve into complete instabil-ity or anarchy. Chaos is not complete anarchic randomness but there is an‘orderly disorder’ present within such systems. This argument emphasizesthe nature of strong interactions occurring between the parts of systems,with often the absence of a central hierarchical structure that ‘governs’ andproduces outcomes. These outcomes are both uncertain and yet irreversible.As we noted above, this is because more is different, ‘large numbers behavedifferently from small numbers’, as Resnick shows in the case of ants orslime-mould cells (Jenks and Smith, this volume; Kelly, 1995: 26; Resnick,1997: 33). The use of complexity thinking should enable us to break withdualistic thinking, which holds that there either are ‘systems’ or there are‘system failures’ (see Malpas and Wickham, 1995). Chaos and order are tobe seen as interconnected as large-scale systems move in and through time-space.

A wide array of authors has found these formulations productive fordeveloping new kinds of social science, and indeed for generating provoca-tive overlaps between physical, biological and social science formulations.However, the borrowings from complexity are of many different forms; Kwa(2002) distinguishes between romantic and baroque borrowings. Some ofthese differences are reflected in this Special Issue. Leading contributors tothese ‘social’ science debates have contributed here, ranging from thosedeveloping analyses of autopoietic processes, to critical realist formulationsof the economy and politics, to ecological approaches, to Deleuzians andvitalist philosophers, to students of the global and so on.

The collection begins with two articles that set the scene and provokea number of ways of rethinking the significance of the complex and of thepotential relationships between the physical and the social. The first is byone of the leading writers on the social science of time, Helga Nowotny. Shesets out many ways in which we seem to live in a complex world. Livingorganisms are composed of parts that function to ensure the survival andthe reproduction of the whole. In the course of evolution complexity hasincreased, but this increase is neither universal nor inevitable. Alsosocieties have become more complex, especially through the developmentof symbolic technologies. She pays particular attention to the work of


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Luhmann. Nowotny argues for the importance of transdisciplinary interfacesin which analyses of complex evolving systems are not to be left to scientistsalone, since they increasingly turn out simultaneously to involve humanagents and things, science and society‚ in novel configurations. Scientificnovelty thus needs a societal reading‚ in order to be understood and cultur-ally appropriated.

Within the pantheon of writers contributing to the popular understand-ing of science and especially of complexity, Fritjof Capra is probably theworld’s leading figure and has indeed contributed to a societal reading ofcomplexity (Capra, 2001). In his article he sets out some of the main contri-butions that non-linear dynamics has made to understanding various aspectsof biological life and especially to the ‘breath of life’. He develops howcomplexity enables living networks to be analysed as functional, open, oper-ating far from equilibrium and, most significantly, self-generating. He alsoshows how solving non-linear equations results in a visual shape or ‘attrac-tor’, the system’s long-term pattern. Capra also brings out the significanceof Prigogine’s theory of dissipative structures, how living systems maintainthemselves in a relatively stable state, albeit far from equilibrium.

Author of the innovative Transductions: Bodies and Machines at Speed(2002), Adrian Mackenzie takes up certain issues from Capra, especiallythrough examining the organization and structuring of the complexitysciences. He examines the ‘movements’ of scientific ideas through a detailedanalysis of the role played by the Lorenz attractor. This notion shows up inpopular images of ‘deterministic chaos’ and the notorious ‘butterfly effect’.He examines just how complexity research moved so rapidly from the scien-tific laboratory to popular science, especially examining the role of printmedia and computer simulation. Mackenzie also develops, via De Landa,some ways in which complexity seeks to move beyond metaphors, a non-metaphorical movement of complexity into social and cultural analysis.

Leading sociologist of science Brian Wynne also develops an analysisof the ‘movements’ of complexity by examining and critiquing ‘science’ asthe ritual authority. He thus argues against dominant social sciencesapproaches to complexity that suggest that awareness of complexity in late-modern society solely derives from recent scientific insights. By examiningplant and human genomics sciences, he argues that public culture is alreadyaware of particular forms of complexity, such as the many limits to predic-tive knowledge. He also shows that genomics science expresses bothcomplexity and predictive determinism and reductionism, the latterstemming from commercial cultures, and by imagined publics who areimportant new constructed objects of institutional scientific concerns. Insustaining a strong anti-reductionist argument, Wynne shows and developsimportant and neglected dimensions of the interrelations of science-and-society.

One of the very earliest works in the complexity area that sought todevelop its implications for empirical social science was David Byrne’sComplexity Theory and the Social Sciences (1998). In his article here he


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argues that the way to make complexity work as part of critical realist socialscience is through the comparative method and especially through itsshaping of the tools of social science. This project he examines through adistinction between ‘simplistic complexity’ (rather like the reductionismWynne argues against) and ‘complex complexity’. The latter involves adialogical engagement with involved social actors seeking to transformsocial systems. He is less concerned with importing ideas from the sciencesbut rather with developing ways of thinking and challenging the social worldthrough complexity understood as a more general epistème.

Issues of social change are also examined in Christian Suteanu’sarticle, partly drawing upon his work within the physics of complexity. Thisarticle addresses complexity by selecting some of its key aspects that sharethe feature of the power to change. He especially examines the three main‘pillars’ that are thought to constitute science: measurability, reproducibil-ity and prediction. He shows the disruptive consequences that complexityhas for each of these pillars. Particular focus is directed to the implicationsof Madelbrot’s fractal theory. Suteanu goes on to examine in detail the natureof complexity’s resulting new geography, generating new landmarks,relationships among its elements, means of orientation and relationshipsbetween science and the public.

Authors of the forthcoming Qualitative Complexity: Ecology, Cognitionand the Re-emergence of Structure in Post-humanist Social Theory, ChrisJenks and John Smith analyse the relationships between complex processesof self-organization and the environment or ecology in which these dynamicprocesses take place (2005). They focus upon the role of information in theformation of complex structures. Through a detailed engagement withPrigogine, the authors develop an ontology that founds both material andinformational structures and argues for a radical continuity between thegeneral thermodynamics of emergent complex orders, cognitive theory andthe complex structures of human thought and culture. They emphasize thequalitatively distinct modes of dynamic organizations involved in the inter-play of ‘given’ adaptation-enactment and the plasticities of human intelli-gence, culture and its technologies.

Elements of the global and globalization are examined in the remain-ing articles. Indeed, it is the awareness of the ‘global’ that has helped togenerate the complexity turn within the social and cultural sciences. Thehuge array of books, articles, journals and popular discourse surroundingglobalization has authorized a return to the notion of ‘system’ that had, fora couple of decades, slipped from view (see Walby, 2006, on the return of‘system’). Clearly, though, many complexity notions will be highly critiquedbecause of this systemic orientation.

Nigel Clarke especially examines parallels and differences betweenthe idea of the earth in interchange with a dynamic cosmos and the notionof a global complexity (and see Urry, this volume). He refers to the formeras an ‘exorbitant globality’ and shows how it points towards a unaccount-able excess and a radical undecideability in future deliberations. He


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analyses Lovelock’s Gaia thesis, and more generally the notion of the bio-sphere as a complex self-organizing system. Drawing upon Deleuze, DeLanda and Derrida, Clarke problematizes the idea of a global system that isnot closed to its immense surroundings. Indeed, we might ask what is theenvironment of the globe’s system? Indeed, could the universe itself bethought of as a non-equilibrium, self-organized system (see Smolin, 1997)?

The planet recurs also within Graeme Chesters and Ian Welsh’s articleon the relevance of a Deleuzian reading of complexity and of ‘becoming’ tointerrogate the rise of networked social movements and extensive ‘weak ties’operating across the globe. They examine the self-organizing anti-globaliz-ation ‘movement of movements’ and show how it cannot be pressed into aconventional social movements framework (see also We Are Everywhere, inpart written by Chesters). They examine transnational gatherings, socialfora, computer-mediated communications, the digital commons andunprecedented mobility, which serve to generate a fractal movement-space,a shadow realm that makes possible ‘global movement’. Especially signifi-cant is their analysis of the relations of affect and intensity generated withinmovement ‘plateaux’.

The significance of complexity analysis for global relationships is alsoexamined in Karin Knorr Cetina’s analysis of the ‘new terrorism’. She takesthis as a significant exemplifying case for complexity theory – with majordisproportionalities between cause and effect, unpredictable outcomes, andself-organizing, emergent structures. It also illustrates the emergence ofglobal microstructures – a topic she importantly explores elsewhere – offorms of connectivity and coordination that combine global reach withmicrostructural mechanisms that instantiate self-organizing principles andpatterns. Such global microstructures do not exhibit institutional complex-ity but rather the asymmetries, unpredictabilities and playfulness ofcomplex (and dispersed) interaction patterns. The analysis of complexglobal microstructures suggests a theory of microglobalization, that thetexture of a global world becomes articulated through microstructuralpatterns that develop in the shadow of (but liberated from) national and localinstitutional patterns, as Chesters and Welsh show in the case of the anti-globalization ‘movement’.

Such processes are also examined by John Urry as he develops somearguments from Global Complexity (2003). He distinguishes between ‘globalnetworks’ and ‘global fluids’, seeing new kinds of movement and of terror-ism as examples of the latter. More generally, through paradoxically drawingupon Marx’s analysis of the contradictions of capitalism, he seeks to showthat globalization should be conceptualized as a series of adapting and co-evolving global systems each characterized by unpredictability, irreversibil-ity and co-evolution. This is to follow Wynne’s resolutely anti-reductionistview of globalization. It is argued that such systems lack finalized ‘equilib-rium’ or ‘order’; indeed, the many pools of order à la Prigogine heightenoverall disorder. The global, then, is comprised of various systems, operat-ing at various levels or scales, each constitutes the environment for each


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other. Thus criss-crossing ‘societies’ are many other mobile, materialsystems in complex interconnection with their environments.

Finally, Paul Cilliers, author of the major Complexity and Post-modernism, discusses the implications of how if something is complex thenthis implies that our knowledge of it will always be limited. We cannot makecomplete, absolute or final claims about complex systems. He draws uponand discusses three arguments: that complexity-thinking lead to relativism;that they are subject to the performative contradiction; and that their claimsare vague. It is shown that these critiques are not really effective and thata responsible approach to complexity involves modest and contingent butnon-relativisitic claims.

Thus, for the social and cultural sciences, complexity analyses bringout how there is order and disorder within these various systems. In particu-lar, we can see how the global order is a complex world, unpredictable andirreversible, disorderly but not anarchic. And elements of that disorderlyworld are mobile and transmuting notions of complexity science unpre-dictably emerging and holding a shape as they sweep into and transmuteone discipline after another, as we have sought to describe and examine inThe Complexity Turn in the social and cultural sciences.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to the authors of the articles appearing here who responded withenthusiasm to some significant editorial suggestions. I am also grateful todiscussions on complexity within the Lancaster Complexity Network and especi-ally to my co-organizer, Kingsley Dennis. I am also very grateful for many lengthyconversations on complexity with Sylvia Walby whose Complex Social Systems:Theorizations and Comparisons in a Global Era (forthcoming, 2006) develops oneof the first large-scale empirical studies deploying complexity notions within thesocial sciences. I am also very grateful for the assistance of Susan Manthorpe andNeal Curtis in getting this issue into publication, as well as more general advicefrom Mike Featherstone and the editorial board of TCS.

References

Arthur, B. (1994) Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. AnnArbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Ball, P. (2004) Critical Mass: How One Thing Leads to Another. London: WilliamHeinemann.Barabási, A.-L. (2002) Linked: The New Science of Networks. Cambridge, MA:Perseus.Buchanan, M. (2002) Small World: Uncovering Nature’s Hidden Networks. London:Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Budiansky, S. (1995) Nature’s Keepers. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Byrne, D. (1998) Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences. London: Routledge.Capra, F. (1996) The Web of Life. London: HarperCollins.Capra, F. (2001) The Hidden Connections: A Science for Sustainable Living. London:HarperCollins.


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Casti, J. (1994) Complexification. London: Abacus.Cilliers, P. (1998) Complexity and Post-modernism. London: Routledge.Cohen, J. and I. Stewart (1994) The Collapse of Chaos. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Coveney, P. (2000) ‘A Clash of Doctrines: The Arrow of Time in Modern Physics’,in P. Baert (ed.) Time in Contemporary Intellectual Thought. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Coveney, P. and R. Highfield (1990) The Arrow of Time. London: Flamingo.Davies, P. (2001a) ‘Before the Big Bang’, Prospect June: 56–9.Davies, P. (2001b) How to Build a Time Machine. London: Allen Lane.Davis, M. (2000) Ecology of Fear. London: Picador.De Landa, M. (1997) A Thousand Years of Nonlinear History. New York: Swerve.De Landa, M. (2002) Intensive Science and Virtual Philosophy. London: Continuum.Eve, R., S. Horsfall and M. Lee (eds) (1997) Chaos, Complexity, and Sociology.London: Sage Publications.Fraser, M., S. Kember and C. Lury (eds) (2005) Inventive Life: Approaches to theNew Vitalism. Special Issue of Theory Culture & Society 22(1): 1–14.Gladwell, M. (2002) Tipping Points: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference.Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.Gleick, J. (1988) Chaos. London: Sphere.Hawking, S. (1988) A Brief History of Time. London: Bantam.Hayles, N.K. (1999) How We Became Posthuman. Chicago, IL: University ofChicago Press.Helmreich, S. (1998) Silicon Second Nature. Berkeley, CA: University of CaliforniaPress.Holland, J.A. (1998) Emergence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Jenks, C. and J. Smith (2005) Qualitative Complexity: Ecology, Cognition and theRe-emergence of Structure in Post-humanist Social Theory. London: Routledge.Jervis, R. (1997) System Effects. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Jones, R. (2004) Soft Machines: Nanotechnology and Life. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.Kauffman, S. (1993) The Origins of Order. New York: Oxford University Press.Keil, L. and E. Elliott (eds) (1996) Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences. Ann Arbor,MI: University of Michigan Press.Kelly, K. (1995) Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines. London: FourthEstate.Kelly, K. (1998) New Rules for the New Economy. London: Fourth Estate.Krugman, P. (1996) The Self-organizing Economy. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Kwa, C. (2002) ‘Romantic and Baroque Conceptions of Complex Wholes in theSciences’, pp. 23–52 in J. Law and A. Mol (eds) Complexities: Social Studies ofKnowledge Practices. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Luhmann, N. (1995) Social Systems. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Maasen, S. and P. Weingart (2000) Metaphors and the Dynamics of Knowledge.London: Routledge.Mackenzie, A. (2002) Transductions: Bodies and Machines at Speed. New York:Continuum.


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Malpas, J. and G. Wickham (1995) ‘Governance and Failure: On the Limits of Soci-ology’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 31(3): 37–50.Maturana, H. (1981) ‘Autopoeisis’, in M. Zeleny (ed.) Autopoeisis: A Theory of LivingOrganization. New York: North Holland.May, R. (ed.) (1981) Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications. Oxford:Blackwell.Mingers, J. (1995) Self-producing Systems. New York: Plenum.Nicolis, G. (1995) Introduction to Non-linear Science. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.Perrow, C. (1999) Normal Accidents. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Prigogine, I. (1997) The End of Certainty. New York: The Free Press.Prigogine, I. and I. Stengers (1984) Order out of Chaos. London: Heinemann.Rasch, W. and C. Wolfe (eds) (2000) Observing Complexity. Minneapolis, MN:University of Minnesota Press.Rescher, N. (1998) Complexity. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Resnick, M. (1997) Turtles, Termites, and Traffic Jams. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Rycroft, R. and D. Kash (1999) The Complexity Challenge. London: Pinter.Smolin, L. (1997) The Life of the Cosmos. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Stewart, I. (1989) Does God Play Dice? The Mathematics of Chaos. Oxford: BasilBlackwell.Surowiecki, J. (2004) The Wisdom of Crowds. London: Little Brown.Taylor, M. (2003) The Moment of Complexity: Emerging Network Culture. Chicago,IL: University of Chicago Press.Thrift, N. (1999) ‘The Place of Complexity’, Theory, Culture & Society 16(3): 31–70.Urry, J. (2003) Global Complexity. Cambridge: Polity.Van Loon, J. (2002) Risk and Technological Culture: Towards a Sociology ofVirulence. London: Routledge.Walby, S. (2006) Complex Social Systems: Theorizations and Comparisons in aGlobal Era. London: Sage Publications.Waldrop, M. (1994) Complexity. London: Penguin.Wallerstein, I. (1996) Open the Social Sciences: Report of the GulbenkianCommission on the Restructuring of the Social Sciences. Stanford, CA: StanfordUniversity Press.Watts, D. (1999) Small Worlds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Watts, D. (2003) Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age. London: Heinemann.Whitehead, A.N. (1985) Process and Reality. New York: Free Press.Wolfram, S. (2002) A New Kind of Science. Champaign, IL: Wolfram Media Inc.Zohar, D. and I. Marshall (1994) The Quantum Society. New York: William Morrow.

John Urry is Professor of Sociology at Lancaster University. He hasrecently published The Tourist Gaze (Sage, 2002), Global Complexity (Polity,2003), Performing Tourist Places (Ashgate, 2004), Tourism Mobilities (Rout-ledge, 2004) and Automobilities (Sage, 2005).


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DOI: 10.1177/1096348006297290 2007; 31; 194 Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research

Asli D. A. Tasci, William C. Gartner and S. Tamer Cavusgil Conceptualization and Operationalization of Destination Image

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194

Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Vol. 31, No. 2, May 2007, 194-223DOI: 10.1177/1096348006297290© 2007 International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education

CONCEPTUALIZATION ANDOPERATIONALIZATION OF

DESTINATION IMAGE

Asli D. A. TasciMugla University

William C. GartnerUniversity of Minnesota

S. Tamer CavusgilMichigan State University

The destination image has received much attention for about three decades. Studies of var-ious aspects of destination images increased in volume during the 1990s. Echtner andRitchie’s (1991) review of destination image literature resulted in several suggestions interms of both the conceptualization and operationalization of destination image. This studylooks at the evolutionary nature of tourism destination image studies from both theoreticaland operational perspectives. Necessary adjustments in the methodological rigor and thefocus of inquiry for destination image research are offered using Echtner and Ritchie’sreview as a guide. A review of literature about destination image and other pertinent con-cepts indicated that several of Echtner and Ritchie’s recommendations have been followed,whereas others have not. Also, several other important conceptualization- and methodol-ogy-related issues identified in the destination image literature are addressed.

KEYWORDS: destination image; image management; image measurement; imageconceptualization; image formation

One important aspect of destination marketing is destination image manage-ment. As an elusive and confusing construct, image is believed to have a ratherstrong effect on consumer behavior; thus, it has received increasing attentionfrom destination marketers. It became a focus of tourism research in the early1970s, and attention to this construct increased in the 1990s. This momentumcoincides with the realization of the importance of the destination image in des-tination promotion by both academics and industry practitioners. It has been arelatively well-studied line of inquiry in the field of hospitality and tourism formore than 30 years.

The results of tourism image research are used by marketers to conduct intel-ligent destination marketing, which means that important decisions regardingplanning, development, positioning, and promotion depend on these results.Because the results of image research might affect the destination, the researchers



Tasci et al. / DESTINATION IMAGES 195

and the methodologies they use are very crucial factors for the destination. If theresearch reveals the wrong results due to methodological mistakes or faulty inter-pretations by the researchers, the destination might run the risk of spendingtourism resources for the wrong purposes.

Therefore, frequent and critical monitoring of the image construct through lit-erature reviews is required to shed light on the necessary adjustments of method-ological rigor and focus of inquiry. For example, Echtner and Ritchie (1991)reviewed many image studies and found some weaknesses in the conceptualizationand measurement of the image construct. To correct this deficiency, they developeda scale to measure this construct in a comprehensive manner (Echtner & Ritchie,1993). However, their review investigated literature prior to the 1990s, and a greatdeal of tourism image research has been conducted since then.

The aim of this study is (a) to investigate the conceptualization and opera-tionalization of the destination image construct since the early 1990s, (b) toidentify the shifts in the focus of inquiry due to Echtner and Ritchie’s (1991,1993) critiques and suggestions, (c) to identify other issues overlooked byEchtner and Ritchie (1991), and (d) to identify the areas awaiting furtherresearch by image researchers.

APPROACH

To accomplish the study objectives, many empirical and conceptual image-related articles published in well-known journals of tourism and other relatedfields were reviewed. Empirical studies with a specific focus on destinationimage as well as theoretical literature on destination image are included in thedetailed critical review. Most of these studies are conducted by researchers withtourism, hospitality, and leisure backgrounds. Scholars from other fields writingabout the same subject include business, geography, psychology, and sociology.The contribution of outsiders to a field adds additional perspectives to the fieldof inquiry at both conceptual and methodological levels. Therefore, some arti-cles from related domains such as consumer behavior, store and brand image,advertising, and communication are also investigated to clarify concepts andexplain the underlying theoretical basis in a comprehensive manner.

Due to the complex nature of the image construct, which is inextricably inter-twined with several other constructs, conducting a comprehensive review of des-tination image studies exposes researchers to a large body of literature includingnot only destination image studies but also studies of related subjects. There are anumber of studies of subjects that are actually similar, seemingly similar, orclosely related to the destination image construct. To keep the review clear andconcise while not compromising its comprehensiveness, literature about similar orrelated concepts is discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

First, because destination image is closely related to the field of environ-mental psychology (Fridgen, 1984; Stringer, 1984), destination image studiesresemble studies in that field which utilizes assessment of cognitive or percep-tual mapping (Downs & Stea, 1973), environmental response (McKechnie,



196 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM RESEARCH

1974, 1977, 1978), environmental personality (Sonnenfeld, 1969), environmen-tal preference (Kaplan, 1977), and affective qualities of places (Russell & Pratt,1980). Some of these techniques are also utilized by some destination imageresearchers (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Fodness,1990; Fridgen, 1987; Luckett, Ganesh, & Gillett, 1999).

Second, there is a group of studies seemingly investigating different constructsbut indeed investigating the destination image with a different name. These seem-ingly different constructs are destination attractiveness (Formica, 2002; Gearing,Swart, & Var, 1974; Hu & Ritchie, 1993; Kozak & Rimmington, 1998; Var, Beck,& Loftus, 1977), destination awareness (Ritchie & Smith, 1991), destination eval-uation (Ross, 1993a), destination perception (Driscoll, Lawson, & Niven, 1994;Fodness, 1990; Goodrich, 1977; Jensen & Korneliussen, 2002; Richardson &Crompton, 1988; Vogt & Andereck, 2003; Weiermair, 2000), destination attributes(Calantone, Benedetto, Hakam, & Bojanic, 1989; Scott, Schewe, & Frederick,1978), and destination quality (Crompton & Love, 1995; Weiermair, 2000). Usingsuch new or different terminology to study the destination image construct mightcontribute to the body of literature, but it can also cause confusion for laypeopleas well as avid researchers.

Third, there are some studies investigating actually different constructs whileutilizing operationalizations similar to those of image studies. These constructs arebenefits and constraints or facilitators and inhibitors of a travel destination (Botha,Crompton, & Kim, 1999; Tian, Crompton, & Witt, 1996; Um & Crompton, 1990,1992, 1999; Zins, 1998); travel motivation, travel demand, and pull factors(Baloglu & Uysal, 1996; Gilbert & Terrata, 2001; Klenosky, 2002); destination sat-isfaction (Kozak & Rimmington, 2000; Pizam & Ellis, 1999; Pizam, Neumann, &Reichel, 1978; Weiermair, 2000; Yuksel & Rimmington, 1998); and competitivedestination analysis and destination peripherality (D. G. Pearce, 1997, 2002;Weaver, 1997). Although the studies using these subjects of inquiry address aspectsdifferent from image, they still utilize similar measurement techniques, namelyeither tourists’or experts’evaluation of destinations through a wide range of assess-ment techniques.

Fourth, there is a group of studies about destination brands which also reflect onthe concept of the destination image due to their close association with each other.Researchers agree that although image is different from branding, branding is cre-ated through image (Cai, 2002; Croy, 2003; Govers, 2003; Jensen & Korneliussen,2002; Kotler & Gertner, 2002; Pritchard & Morgan, 2001; Ravinder, 2003). Finally,there are other studies investigating a single image attribute of a destination such asthe price or cost, the value of money (Stevens, 1992), and distance (Harrison-Hill,2001). To keep the review concise, studies about the abovementioned constructs arenot included in the review process of this study.

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE DESTINATION IMAGE

Echtner and Ritchie (1991) identify that the definition of the destinationimage is vague, incomplete, or lacking in the literature, which led them to




conclude that it is not clear what component of image is measured in some stud-ies. They recognize that in most studies, image is conceptualized in terms ofcognitive component—that is, lists of destination attributes. Referring to theroot disciplines of image concept, they conclude that measuring image only byattribute lists would not capture the multidimensionality of the image concept, andthey recommend that image be conceptualized as having components of three con-tinua: attribute/holistic, functional/psychological, and common/unique. Thus, theydefine image as

the perceptions of individual destination attributes . . . [and] the holistic impres-sion made by the destination. [It] . . . consists of functional characteristics, con-cerning the more tangible aspects of the destination, and psychologicalcharacteristics, concerning the more intangible aspects. Furthermore, [it] . . . canbe arranged on a continuum ranging from traits which can be commonly used tocompare all destinations to those which are unique to very few destinations.(Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, p. 8)

A substantial number of destination image studies have been conducted sinceEchtner and Ritchie’s review, and researchers have proposed different defini-tions for the same construct (i.e., the destination image). In doing so, some haveintroduced different aspects of image and have developed a more complete con-struct. Baloglu and Brinberg (1997), for example, borrow a general definitionfrom some authors: “Image is the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions thatpeople have of a place or destination” (p. 11). They also adapt its emotional,prejudicial, and imaginational aspects from others. In a similar manner, Dann(1996) uses Gensch’s (1978) image specification of “an abstract concept incor-porating the influences of past promotion, reputation and peer evaluation ofalternatives,” and he also incorporates sociopsychological aspects from otherscholars with which image becomes a dynamic and subjective “reflection orrepresentation of sensory or conceptual information . . . built on past experi-ence and govern[ing] one’s action . . . often shared by similar people who alsoform part of that image” (Dann, 1996, p. 42).

Some researchers use perception terminology such as image perception, per-ceived image, and tourist image, which call for clarification between the con-cepts of image and perception. Fridgen (1987) defines image as “a mentalrepresentation of an object, person, place, or event which is not physicallybefore the observer” (p. 102). He differentiates between image and perception,both of which are part of environmental understanding and comprehension, bynoting the presence of environmental stimuli for justification of perception,whereas no such stimuli for image exist. This means image might or might notinclude perception; thus, the use of tourists’ perception of an image is theoreti-cally an inappropriate combination for the cases in which potential tourists havenot yet experienced perception through pictures or visitation. Sussmann andUnel (1999) object to the use of both perception and attitude as substitutes forimage despite the similarities between them; they postulate that “they are quite




different: images are the result of composite perceptions which are, in turn, dic-tated by attitudes to result in a positive or negative image” (p. 211).

A similar complexity exists in the use of “tourist image.” Bramwell andRawding’s (1996) definition might clarify the conflict by differentiating betweenprojected and received image: “Projected images are the ideas and impressions ofa place that are available for people’s consideration” (p. 202). They purport thatthose images are transmitted or diffused through communication channels to theconsumers who filter these image messages through their subjective states such aspersonalities, prior experiences, knowledge, needs, preferences, and motivations,thereby altering and forming them into “their own unique representations or men-tal constructs” (Bramwell & Rawding, 1996, p. 202). Similar image formationprocess-related definitions are provided by others (Court & Lupton, 1997; Fakeye& Crompton, 1991; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997).

The definitions provided by Tapachai and Waryszak (2000) and Walmsley andYoung (1998) are worth citing for theoretical clarification. Walmsley and Young(1998) identify the schematic nature of images, whereas Tapachai and Waryszakinclude the conative component while providing a definition of beneficial images.Although some researchers mention the conative (behavioral) component of image(Gartner, 1993) and some measure a destination image’s influence on certainbehaviors (Bojanic, 1991; Chen & Hsu, 2000; Chen & Kerstetter, 1999; Court &Lupton, 1997; Dadgostar & Isotalo, 1992; Milman & Pizam, 1995; Ross, 1993b),the conative component is missing in many others’ definitions.

Other researchers bring together distinctively different definitions but do notprovide any synthesis or preference (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Chen &Kerstetter, 1999). Chen and Kerstetter (1999, p. 257), for example, cite bothCrompton’s (1979) definition, “the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressionsthat an individual has of a destination,” and Gartner’s (1986) definition, “one’sperception of attributes or activities available at a destination.” These are theo-retically contradictory descriptions because they are shaped by opposing infor-mation processing assumptions of the heuristic–systematic processing theory(Sirgy & Su, 2000), the piecemeal and category-based theory (Keaveney &Hunt, 1992), and the consumer involvement theory (Poiesz, 1989). In summary,central (systematic) processing, piecemeal-based processing, and high-involve-ment theories assume that the consumer is a logical thinker capable of effortfulprocessing, who forms impressions by evaluating objects, attribute by attribute,each time. This is what Gartner’s (1986) definition is based on; it assumes theconsumer will evaluate a destination on the basis of attributes and activities. Onthe other hand, peripheral (heuristic) processing, category-based processing,and low-involvement theories assume that the consumer does not have such acognitive capability to evaluate objects, attribute by attribute, each and everytime. Rather, the consumer tries to simplify the evaluation process by using dif-ferent criteria depending on the situation, thus having gestalt impressionsinstead of item-by-item evaluations. This is what Crompton’s (1979) definitionrests on: the sum of beliefs and impressions, a total rather than its parts. Thus,some destination image researchers assume effortful processing on the part of




the consumer, and some assume limited processing; therefore, their definitionsdiffer, eventually affecting operationalization of the construct as well.

It is not surprising to find that there are numerous definitions for destinationimage. The reason is that each one of the abovementioned definitions is actuallydefining a particular aspect of destination image. They are not comprehensive def-initions in which all image components are given the same weight. For example,Gartner’s (1986) definition concentrates on attributes that are commonly measuredin studies of destination image. The focus for this definition is on cognition andsimple evaluation of the attributes that are assumed to exist within a destination.Crompton’s (1979) definition goes beyond the cognitive awareness and simpleevaluation process to include elements of the affective component (i.e., how onefeels about what exists). The same can be said for many of the other definitionsbecause each deals with defining one or more of the components of the destinationimage. None actually account for all of the components.

For scientific parsimony, it is necessary to clarify and define a destinationimage construct to be commonly used by destination image researchers in a uni-form manner. After synthesizing all the components proposed by destinationimage researchers, it is clear that three main components exist: cognitive, affec-tive, and conative. According to Boulding (1956), these three components takein what we know about an object (cognitive), how we feel about what we know(affective), and how we act on this information (conative). Other proposed com-ponents—namely, holistic, attributive, common, and unique—provide deeperinsight into how each of the components is internalized. When clarifying cog-nition, affect, and attitude, Peter and Olson (1999) explain that both affect andcognition are mental responses to the stimuli in the environment, which form adynamically interactive and “reciprocal system” (p. 23). Affect includes positiveor negative feeling responses with varying intensity. At the high end of intensityare emotions such as love and anger, then come feeling states such as satisfac-tion and frustration, followed by moods such as boredom and relaxation, and atthe low end of intensity are evaluations (attitudes) such as liking or disliking.Cognition, on the other hand, is defined as a mental response that involvesthinking about, paying attention to, remembering, understanding, interpreting,evaluating (good/bad, favorable/unfavorable), and making decisions about stim-uli in the environment. Thus, image assessment involves factual knowledge,personal beliefs, meanings, memories, evaluations, and decisions. Anand,Holbrook, and Stephens (1988) state that an increase in cognition about anobject might lead to an increase in affect toward that object.

An interactive system of destination image components is illustrated as inFigure 1. At the core of this interactive system of components, there is cognitiveknowledge of common and unique attributes of destination and the affectiveresponse toward those attributes. With the interaction between the knowledge ofunique and common attributes and feelings toward them, a composite image(holistic or overall) is formed and used by the decision maker to simplify thetask of decision making. Assuming the knowledge of common and unique




attributes is fact based, the more detailed the core is, the less stereotypical theholistic synthesis is. This is a dynamically interactive and reciprocal system inwhich every item could be both a cause and an effect of a change at any time,and factors cannot be comprehended in isolation; therefore, they should bestudied in an integrated manner. Thus, a destination image is an interactivesystem of thoughts, opinions, feelings, visualizations, and intentions toward adestination.

EVOLUTION AND OPERATIONALIZATION OFDESTINATION IMAGE RESEARCH

Echtner and Ritchie’s (1991) much-cited work on destination image reachesconclusions similar to those of Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) and Poiesz (1989),who review brand image literature, and those of Keaveney and Hunt (1992),who review store image literature. Dobni et al. found that having differentmeanings used by different researchers in different periods of time leads to theimage construct being defined and operationalized in multiple ways in the brandimage literature. It is defined both by a single word such as “personality”(Poiesz, 1989, p. 462) and by specific definitions such as “the concept as theembodiment of the abstract reality that people buy products or brands for some-thing other than their physical attributes and functions” (Dobni & Zinkhan,

Figure 1Interactive System of Image Components




1990, p. 110). Therefore, these researchers postulate that the body of literatureruns the risk of having incomparable and ungeneralizable results. Depending onhow they conceptualize image, some brand image researchers measure it byusing lists of attributes—on either semantic differential or Likert scales—describing individual dimensions of brand, whereas some use a single measurefor overall brand image (Dobni & Zinkhan, 1990). Also, qualitative methodssuch as focus groups, free responses, and in-depth interviews are utilized formeasuring brand image. However, Dobni and Zinkhan criticize that it is notclear which methods are better for measuring brand image and if the differencesresulting from different methods are significant.

A similar approach to conceptualizing and measuring image is identified byKeaveney and Hunt (1992) in the retail store image literature. They detect thatstore image is defined by both single words, such as “gestalt,” and elaborate andthick descriptions such as

[Image] arises quickly and unthinkingly, is idiosyncratic, includes inferences,accurate or inaccurate, from the audience’s own stereotypes, is an overall com-posite whose whole is greater than the sum of its parts, may be positive or nega-tive, and once formed, perseveres, [and] may be different from objective reality. . . Customers will not only hold factually based opinions about a store but willfeel certain ways toward it. (Keaveney & Hunt, 1992, pp. 165-166)

Keaveney and Hunt (1992) identified methodological issues similar to those inthe brand image literature—common use of semantic differential and Likertscales measuring individual attributes of the store—which they suspect measureonly the objective reality of a store. They conclude that even when qualitativemethods are utilized, the data is tied to yet another quantitative method such assemantic differential results, thus losing nonfitting responses in the process thatcould be critical indications of affect toward a store.

Similar issues are identified by Echtner and Ritchie (1991) in the destinationimage literature, as discussed and quoted above in the Conceptualization of theDestination Image section. Their study was the initial attempt in the destinationimage literature to link the main components of image together in a useful andinteractive way. Although definitions (i.e., Crompton, 1979) had been proposedpreviously that seemed to link the components, no seminal research to showwhat that meant had appeared. Echtner and Ritchie provided the qualitative andquantitative arguments for accomplishing that goal.

Despite the insightful comments made by Echtner and Ritchie (1991), theimage construct, together with its components, is still not clearly defined in thedestination image literature. As can be seen from Table 1, a substantial numberof destination image researchers do not provide any definition as a frame of ref-erence. Some researchers refer to the definitions provided prior to Echtner andRitchie’s review (Bojanic, 1991; Lubbe, 1998; Ross, 1993b). Bojanic’s refer-ence is specific to foreign destinations; thus, it would not be applied to resi-dents’ images. Lubbe, on the other hand, adapts Gunn’s (1972) image formation




Table 1Destination Image Definitions After Echtner and Ritchie’s (1991) Review

Researcher(s) Image Definition

Bojanic (1991, p. 353) Adapts Hunt’s (1975) country image:“the impressions that a person orpersons hold about a country in which they do not reside.”

Fakeye and Crompton (1991, p. 10) Adapt Reynolds’ (1965) definition: “theCourt and Lupton (1997, p. 35) mental construct developed by a

potential visitor on the basis of a fewselected impressions amongthe flood of total impressions;it comes into being through acreative process in which theseimpressions are elaborated,embellished, and ordered.”

Ahmed (1991, p. 331) Adapt Reynolds’ (1965) definition: “theLeisen (2001, p. 49) mental construct developed by

the consumer on the basis of afew selected impressions amongthe flood of total impressions.It comes into being through acreative process in which theseselected impressions are elaborated,embellished, and ordered.”

Dadgostar and Isotalo “The overall impression or attitude(1992, p. 34) that an individual acquires of a

specific destination. This overallimpression is considered to becomposed of the tourist’sperceptions concerning the relevantqualities of the destination.”

Ross (1993b, p. 54) Adapts Crompton’s (1979) definition:“the sum of beliefs, ideas, andimpressions that a person has ofa destination.”

Milman and Pizam “A sum total of the images of(1995, p. 21) the individual elements or attributes

that make up the tourismexperience.”

Bramwell and Rawding Distinguish between projected and(1996, p. 201) received images. Projected image:

“the ideas and impressions of aplace that are available for people’sconsideration.”

MacKay and Fesenmaier “A compilation of beliefs and(1997, p. 537) impressions based on information

processing from a variety ofsources over time, resulting in an internally accepted mentalconstruct . . . a composite of variousproducts (attractions) and attributeswoven into a total impression.”

Lubbe (1998) Adapts Gunn’s (1972) imageformation theory as the bestdescription.

Walmsley and Young (1998, p. 65) “A common structure or schema ofevaluations that can be used to

(continued) at TAYLORS SCHOOL OF HOTEL MANAGEMENT on July 21, 2009 http://jht.sagepub.comDownloaded from



differentiate between tourismdestinations.”

Choi, Chan, and Wu (1999, p. 361) “People’s beliefs, ideas, orimpressions about a place.”

Sussmann and Unel (1999, p. 185) “The result of composite perceptionswhich are, in turn, dictated byattitudes to result in a positiveor negative image.”

Tapachai and Waryszak (2000, p. 37) Beneficial image: “perceptions orimpressions of a destination held bytourists with respect to the expected benefit or consumptionvalues including functional, social, emotional, epistemic, and conditional benefits of a destination.These perceptions/impressions in turn lead to the decision to visit a country as a vacation destination.”

Coshall (2000, p. 85) “The individual’s perceptions of thecharacteristics of destinations.”

MacKay and Fesenmaier (2000, p. 417) “A composite of various products(attractions) and attributes woveninto a total impression.”

Day, Skidmore, and Koller (2002, p. 177) Adapt Kotler, Heider, and Rein’s(1993) definition: “Place image isthe sum of beliefs, ideas andimpressions that people haveof a place.”

Sonmez and Sirakaya (2002, p. 185) Adapt Crompton’s (1979) definition:“a mental conception held in common by members of a groupand symbolic of a basic attitudeand orientation.”

O’Leary and Deegan (2003, p. 213) Identify Echtner and Ritchie’s (1993)definition of image components asthe most comprehensive imagedefinition: “Destination imagecomprises attribute, holistic,functional, psychological,common and unique components.”

Ahmed (1996); Alhemoud and Armstrong (1996); Cite multiple definitions.Baloglu and Brinberg (1997); Chen and Kerstetter (1999); Dann (1996); Fakeye and Crompton (1991); Milman and Pizam (1995);Rezende-Parker, Morrison, and Ismail (2003)

Baloglu (2001); Baloglu and Mangaloglu (2001); No specific definition.Baloglu and McCleary (1999); Chen (2001);Chen and Hsu (2000); Chon (1991);Gartner (1993); Joppe, Martin, and Waalen (2001); Litvin and Kar (2004);McLellan and Fouschee (1983);Murphy (1999); P. L. Pearce (1982);Rittichainuwat, Qu, and Brown (2001);Schroeder (1996); Selby and Morgan (1996);Sirgy and Su (2000); Young (1999)

Table 1 (continued)

Researcher(s) Image Definition




stages, namely, organic and induced images, as the “. . . best known description”and builds on this description by supplementing it with Fakeye and Crompton’s(1991) “complex image” and Chon’s (1989, p. 23) “primary images.” However,as shown above, these concepts are different stages related to the destinationimage construct rather than to its definition.

Echtner and Ritchie (1991) argue that destination image research dependsheavily on quantitatively oriented studies with structured questionnaires. Theyrealize that there is a relationship between the way image is conceptualized andthe way it is operationalized or measured. Previous studies measured mostly thecognitive component of the destination image, with emphasis on lists of desti-nation attributes. Previous studies also used secondary sources such as generalliterature, brochures, and interviews with authorities to develop image attributelists, which were reviewed by judges or subjected to pilot tests. Echtner andRitchie recognize the expensive nature of qualitative research in terms of timeand monetary costs, yet they stress that qualitative research is a must for cap-turing a complete list of image attributes. They suggest the use of a combinationof qualitative and quantitative methodologies to operationalize their multicom-ponent image concept completely. They propose a quantitative approach toreveal common characteristics and destination attributes and a qualitativeapproach for identifying holistic and psychological impressions associated withdestination image. They empirically conducted the application of both qualita-tive and quantitative methods. They used a rather extensive, rigorous research todevelop an image measurement instrument with a complete list of destinationimage attributes and questions measuring all components of an image. Thisprocess included a literature review of previous image studies, incorporation ofinput from judges and focus groups, and a pilot test of the preliminary instru-ment. Standardized scales were developed for capturing functional and psycho-logical attributes, and open-ended questions were formulated for measuringholistic and unique features of the destination.

Critiques and recommendations of Echtner and Ritchie’s (1991, 1993) workgenerated widespread response in destination image research. As can be seen inTable 2, studies using qualitative and a combination of both quantitative andqualitative methods proliferated after the publication of Echtner and Ritchie’sstudies. The use of qualitative data collection modes such as case study, in-depthinterview, picture interpretation, and content analysis increased. The multistagescale development was adapted by many destination image researchers (Chen &Kerstetter, 1999; Court & Lupton, 1997; Joppe, Martin, & Waalen, 2001;MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997; Milman & Pizam, 1995; Murphy, 1999; O’Leary& Deegan, 2003; Rezende-Parker, Morrison, & Ismail, 2003; Tapachai &Waryszak, 2000; Young, 1999). Interviews and focus groups are used to elicitthe constructs and attributes that were developed into Likert and semantic dif-ferential scales to be rated in a quantitative manner. Also, more researchersbegan to use focus groups to incorporate customer input into their studies (Chen& Kerstetter, 1999; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997; Milman & Pizam, 1995;Murphy, 1999; Rezende-Parker et al., 2003; Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000).



205

Res

earc

her(

s)

Hun

t (1

975)

Goo

dric

h (1

977)

Cro

mpt

on (

1979

)

P.L.

Pea

rce

(198

2)

McL

ella

n an

dF

oush

ee (

1983

)G

artn

er (

1986

)

Gar

tner

and

Hun

t (1

987)

Gar

tner

(19

89)

Em

bach

er a

ndB

uttle

(19

89)

Rei

lly (

1990

)C

hon

(199

1)

Fake

ye a

ndC

rom

pton

(19

91)

Dad

gost

ar a

ndIs

otal

o (1

992)

Met

hod(

s)

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Sem

iexp

erim

enta

l

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

litat

ive

Qua

litat

ive

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Com

bina

tion

Mai

n M

ode(

s) o

f D

ata

Col

lect

ion

Mai

l sur

vey

Mai

l sur

vey

On-

site

, se

lf-ad

min

iste

red

Kel

ly’s

rep

erto

rygr

id a

naly

sis

Mai

l sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

2-w

ave

mai

l sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

2-w

ave

mai

l sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

Mai

l sur

vey

Kel

ly’s

rep

erto

rygr

id a

naly

sis

Free

elic

itatio

nO

n-si

te s

elf-

adm

inis

tere

d3-

wav

e m

ail s

urve

y(D

illm

an’s

[19

78]

tota

l des

ign

met

hod)

Mai

l sur

vey

Imag

e C

ompo

nent

(s)

Mea

sure

d

Cog

nitiv

e C

ogni

tive

Cog

nitiv

e

—

Cog

nitiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e — —

Cog

nitiv

e an

d af

fect

ive

Cog

nitiv

e

Affe

ctiv

e (u

nidi

men

sion

alst

ated

imag

e) a

ndco

gniti

ve (

attr

ibut

esc

orin

g to

mea

sure

the

calc

ulat

ed im

age)

Mai

n M

ode

Que

stio

ns

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Min

imum

con

text

form

(tria

dic

met

hod)

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Min

imum

con

text

form

(tria

dic

met

hod)

Ope

n-en

ded

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

No.

ofA

ttrib

utes

18 10 30

13 c

onst

ruct

s

12 13 10 1529

6 co

nstr

ucts

— 26 32 11

No.

ofFa

ctor

s

— — — — — — — 2 11 — 7 5 —

Tab

le 2

Met

ho

do

log

ies

of

Des

tin

atio

n Im

age

Stu

die

s

(con

tinue

d)



206

Gar

tner

and

She

n (1

992)

Ech

tner

and

Ritc

hie

(199

3)

Ros

s (1

993b

)

Milm

an a

ndP

izam

(19

95)

Ahm

ed (

1991

)A

hmed

(19

96)

Alh

emou

d an

dA

rmst

rong

(19

96)

Bra

mw

ell a

ndR

awdi

ng (

1996

)D

ann

(199

6)

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

litat

ive

Qua

litat

ive

2-w

ave

mai

l sur

vey

(bef

ore

and

1 ye

ar

afte

r th

e T

iana

nmen

even

t)S

elf-

adm

inis

tere

d su

rvey

(in c

lass

room

)

On-

site

, se

lf-ad

min

iste

red

surv

eyF

ocus

gro

ups

and

tele

phon

e su

rvey

Mai

l sur

vey

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

surv

ey (

in c

lass

room

)fo

r do

mes

tics,

and

pers

onal

inte

rvie

ws

(in r

esid

ence

) fo

rfo

reig

ners

Con

tent

ana

lysi

s an

din

-dep

th in

terv

iew

sC

ase

stud

y (in

terv

iew

and

phot

oin

terp

reta

tion)

Cog

nitiv

e

3 co

ntin

ua:a

ttrib

ute/

holis

tic,

func

tiona

l/ps

ycho

logi

cal,

and

com

mon

/uni

que

Cog

nitiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e an

d to

tal

imag

e (a

ttrib

utes

mea

sure

d an

dca

lcul

ated

for

tota

lim

age)

Cog

nitiv

e ra

tings

of

attr

actio

ns —

Affe

ctiv

e

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

and

open

-end

ed

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Ope

n-en

ded

Ope

n-en

ded

32 35 24 14 22 20 — — —

6 8 — 3 4 4 — — —

Tab

le 2

(co

nti

nu

ed)

Mai

n M

ode(

s) o

f D

ata

Imag

e C

ompo

nent

(s)

No.

of

No.

of

Res

earc

her(

s)M

etho

d(s)

Col

lect

ion

Mea

sure

dM

ain

Mod

e Q

uest

ions

Attr

ibut

esFa

ctor

s



207

Sch

roed

er (

1996

)S

elby

and

Mor

gan

(199

6)B

alog

lu a

ndB

rinbe

rg (

1997

)C

ourt

and

Lupt

on (

1997

)M

acK

ay a

ndF

esen

mai

er (

1997

)W

alm

sley

and

Youn

g (1

998)

Lubb

e (1

998)

Bal

oglu

and

McC

lear

y (1

999)

Che

n an

dK

erst

ette

r (1

999)

Cho

i, C

han,

and

Wu

(199

9)

Mur

phy

(199

9)

Youn

g (1

999)

Che

n an

d H

su (

2000

)

Tapa

chai

and

War

ysza

k (2

000)

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

litat

ive

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Com

bina

tion

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

litat

ive

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Com

bina

tion

Com

bina

tion

Com

bina

tion

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Mai

l sur

vey

Cas

e st

udy

(inte

rvie

w)

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

(in c

lass

room

)M

ail s

urve

y

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

on-s

itean

d m

all i

nter

cept

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

surv

ey d

eliv

ered

to

resi

denc

eN

on-d

irect

ed,

cont

rolle

d,in

-dep

th in

terv

iew

Mai

l sur

vey

2-w

ave

mai

l sur

vey

Per

sona

l int

ervi

ews

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

(del

iver

ed t

oac

com

mod

atio

n)O

n-si

te s

elf-

adm

inis

tere

dO

n-si

te,

self-

adm

inis

tere

d(a

t ai

rpor

t)S

elf-

adm

inis

tere

d(in

cla

ssro

om)

Cog

nitiv

eN

ot c

lear

Affe

ctiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e an

d af

fect

ive

Affe

ctiv

e

Cog

nitiv

e an

d af

fect

ive

Cog

nitiv

e, a

ffect

ive,

and

over

all i

mag

e (g

loba

lim

pres

sion

)C

ogni

tive

3 co

ntin

ua:a

ttrib

ute/

holis

tic,

func

tiona

l/ps

ycho

logi

cal,

and

com

mon

/uni

que

Cog

nitiv

e an

d af

fect

ive

Cog

nitiv

e an

d af

fect

ive

Cog

nitiv

e an

d ov

eral

l

—

Str

uctu

red

Not

dis

cuss

ed

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Ope

n-en

ded

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

and

open

-en

ded

(ada

pted

from

Ech

tner

&R

itchi

e, 1

993)

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Ope

n-en

ded

20 — 4 24 18 — — 14 48 25 8 30 17 —

4 — — 4 4 6 — — 4 4 — — — —

(con

tinue

d)



208

Bal

oglu

and

Man

galo

glu

(200

1)C

hen

(200

1)Jo

ppe,

Mar

tin,

and

Waa

len

(200

1)Le

isen

(20

01)

Ritt

icha

inuw

at,

Qu,

and

Bro

wn

(200

1)D

ay,

Ski

dmor

e, a

ndK

olle

r (2

002)

Son

mez

and

Sira

kaya

(20

02)

Litv

in a

ndK

ar (

2004

)O

’Lea

ry a

ndD

eega

n (2

003)

Rez

ende

-Par

ker,

Mor

rison

, an

dIs

mai

l, (2

003)

Com

bina

tion

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

litat

ive

Qua

ntita

tive

Qua

ntita

tive

Com

bina

tion

Com

bina

tion

Mai

l sur

vey

On-

site

sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

(inse

rted

in m

agaz

ine)

Mai

l sur

vey

On-

site

sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

Foc

us g

roup

s (4

)

Mai

l sur

vey

On

site

sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

Sel

f-ad

min

iste

red

(dis

trib

uted

on-

site

,m

aile

d ba

ck)

Onl

ine

self-

adm

inis

tere

d

Cog

nitiv

e an

d af

fect

ive

Cog

nitiv

eC

ogni

tive

and

affe

ctiv

e

Cog

nitiv

eC

ogni

tive

and

affe

ctiv

e

— Cog

nitiv

e, a

ffect

ive,

and

holis

tic (

adap

ted

and

mod

ified

list

by

Ech

tner

& R

itchi

e, 1

993)

Sel

f-im

age/

dest

inat

ion

imag

e co

ngru

itysc

ale,

indi

vidu

alis

man

d co

llect

ivis

m s

cale

Cog

nitiv

e, a

ffect

ive,

and

holis

ticC

ogni

tive,

affe

ctiv

e,an

d ho

listic

Str

uctu

red

and

open

-end

ed

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

Rat

ings

of

prom

otio

nal

imag

esS

truc

ture

d

Str

uctu

red

Str

uctu

red

and

open

-en

ded

(ada

pted

from

Ech

tner

&R

itchi

e, 1

993)

Str

uctu

red

and

open

-en

ded

(ada

pted

from

Ech

tner

&R

itchi

e, 1

993)

14 17 15 24 31 — 82 — 18 39

— — — 4 7 — 10 — — 8

Tab

le 2

(co

nti

nu

ed)

Mai

n M

ode(

s) o

f D

ata

Imag

e C

ompo

nent

(s)

No.

of

No.

of

Res

earc

her(

s)M

etho

d(s)

Col

lect

ion

Mea

sure

dM

ain

Mod

e Q

uest

ions

Attr

ibut

esFa

ctor

s




Those studies measuring only the cognitive component of the destinationimage still use solely quantitative methods with structured lists of destinationattractions and attributes during the main data collection stage, whereas thosemeasuring affective or both affective and cognitive components utilize a combi-nation of methods. The underlying reason is that the cognitive component com-prises objective reality of destination attributes, whereas the affective componentincludes rather subjective attitudes toward the destination’s properties, and thesesubjective attitudes can be understood through free descriptions of the respon-dents (Dann, 1996; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Embacher & Buttle, 1989; Lubbe,1998; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997; Murphy, 1999; O’Leary & Deegan, 2003;Rezende-Parker et al., 2003; Selby & Morgan, 1996; Tapachai & Waryszak,2000; Walmsley & Young, 1998).

Echtner and Ritchie (1991) draw attention to the differences between imagesformed by secondary sources and images formed by firsthand experiences, andthey recommend separating them “by either controlling for or monitoring thoseindividuals that have visited the destination” (p. 4). This pertains especially tothe studies with a sampling frame of the general population rather than actualvisitors. After Echtner and Ritchie (1993), a few researchers conducted com-parisons of visitors and nonvisitors to identify the differences between imagesby secondary sources versus firsthand experience.

However, some recommendations of Echtner and Ritchie (1991) were notfollowed. Echtner and Ritchie caution about the attribute lists used by differentresearchers; more specifically, the attribute lists prepared by differentresearchers might be incomplete or missing some relevant destination charac-teristics. As can be seen from Table 2, the problem still persists. There are con-siderable differences between the attributes included and factors derived fromthese attributes. Both the number of attributes and resulting factors revealed bydata reduction analyses are different for different researchers even when theyare measuring the image of the same destination.

RELATED ISSUES

Although Echtner and Ritchie’s (1991) study is considered a seminal contri-bution moving the field of destination image research forward, there are still anumber of issues that have not been dealt with, or have been dealt with onlysuperficially, that deserve more attention. Issues such as frame of reference,associational investigation, validity and reliability, test of theories, and provi-sion of implications have been largely ignored.

Some destination image researchers attempt to display relationships betweenvariables in an attempt to clarify the image formation process and/or the effectof image. As can be seen from Table 3, respondent characteristics such as regionof residence/origin of visitors, distance from the destination, religious orienta-tion, age, gender, income, class standing, household status, familiarity throughprevious visitation, and other variables such as ad exposure, media, and travel




context are tested as possible determinants of destination image. Some of thesefactors are commonly found to be correlated with destination image. Region ofresidence, origin of visitors, and distance from the destination, for example, arecommonly found to be correlated with image, whereas the findings on the corre-lation of previous visitation with an image are different for different researchers,similar to that of age, marital status, and household status. The variables for whichimage is found to be effective are time spent at a destination or length of trip, enjoy-ment and positive evaluations of the destination or satisfaction with the destination,revisit intention, willingness to recommend the destination, intention to visit, sup-port for tourism development, desirability of the destination, trip-planning timeframe, budgeted travel costs, the likelihood of repeat travel, and the likelihood ofchoosing the destination for the next vacation.

Some researchers provide contexts or frames of reference for the respondentswho are thinking about the destinations whose images are being measured. Someof these contextual frames are rather general such as the place or country as atourist or tourism destination (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Baloglu & Brinberg,1997; Choi, Chan, & Wu, 1999; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Schroeder, 1996;Walmsley & Young, 1998), vacation or holiday destination (Crompton, 1979;Goodrich, 1977; Milman & Pizam, 1995; P. L. Pearce, 1982; Tapachai &Waryszak, 2000), or international travel destination (Rittichainuwat, Qu, & Brown,2001). However, some others are more specific such as summer vacation destina-tion (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Embacher & Buttle, 1989), winter or winter visitdestination (Crompton, Fakeye, & Lue, 1992; Dann, 1996; Fakeye & Crompton,1991), or rural tourism destination (Chen & Kerstetter, 1999).

Most destination image researchers provide implications from the results oftheir studies. These implications are managerial, theoretical, and methodologi-cal; some also provide future research suggestions. Some test theories or con-cepts and supply the applicability of these theories and concepts within thedestination image framework, and some tie their results to a theoretical basis expost facto. For example, P. L. Pearce (1982) tested the existence of the “spreadof effect” phenomenon in the tourism destination context. His work revealedthat tourists who undergo a change in perception for a particular destination mayalso change their perceptions of other similar destinations. If Pearce’s work hadbeen replicated, which it has not, and found to be defensible, then the affectiveimage component is not tied, as previously believed, to just the destinationunder study. The complex image (Figure 1) would apply then to a specific des-tination and others like it.

Walmsley and Young (1998) tested the applicability of two evaluative dimen-sions, arousing/sleepy and pleasant/unpleasant, at the local and internationallevels. Their theoretical implication is that this basic evaluative schema existsfor the evaluation of a destination at the international level but not at the locallevel due to the confounding factors of personal experience and close knowl-edge of the local destination. Litvin and Kar (2004) tested the applicability of



211

Aut

hor(

s)

Hun

t (1

975)

Cro

mpt

on (

1979

)

P.L.

Pea

rce

(198

2)G

artn

er (

1986

)G

artn

er &

Hun

t (1

987)

Rei

lly (

1990

)B

ojan

ic (

1991

)

Cho

n (1

991)

Fake

ye &

Cro

mpt

on (

1991

)

Cro

mpt

on,

Fake

ye,

& L

ue (

1992

)

Dad

gost

ar &

Iso

talo

(19

92)

Gar

tner

& S

hen

(199

2)R

oss

(199

3b)

Milm

an &

Piz

am (

1995

)

Rel

atio

nshi

p In

vest

igat

edB

etw

een

Var

iabl

es

Reg

ion

of r

esid

ence

and

imag

e (+

)R

egio

n of

res

iden

ce (

dist

ance

)an

d im

age

(+)

Imag

e an

d vi

sita

tion

(±)

Imag

e an

d tim

e (±

)Im

age

and

dist

ance

(+

)Im

age

and

geog

raph

y (+

)E

xpos

ure

to a

dver

tisin

g an

dat

titud

es t

owar

d th

e de

stin

atio

n(im

age)

(+

)Im

age

and

visi

tatio

n (+

)Le

ngth

of

stay

and

imag

e (+

) D

ista

nce

and

imag

e (+

)D

escr

iptiv

e im

age

and

prev

ious

visi

tatio

n (+

)Im

age

and

plan

to re

turn

(for

vis

itors

)or

inte

ntio

n to

vis

it (fo

r non

visi

tors

) (+)

Imag

e an

d tim

e sp

ent

at t

hede

stin

atio

n (+

)Im

age

and

med

ia (

+)

Imag

e at

trib

utes

and

enj

oym

ent

(±)

Imag

e at

trib

utes

and

rev

isita

tion

inte

ntio

n (±

)Im

age

attr

ibut

es a

nd p

ositi

veev

alua

tions

(±

)Im

age

attr

ibut

es a

nd w

illin

gnes

sto

rec

omm

end

(±)

Fam

iliar

ity (

prev

ious

vis

itatio

n)an

d im

age

(+)

Aw

aren

ess

and

imag

e (-

)

Dep

ende

nt V

aria

ble(

s)

Imag

eIm

age

Imag

e Im

age

Imag

e Im

age

Atti

tude

(im

age)

Imag

e Im

age

Imag

e

Tim

e sp

ent

at t

he d

estin

atio

n

Imag

eE

njoy

men

t ra

tings

Rev

isita

tion

inte

ntio

ns

Pos

itive

eva

luat

ions

Will

ingn

ess

to r

ecom

men

d

Imag

e

Imag

e

Inde

pend

ent V

aria

ble(

s)

Reg

ion

of r

esid

ence

Reg

ion

of r

esid

ence

Vis

itatio

nT

ime

Dis

tanc

eG

eogr

aphy

Ad

expo

sure

Vis

itatio

nLe

ngth

of

stay

Dis

tanc

e fr

om t

he d

estin

atio

nP

revi

ous

visi

tatio

n

Pla

n to

ret

urn

or in

tent

ion

to v

isit

Imag

e (a

long

with

oth

er v

aria

bles

)

Med

iaIm

age

attr

ibut

es

Fam

iliar

ity (

prev

ious

vis

itatio

n)

Aw

aren

ess

Tab

le 3

Des

tin

atio

n Im

age

Stu

die

s M

easu

rin

g R

elat

ion

ship

s B

etw

een

Var

iab

les

(con

tinue

d)



212

Aut

hor(

s)

Ahm

ed (

1991

) A

hmed

(19

96)

Alh

emou

d &

Arm

stro

ng (

1996

)

Dan

n (1

996)

Sch

roed

er (

1996

)

Cou

rt &

Lup

ton

(199

7)M

acK

ay &

Fes

enm

aier

(19

97)

Lubb

e (1

998)

Wal

msl

ey &

You

ng (

1998

)B

alog

lu &

McC

lear

y (1

999)

Che

n &

Ker

stet

ter

(199

9)

Youn

g (1

999)

Rel

atio

nshi

p In

vest

igat

edB

etw

een

Var

iabl

es

Imag

e an

d pr

evio

us e

xper

ienc

e (+

)Im

age

and

regi

on o

f re

side

nce

(+)

Soc

iode

mog

raph

ics

and

imag

e (+

)

Imag

e an

d ex

perie

nce

thro

ugh

visi

t (+

)Im

age

and

supp

ort

for

tour

ism

deve

lopm

ent

(+)

Imag

e an

d in

tent

ion

to v

isit

(+)

The

land

scap

e pe

rcep

tion

dim

ensi

ons

and

imag

edi

men

sion

s (+

)D

emog

raph

ics

and

imag

edi

men

sion

s (±

)Fa

milia

rity

and

imag

e di

men

sion

s (+

)C

ultu

re a

nd im

age

(+)

Fam

iliar

ity a

nd a

ffect

ive

imag

e (+

)Im

age

and

expe

rienc

e th

roug

hpr

ior

visi

tatio

n (+

)Im

age

and

inte

ntio

n to

vis

it in

the

futu

re (

+)

Imag

e an

d pr

evio

us v

isita

tion

(-)

Imag

e an

d so

ciod

emog

raph

icva

riabl

es (

+)

Imag

e an

d us

ual r

esid

ence

(Aus

tral

ia o

r ov

erse

as)

(+)

Imag

e an

d pr

evio

us p

lace

vis

itatio

n (-)

Imag

e an

d pr

evio

us r

ainf

ores

tvi

sita

tion

(+)

Imag

e fr

eque

ncy

of h

olid

ayin

gin

nat

ural

env

ironm

ents

(+

)

Dep

ende

nt V

aria

ble(

s)

Tota

l im

age

and

its d

iffer

ent

cons

titue

nts

Imag

e

Imag

e

Sup

port

for

tour

ism

dev

elop

men

t

Inte

ntio

n to

vis

it Im

age

dim

ensi

ons

Imag

eA

ffect

ive

imag

eIm

age

Inte

ntio

n to

vis

it

Imag

eIm

age

Imag

e

Inde

pend

ent V

aria

ble(

s)

Am

ount

of

tour

ing

expe

rienc

eG

eogr

aphi

cal r

egio

nP

roxi

mity

(fa

mili

arity

), r

elig

ious

orie

ntat

ion,

age

, re

side

nce

Exp

erie

nce

thro

ugh

visi

t

Imag

e

Imag

eLa

ndsc

ape

perc

eptio

n di

men

sion

s

Dem

ogra

phic

s:ag

e, m

arita

l sta

tus,

sex,

inco

me

Fam

iliar

ityC

ultu

reFa

mili

arity

Exp

erie

nce

thro

ugh

prio

r vi

sita

tion

Imag

e

Pre

viou

s vi

sita

tion

Soc

io d

emog

raph

ics:

hom

e co

untry

,cu

lture

, gen

der,

hous

ehol

d st

atus

, cla

ss

Usu

al r

esid

ence

(A

ustra

lia o

r ov

erse

as

Pre

viou

s pl

ace

visi

tatio

nP

revi

ous

rain

fore

st v

isita

tion

Freq

uenc

y of

hol

iday

ing

in n

atur

alen

viro

nmen

ts

Tab

le 3

(co

nti

nu

ed)



213

Che

n &

Hsu

(20

00)

Mac

Kay

& F

esen

mai

er (

2000

)B

alog

lu (

2001

)

Jopp

e, M

artin

, &

Waa

len

(200

1)

Leis

en (

2001

)R

ittic

hain

uwat

, Q

u, &

Bro

wn

(200

1)

Son

mez

& S

iraka

ya (

2002

)

Imag

e an

d nu

mbe

r of

day

ssp

ent

in t

he a

rea

(-)

Imag

e an

d st

yle

of t

rave

l(in

depe

nden

t or

gui

ded)

(+

)Im

age

and

whe

ther

bro

chur

es w

ere

used

as

a pr

imar

y so

urce

of i

nfo

(-)T

he d

esira

bilit

y of

a d

estin

atio

nan

d its

imag

e at

trib

utes

(+

)Tr

ip-p

lann

ing

time

fram

e an

dim

age

attr

ibut

es (

+)

Bud

gete

d tr

avel

cos

ts a

nd im

age

attr

ibut

es (

+)

Leng

th o

f trip

and

imag

e at

tribu

tes

(+)

Imag

e an

d cu

lture

(+

)Im

age

and

fam

iliar

ity (

+)

Imag

e an

d de

mog

raph

ics

(±)

Impo

rtan

t at

trib

utes

and

orig

in o

fvi

sito

rs (

+)

Leve

l of s

atis

fact

ion

with

the

attri

bute

s an

d or

igin

of v

isito

rs (

+)Im

age

and

inte

ntio

n to

vis

it (+

)Im

age

and

the

likel

ihoo

d of

rep

eat

trav

el(+

)R

epea

t vi

sits

and

imag

e (+

)Im

age

and

dem

ogra

phic

s (±

)

Imag

e an

d lik

elih

ood

of c

hoos

ing

the

coun

try

as t

he n

ext

vaca

tion

dest

inat

ion

(±)

Imag

e

Des

irabi

lity

of d

estin

atio

n

Trip

-pla

nnin

g tim

e fr

ame

Bud

gete

d tr

avel

cos

ts

Leng

th o

f tr

ipIm

age

Imag

eIm

age

Impo

rtan

t at

trib

utes

Leve

l of

satis

fact

ion

with

the

attr

ibut

esIm

age

Like

lihoo

d of

rep

eat

trav

el

Imag

eIm

age

Like

lihoo

d of

cho

osin

g th

eco

untr

y as

the

nex

t va

catio

nde

stin

atio

n

Num

ber

of d

ays

spen

t in

the

are

a

Sty

le o

f tra

vel (

inde

pend

ent o

r gu

ided

)

Whe

ther

bro

chur

es w

ere

a pr

imar

yso

urce

of

info

Imag

e at

trib

utes

Cul

ture

Fam

iliar

ityD

emog

raph

ics:

age,

gend

er,

educ

atio

n, in

com

e,m

arita

l sta

tus

Orig

in o

f vi

sito

rs

Inte

ntio

n to

vis

itIm

age

Rep

eat

visi

tsD

emog

raph

ics:

mar

ital s

tatu

s, a

gegr

oup,

occ

upat

ion,

leve

l of

educ

atio

n, c

ount

ry o

f re

side

nce

Cog

nitiv

e, a

ffect

ive,

and

hol

istic

imag

e co

mpo

nent

s




Chon’s (1992) theory of self-image/destination image congruity. With a study ofpostvisit satisfaction, they investigated whether there is a “relationship betweenone’s self-image and one’s image of a product or service” and conclude that itdoes exist (Litvin & Kar, 2004, p. 23). Young (1999) developed a model ofplace production and place consumption ex post facto. In this model, he delin-eates a “zone of consensus” where the place production (projected image) andthe place consumption (received image) overlap. Hunt (1975) also drawsimplications about tourist expectations and the comfortable level of exoticismin a destination.

Similarly, researchers using different methodologies draw implications aboutthe applicability of these new methodologies. Multidimensional scaling(Gartner, 1989; Goodrich, 1977; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000), Kelly’s reper-tory grid analysis (Embacher & Buttle, 1989; P. L. Pearce, 1982), and corre-spondence analysis (Chen, 2001) are tested analysis tools for measuringdestination image. Yet they may, once again, be measuring only one componentof the destination image. Other researchers, possibly picking up subconsciously(it is never clearly stated) on the need to include the affective component alongwith the cognitive when measuring destination image, conclude that there is aneed to include qualitative methodologies when measuring destination image(Dann, 1996; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Lubbe, 1998). O’Leary and Deegan(2003) and Rezende-Parker et al. (2003) specifically test the validity of the des-tination image measurement approach developed by Echtner and Ritchie (1993)and agree with their recommendations. Tapachai and Waryszak (2000), on theother hand, test the category-based approach instead of the piecemeal-basedapproach suggested by Keaveney and Hunt (1992) and conclude that measuringdestination image as a holistic concept rather than lists of attributes is an effec-tive way to proceed.

Managerial implications are common in image studies. They are mostlyabout positioning (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;Goodrich, 1977; Rittichainuwat et al., 2001; Walmsley & Young, 1998), pro-motion (Ahmed, 1996; Bojanic, 1991; Chen & Hsu, 2000; Chen & Kerstetter,1999; Crompton et al., 1992; Day, Skidmore, & Koller, 2002; Fakeye &Crompton, 1991; Goodrich, 1977; Joppe et al., 2001; Leisen, 2001; Milman &Pizam, 1995; Murphy, 1999; Rittichainuwat et al., 2001; Tapachai & Waryszak,2000), product development or improvement (Crompton, 1979; Hunt, 1975;Murphy, 1999; Selby & Morgan, 1996), segmentation (Crompton, 1979; Hunt,1975; Leisen, 2001; Walmsley & Young, 1998), and policy development (Ross,1993b; Schroeder, 1996; Selby & Morgan, 1996) in relation to the image heldby the current and potential markets.

Some researchers also provide future research suggestions. Obviously, thereis a need for more causal studies because investigation of causal relationshipsbetween some variables is suggested by some researchers (Chen & Hsu, 2000;Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Joppe et al., 2001; Murphy, 1999; Sonmez &Sirakaya, 2002). Study replication would help sort out cause and effect rela-tionships. Hunt (1975) suggests the identification of significant destination




attributes, which has been supported by others (e.g., Chen & Hsu, 2000; Fakeye& Crompton, 1991; Joppe et al., 2001; Ross, 1993b). Choi et al. (1999) suggestperiodic monitoring of image, an idea that has not received much attentionbecause most published image studies are of a one-off nature. Respondents’ atti-tudes, and thus their images that are formed within the affective component, mightchange through time. Therefore, there is a need for more longitudinal studies inwhich destination image is evaluated and monitored periodically to understandbetter the factors playing an important role in image formation and the changeprocess. Such periodic monitoring could also facilitate development of a well-accepted and standardized image measurement tool for destination imageresearchers, which is an already articulated need (Leisen, 2001). The follow-upstudies need to be conducted using the same scales to assure the validity of thescales through sufficient replication (Flynn & Pearcy, 2001). A few studies haveassessed image change through time (e.g., Gartner, 1986; Gartner & Hunt, 1987;Gartner & Shen, 1992) using the same methodology, but there are not many.

Realizing one of the major limitations of their own and other destinationimage researchers’ studies, Crompton et al. (1992) suggest the use of a morerepresentative sample. Bramwell and Rawding (1996) suggest broadening theunderlying conceptual base of the destination image by including views fromvarious disciplines. And Sonmez and Sirakaya (2002) suggest using experimen-tal studies to define causes of changes in tourists’ images.

Sampling frame, including method and size, is a source of limitation in somedestination image studies. Studies using qualitative approaches generally usesmall sample sizes due to the demanding nature of gathering data and includetechniques such as the in-depth interview and the triadic method (Embacher &Buttle, 1989; Lubbe, 1998; P. L. Pearce, 1982). Some studies using quantitativeapproaches also use very small samples (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Walmsley& Young, 1998). Some studies use sampling populations (e.g., students) that arenot necessarily representative of the potential market of the study destination(Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Chen & Kerstetter,1999; Crompton, 1979; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000;Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000). Some use proxy populations such as travel agentsand experts for the target population (Lubbe, 1998; McLellan & Foushee,1983). Yet others use specific groups identified in ways other than random selec-tion (Baloglu, 2001; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Embacher & Buttle, 1989;Gartner & Shen, 1992). Many studies use purposive, accidental, or conveniencesampling. Some studies use actual visitors as the sampling population for thestudy but could not maintain randomness of the sample (Choi et al., 1999;Dann, 1996; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Joppe et al., 2001; Murphy, 1999;Ross, 1993b; Selby & Morgan, 1996). Therefore, the images measured by thesetypes of destination image studies may be specific to only their sample popula-tion rather than that held by the potential markets of the destinations. Again, onecan look at the components of destination image to see what the issue is here. Ifa sampling frame is used that does not accurately reflect the actual or potential




visitors to a destination, then the results can be quite misleading. There is noreason to suspect that the main components of image may be internalized in thesame way by different populations. The potential market for a destination may,and probably does, focus on different destination attributes (i.e., cognitive), havedifferent feelings toward that destination (see Table 3 for the various socioeco-nomic characteristics that have been linked to image), and select different des-tinations (conative) than other groups with different interests and experiences.

Although not related directly to the discussion of image components,methodological concerns can greatly affect reported results. Many destinationimage studies deal with issues of low response, nonresponse, reliability, valid-ity, and other limitations caused by the methodologies applied. However, only afew researchers address these issues and acknowledge the limitations inherentin their studies. Acknowledging such limitations is important in terms of allow-ing the reader to interpret results with appropriate caution. For example, fewresearchers address nonresponse bias. Court and Lupton (1997) and Leisen(2001) take the nonrespondents as similar to late respondents and compare earlyrespondents with late respondents on key variables. Other researchers use a dif-ferent mode to reach the nonrespondents and compare them with respondents onpossibly differentiating variables (Ahmed, 1996; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;Sonmez & Sirakaya, 2002).

As mentioned before, some researchers develop scale items through stepssuch as interviewing knowledgeable parties, literature reviews of previousresearch, content analysis of tourism brochures, expert input, focus groups withrelated parties, and pilot tests that contribute to both reliability and contentvalidity of the scales. The internal consistency of the scale items is assured bythe use of Cronbach’s α by the majority of the destination image studies pub-lished. In contrast, qualitative methods must use some other measure for relia-bility. For example, using a qualitative approach, Lubbe (1998) usedintraindividual reliability measures. However, instability of response sets due torespondents’ familiarity with the instrument or its content, fatigue, and/or desirefor cognitive consistency is mostly overlooked except by MacKay andFesenmaier (1997). Instability of response sets due to respondents’ familiaritywith the instrument or its content is also an issue, especially when linking thecognitive and affective components. Respondents’ familiarity with the items onthe importance set might influence their responses on the performance set, andoverlooking this aspect of cognitive consistency might lead to biased results.

Issues of both internal and external validity of destination image researchmight be at risk due to an overreliance on self-administered surveys for which theresearcher has limited control. Demand effects due to respondents’ guessingthe purpose of the study is another threat for those studies that supply clues to therespondents. Destination image research also runs the risk of limited externalvalidity, that is, the potential inability to generalize the results to other targetmarkets.




CONCLUSION

A close look at image theory in the tourism context reveals that a systematizedstructure has not been achieved in either conceptualizing or operationalizing thedestination image construct. Even with the evolutionary advances provided byEchtner and Ritchie (1991), defining and measuring destination image is stillfuzzy in most of the literature. Researchers use different definitions of image, ornone at all, which could run the destination image literature into the risk of beingatheoretical and nonscientific. Also, the destination image literature containsmany methodological issues that still need to be addressed. Although researchersresponded to the comments of Echtner and Ritchie by incorporating their sugges-tions in much of the image research that followed their contribution, there areother issues that were not investigated by Echtner and Ritchie that still affect themeasurement of the destination image construct. These issues include samplingstrategy leading to questions of reliability and validity. Other issues of importanceinclude the reliance on one-off cross-sectional destination image studies and thedifferent forms of bias that can affect results.

As detailed above, the study of destination image is not without its theoreticalbase. Yet that theoretical base does not appear to be readily accepted, as evidencedby the plethora of definitions that are offered for the destination image. Furtheranalysis shows, however, that most of those definitions do relate to the theoreticalbasis for image assessment as first proposed by Boulding in 1956. The introductionby Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993) of a holistic view of the destination image fitsperfectly into the theoretical base because it extended image measurement beyondthe cognitive component into the affective and conative spheres of influence.

What is potentially more troubling to image assessment research are theforms of bias that can result from inappropriate methods being used to identifyand measure the different aspects of destination image. During the 30 years ormore since the tourism destination image appeared as a research line of inquiry,many advances have been made in both conceptualizing and measuring the des-tination image construct. Many of those advances are identified and traced inthis article. What is apparent from this review is that as much attention has beenpaid to defining image as anything else. But as this study attempts to show, thereis much more to measuring image than simply accepting a standardized defini-tion, especially when most of those definitions are related to the construct’s the-oretical base anyway. Other issues that affect the validity of results and hencemanagerial performance are probably a greater concern and should be addressedwith increasing alacrity.

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Submitted October 24, 2005Final Revision Submitted March 3, 2006Accepted May 30, 2006Refereed Anonymously

Asli D. A. Tasci, PhD (e-mail: [email protected]), is a faculty member in the School ofTourism and Hospitality Management at Mugla University (Kotekli Kampusu, 48000Mugla, Turkey). William C. Gartner, PhD (e-mail: [email protected]), is a professor ofapplied economics at the University of Minnesota (Saint Paul, MN 55108). S. TamerCavusgil, PhD (e-mail: [email protected]), is a faculty member in the Eli Broad GraduateSchool of Management at Michigan State University (East Lansing, MI 48824).



Benchmarking Sustainability: the

use of Indicators

Introduction

The concept of sustainable development is both very

popular and elusive. The overwhelming appeal of

sustainability is situated in the strong belief of mutual

care for the world, hindering or excluding unwanted

environmental effects of development, and

responsibility towards future generations (Wheeller,

1993). However, while appropriate and praiseworthy

in principle, this conception appears to be too vague

to provide an adequate basis on which to build a

generally shared perception of sustainable

development (Butler, 1998). For many people, this is

an important reason to discard the notion and argue

about the actual effects of such an approach.

Defining and achieving sustainable development has

become one of the major policy debates of our

generation. Since the term “sustainable

development” first came to public attention with the

publication of the Brundtland Report (or “Our

Common Future”) in 1987, it has been much

contested by international forums, academics,

scientists, public sector institutions, and private

businesses (Eber, 2002). However, it is fair to say

that much of the discussion on the concept has been

structured around the World Commission on

Environment and Development’s (WCED, 1987, p.

43) well-known definition of sustainable development

as “meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs” (Milne, 1998). For the WCED,

this involves a process of change in which economic

prosperity must be integrated with environmental

integrity in a manner that is socially equitable and

preserves the culture of a society. In this sense,

sustainable development is a comprehensive and

inclusive approach which stresses the

interdependence of the natural environment with

economy and society – the “triple-bottom-line”.

Evidently, the concept of sustainable development is

complex both in theory as well as implementation.

In an ideal situation we would be looking at a

strategy that promotes environmental conservation,

development of peripheral areas, enhanced natural

resource management, community support etc.

Furthermore, in addressing sustainable development,

different levels of analysis may be used from global

to the destination level, or from household to

individual level (Butler, 1998). The relative weight

and importance of the subjects related to sustainable

development is hardly objectively determinable with

universally true standards and depends on the values

and ideologies of various stakeholders (Hall, 1998).

All the above seem to have created a lot of confusion

regarding sustainability and its indented use

depending on the point of reference we choose to

employ which in turn has led over the years to a lot

of …convenient criticism and many lost opportunities.

In fact, and for no obvious reason, sustainable

development was for a long time synonymous to

environmental protection. (Garrod and Fayal, 1998)

EUROMED SUSTAINABLE CONNECTIONS ANNA LINDH FOUNDATION

POLICY ANALYSIS 3:4. BENCHMARKING SUSTAINABILITY: THE USE OF INDICATORS

April, 2008

Theodore S. Benetatos POLICY ANALYSIS 3:4 BENCHMARKING SUSTAINABILITY: THE USE OF INDICATORS

EUROMED Sustainable Connections: Benchmarking Sustainability: the use of Indicators 2

and this partially true reality led all the developments

in the field for some years and up to the late 80s.

Sustainability and Community Development

Since the 1990s a social movement has emerged

focusing more on sustainable community

development. (Innes & Booher, 2000) thus

broadening the initially perceived spectrum of

sustainability.

It may be argued that the social element was already

incorporated in the core idea of sustainability but it is

also true that it was never explicitly stated or clearly

defined. In reality, social wellbeing would be

considered more as an aftereffect of the proposed

acts for environmental conservation. However, this

clarification did not wave the complexity of

sustainability but it did lead to new theories

concerning sustainable development and its

community context.

The key element in this approach can be found in the

very definition of what constitutes a sustainable

community. Obviously, the description of a

sustainable community may vary upon perspective

and should be geographically, economically and

historically defined (Benetatos, 2008). You do need

however a starting point and if we had to agree upon

a generic definition then we might say that:

“Sustainable is a community that meets the diverse needs

of existing and future residents, their children and other

users, contributes to a quality of life and provides

opportunity and choice. They achieve this in ways that

makes effective use on natural resources, enhances the

environment, promotes social cohesion & inclusion,

protects the human rights and strengthens economic

prosperity”

(Modified from the Eagan review-UK, 2004)

But the question still remains. How do we reach to

the point of creation of such a community and how

do we create effective policies and measures to

validate our strategy. Some of the answers may be

found in the usage of the wide spread techniques of

policy axis that denote priorities and indicators that

provide the measurement instruments.

Using Performance Indicators

The most widely accepted and at the same time

challenged method of measuring sustainability refers

to the use of Sustainability Indicators. There are

many definitions available for indicators and we can

accept that an indicator may be defined as the

measure that enables you to understand your

position in relation to where you want to go and

under certain conditions; it shows you the way to do

so. In other words we are using indicators to provide

a point of reference when comparing effects of

development in different points in time thus

evaluating whether our strategy and policy measures

had the anticipated result. As an afterthought such a

system can also provide with valuable information

about the reasons of success or failure.

However it has been said that the use of indicators is

an intellectually appealing idea with little practical

application (Wheeller, 1996). In fact it has been

argued that: “Millions of Dollars and much time of

talented people has been wasted on indicator reports



that remain on the shelf gathering dust” (Innes,

2000), representing some of the heavy criticism

addressed towards the use of indicators.

In any case it is always important to remember that:

“Everything that can be counted does

not necessarily count;…and everything

that counts cannot necessarily be

counted ”

Albert Einstein

It is reported that the use of indicators has some

very important limitations that need to be taken

under consideration when engaging in employing

such a system.

Indicator Limitations

• The role of an indicator is...to indicate…not to

dictate: This implies that the actual scores of

an indicator are not the goal but only the means

to our broader plan.

• In order to provide meaningful information an

indicator must be seen through an evaluation

process like benchmarking.

• Indicators are created in a given moment in time

and a community is not a machine.

A community is a living organism that usually

evolves faster than the supporting theory of the

indicators.

• Some indicators are too demanding in terms on

data requirements. Furthermore, these

indicators may have been developed based on

information provided by a more organized

society that already possesses significant data

collection systems. In this case, and even

though such indicators may be tested and found

to be of great value in a specific societal

context, they may be also rendered useless in

other destinations where there is lack in

appropriate data.

• Indicators produce only a snapshot in time. In

order for such a system to be effective we need

to secure continuity.

Indicators and Benchmarking

As quoted above, a set of indicators may have effect

only when seen through a relevant benchmarking

system that will give meaning to the produced

measurements.

Benchmarking off course is widely used in business

terminology in an effort to measure effectiveness.

However, in our case we would like to consider

benchmarking in a different manner:

“…not though the spectrum of competitiveness. We

would rather view this as a process that exemplifies

average and best known practices” (Modified from the Eagan

review-UK, 2004)

This is not a process that will lead us from “bad to

good” but from “bad to better” in an ongoing

improvement development. A partially self regulating

and self adjusting procedure to match the evolving

nature of a community, leading to the best possible

outcome given resources, place and time.

Creating a benchmarking Model

It is not in the nature of this study to test a

benchmarking model for our indicators. This would

require resources such as testing time that is not

available. Thus, we chose to use as a basis already



established models such as the EU Sustainable

Development Indicator report that was revised over a

period of about 10 years as well as the UK model for

Sustainable Communities issued in 2004.

Focal Point: with an international group of experts

in the broader field of sustainability, academics and

partnering to the EUROMED program community

representatives we adjusted the appropriate

elements of existing theory to create a tailor made

sustainability model. This model was designed:

• to address the particularities of the

participating regions (Greece, Tunisia, Italy,

Palestine & Jordan) as a pilot for the broader

area of the Mediterranean

• to suit the needs of a fair trade driven local

economy based on producing and exporting

olive oil to US and EU Markets.

The model develops indicators in seven major

categories, all aiming to provide a framework for

policy making that will lead to our vision of a

sustainable community as presented in previous

points.

More specifically these areas include the following:

(Bellagio 2008)

Based on these areas we produced 25 indicators:

Governance 1. Provide Continuous Process of Participation

Document frequency of meeting and participant participation processes

Establish indicators of participation (composition, demographics)

Document meetings and responses (Establish record of public participation)

Provide for local community access to information and feedback

2. Establish means for continuous monitoring Develop evaluative assessment tool for

measuring goal attainment Establish strategic milestones Provide participation for multiple

respondents (farmers, producers, community, partners)

3. Promote local community resiliency Establish “over-time” collection of

measurement date on participation Document participation changes over

time Measure progress towards goal

attainment Establish an index measuring residents’

ability to achieve agreement

Economics 4. Optimize benefits to households

Collect data on employment and income Establish profile relating to cooperative

venture Establish indicators relating to housing

residency and other permanency factors Employ economic data sets measuring

individual wealth Employ indicators to measure local “good

life” factors Establish community health index

5. Optimize direct consumer and producer linkage Monitor types and amount of contact

(i.e. website hits) Develop education and promotion

materials about producers Promote open houses in villages Promote youth exchange programs Create website

Sustainable Community

Global Partnerships

Labor Capital

Social & Cultural

Governance

Economics

Environmental

Quality



6. Emphasize social and environmental business models Incorporate elements of presentations at

Bellagio workshop as aspect of business plan

Reduce carbon footprint of cooperative venture

Incorporate an environmental management, social and cultural element in business plan regarding production and delivery process

Attempt to achieve “zero waste” production and operational goals

7. Invest in local capacity System for identification of local needs

through surveys, meetings and other means

Measurement of investments in local community

Rate of return on community investments

Social and Cultural 8. Ensure adequate local olive oil supply

Establish export surplus quota respecting adequate local supply to community

Measure affordability and availability of local oil supply

9. Reverse rural abandonment Measure number of people

returning/remaining in village Migration profile indicators Overall growth of local economy (i.e.

new business starts) Assessment of future goals of residents

through attitude surveys 10. Promote education and cross communication

Workshops and meetings Online networking Technical services Reflection of program objectives in local

school curriculum 11. Provide equitable returns

Establish system of fair profit distribution 12. Respect cultural and legal norms

Promotional material about local communities

Compliance with local and national laws Co-authorship of locally produced

materials reflecting communities 13. Protect Heritage and Enhance community

resiliency

Curriculum in schools National publications and news releases Visible manifestation of cultural practices Regional and global workshops and

festivals 14. Promote family identity and wellbeing

Measure family connectivity to community

Increase of Diaspora connectivity 15. Special attention to non-native workers

Provision of directed social services Perform satisfaction surveys Inclusion of non-native workers through

interviews to assess sense of “belonging”

16. Opportunities for women/youth Provisions for inclusion in all aspects of

project Increase in wages and monitoring of

unemployment rates Subsidies provided through available

grant-in-aid programs Survey of expectations of work

conditions compared to experienced work conditions

Inclusion of youth and woman in conduct of planning evaluation and surveys

Environment 17. Environmental friendly processes

Air and water quality assessment of production processes

Application of ‘best management practices/ in all phases of production

Evaluation of local versus imported production inputs

Achievement of FLO (Organic product) compliance and certification

18. Practice Regenerative Agriculture Employ soil testing monitoring and

practices for organic certificiation Conduct water quality testing Emphasize bio diversity in orchard

management practices Encourage collaboration with universities

for research of data and testing Establish school curriculum enabling

students to engage in local monitoring for environmental quality

19. Increase resiliency to hazards Measure local preparedness to hazard

events



Develop hazard prevention and fire prevention plan

Develop protocol for hazard mitigation drills and evacuation

Incorporate resiliency to hazards plan in business plan

Quality

20. Establish traceability Certification of product origin, type, place

of production Emphasize traceability in marketing and

labeling Establish independent testing

laboratories to assure quality product evaluation

Emphasize quality in terms of objective measurement as well as subjective, based on local expert evaluation

21. Implement Best Practices employing scientific and local knowledge Establish protocols for product

production Emphasize local beliefs, traditions, and

wisdom in local product production Emphasize aesthetic qualities and

functionality of packaging Ensure quality in storage for pre and

post bottling of product

Labor 22. Fair Wage and Protection of Workers

Meet International Certification Rules (FTO, others)

Meet ICO and UN standards, as applicable

Ensure human working conditions Conduct continuous research on worker

conditions Establish system for worker conditions

monitoring and assessment 23. Non-Exploitive Relations

Provide for worker access to voice opinions and concerns

Inspection and monitoring mechanisms ensuring evaluation and investigation of worker complaints

Global Partnerships

24. Understanding Diversity and Commonality among partners in promoting peace and justice in Mediterranean Region Promote programs for inter-cultural

exchange (including youth exchange) Develop sense of broader collaborative

and dependency among cooperative partners

Promote system for exchange of technology and traditional practices among partners

Encourage direct, cross-cultural and producer-consumer connectedness

25. Cross-cultural connection among consumers and producers Establish programs promoting exchange

of local and technical knowledge for producers and farmers.



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