Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 www.brill.nl/ah Reptiles used for medicinal and magic religious purposes in Brazil Rômulo R.N. Alves 1,2 , Nivaldo A. Léo Neto 1 , Gindomar G. Santana 3 , Washington L.S. Vieira 3 and Waltécio O. Almeida 4 1 Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Av. das Baraúnas, 351/Campus Universitário, Bodocongó, 58109-753, Campina Grande-PB, Brasil 2 Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected] 3 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia), Laboratório e Coleção de Herpetologia, Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brasil 4 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioprospecção Molecular, Universidade Regional do Cariri, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Rua Cel. Antônio Luiz 1161, CEP 63100-000, Crato — CE, Brazil Abstract This is an overview of the use of reptiles for medicinal and magic religious purposes in Brazil and discusses their implications for conservation. All available references or reports on the reptiles species being used for medicinal or magic/religious purposes were examined. A total of 44 species of reptiles (35 genera and 17 families) are used. These 42 species are used for medicinal purposes, two for magical religious purposes and 11 for both. The largest numbers of species used were snakes (15 species), turtles and tortoises (14), lizards (10), and crocodilians (5). Therapeutic products from 42 reptile species are used to treat 100 different illnesses and at least 13 reptile species were recorded as having magic religious uses. They are commonly sold in Brazilian cities in outdoor markets and stores that sell religious articles. Of the reptiles recorded, 52.3% are endangered species, demonstrating the importance of understanding such uses in the context of reptile conservation as well as of the cultural, social, and traditional role of these reptiles for establishing management plans directed towards sustainable use. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 Key words Ethnozoology, reptile conservation, traditional medicines, zootherapy. Introduction Human use of animals is an integral part of many cultures. Reptiles and human so- cieties have interacted for millennia, virtually wherever they have been in contact. Thereby, reptiles are one of the fundamental ethnozoological entities, and we inter- pret our relationship with reptiles differently depending upon culture, environment, © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 DOI:10.1163/157075409X432913
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Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 www.brill.nl/ah
Reptiles used for medicinal and magic religious purposesin Brazil
Rômulo R.N. Alves 1,2, Nivaldo A. Léo Neto 1, Gindomar G. Santana 3,
Washington L.S. Vieira 3 and Waltécio O. Almeida 4
1 Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Av. das Baraúnas,351/Campus Universitário, Bodocongó, 58109-753, Campina Grande-PB, Brasil
2 Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected] Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia),
Laboratório e Coleção de Herpetologia, Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia,Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brasil
4 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioprospecção Molecular, Universidade Regional do Cariri,Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Rua Cel. Antônio Luiz 1161, CEP 63100-000,
Crato — CE, Brazil
AbstractThis is an overview of the use of reptiles for medicinal and magic religious purposes in Brazil and discussestheir implications for conservation. All available references or reports on the reptiles species being used formedicinal or magic/religious purposes were examined. A total of 44 species of reptiles (35 genera and 17families) are used. These 42 species are used for medicinal purposes, two for magical religious purposesand 11 for both. The largest numbers of species used were snakes (15 species), turtles and tortoises (14),lizards (10), and crocodilians (5). Therapeutic products from 42 reptile species are used to treat 100 differentillnesses and at least 13 reptile species were recorded as having magic religious uses. They are commonlysold in Brazilian cities in outdoor markets and stores that sell religious articles. Of the reptiles recorded,52.3% are endangered species, demonstrating the importance of understanding such uses in the context ofreptile conservation as well as of the cultural, social, and traditional role of these reptiles for establishingmanagement plans directed towards sustainable use.© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009
Key wordsEthnozoology, reptile conservation, traditional medicines, zootherapy.
Introduction
Human use of animals is an integral part of many cultures. Reptiles and human so-cieties have interacted for millennia, virtually wherever they have been in contact.Thereby, reptiles are one of the fundamental ethnozoological entities, and we inter-pret our relationship with reptiles differently depending upon culture, environment,
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 DOI:10.1163/157075409X432913
258 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274
and personal experience. Evidence from a variety of sources shows that humanshave exploited the eggs, meat, blood, oil, shell, skin, bones, and other parts of thereptiles to provide raw materials for food, toolmaking, ornaments, medicines andreligious objects (e.g., Klemens and Thorbjarnarson, 1995; Franke and Telecky,2001; Fitzgerald et al., 2004; Zhou and Jiang, 2004; Frazier, 2005; Alves et al.,2007a,b; Alves et al., 2008; Alves and Santana, 2008).
Because reptiles possess low energy requirements and tend to have high repro-ductive rates, they often occur at high densities and biomass levels (Pough et al.,2004). These life-history traits make them especially well-suited for managementas a food resource; throughout the lowland tropics, many reptiles have served asan important source of protein for human communities (Mittermeier et al., 1992).Nevertheless, besides the use of them as food, reptiles have been used for vari-ous purposes, for example, trade as pets, for use in traditional medicine and formagical-religious endings (Franke and Telecky, 2001; Fitzgerald et al., 2004; Zhouand Jiang, 2004; Alves and Pereira-Filho, 2007).
Reptiles are among the animal species most frequently used in traditional folkmedicine, and their role in folk practices related to the healing and/or preventionof illnesses has been recorded in different social-cultural contexts throughout theworld (Zhou and Jiang, 2004; Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007a,b; Mahawar and Jaroli,2006, 2008; Vazquez et al., 2006; Alves et al., 2007b; Alves and Pereira-Filho,2007; Alves et al., 2008a,b).
In Brazil, reptiles have been exploited for many purposes and about 693 speciesare recognized as occurring in Brazil: 357 snakes, 232 lizards, 62 amphisbaenids,6 caimans, and 36 turtles (Sociedade Brasileira de Herpetologia, 2008). A signifi-cant part of this fauna had been used by human populations and some of them havebeen used as merchandise by modern societies. Reptiles are used for meat, leather,ornamental value, magic religious finalities and supposed medicinal importance.In this context, Brazil can be used as a useful case study to increase our knowl-edge of use of reptiles by people and their implications. In this sense, the interestof the present paper is to catalog the reptiles species being used for medicinal ormagic/religious purposes in Brazil and to discuss the implications of these uses forreptile conservation.
Methods
All available references or reports on the species being used for medicinal ormagic/religious purposes in Brazil were examined. Only taxa that could be iden-tified to species level were included in the data base. Scientific names pro-vided in publications were updated according to the ITIS Catalogue of Life:2008 Annual Checklist (http://www.catalogueoflife.org/search.php) and BrazilianList of Amphibians and Reptiles of Brazilian Society of Herpetology (http://www.sbherpetologia.org.br/). The conservation status of the reptile species follows
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 259
IUCN 2008 (http://www.iucnredlist.org/) and CITES 2008 (http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html).
The sources analyzed were: Branch and Silva (1983), Begossi (1992), Begossiand Braga (1992), Figueiredo (1994), Marques (1995), Freire (1996), Costa-Neto(1996, 1999a,b,c,d, 2000a,b,c, 2001), Begossi et al. (1999), Costa-Neto and Oliveira(2000), Seixas and Begossi (2001), Almeida and Albuquerque (2002), Silva et al.(2004), Almeida (2005), Pinto and Maduro (2003), Alves (2006a,b), Alves andRosa (2006, 2007a,b), Alves et al. (2007a,b), Alves and Pereira-Filho (2007), Alvesand Santana (2008), Alves (2008), Alves et al. (2008a,b,c) and Alves (2009).
Reptile species used
Of 44 species (35 genera and 17 families), 42 are used for medicinal purposes,two for magical religious endings and 11 for both. The largest numbers of speciesused were snakes (15), turtles and tortoises (14), lizards (10), and crocodilians (5)(table 1). The high taxonomic diversity observed among reptiles used as remediesand magic purposes is not surprising, given that numerous workers have pointedout that reptiles are among the animals most frequently used in folk medicine (e.g.,Branch and Silva, 1983; Begossi, 1992; Seixas and Begossi, 2001; Almeida and Al-buquerque, 2002; Silva et al., 2004; Alves and Rosa, 2007a,b; Alves et al., 2007a).
Reptiles represent ingredients used in most traditional medical systems globally(Adeola, 1992; Sodeinde and Soewu, 1999; El-Kamali, 2000; Lev, 2003; Wal-ston, 2005; Alakbarli, 2006; Mahawar and Jaroli, 2006, 2008; Dharmananda, 2007;Fretey et al., 2007; Negi and Palyal, 2007). Alves et al. (2008) summarized the useof reptiles in traditional folk medicine worldwide and documented the use of 165species, but they suggested that this was an underestimate. The widespread use ofreptiles in traditional medicine, the increasing reliance on such approaches amongthose in developing countries who cannot afford western health care (Alves andRosa, 2007b) and the interest in the developed world in alternative medicine havecontributed to the great demand for reptiles and reptile products.
Some widespread species are used in different regions. For example, the medici-nal use of Tupinambis spp. has been recorded in various localities of regions north-east, north and southeast of Brazil (Branch and Silva, 1983; Begossi, 1992; Begossiand Braga, 1992; Alves et al., 2007a; Alves and Rosa, 2007a,b). On the other hand,the medicinal use of the Amazonian species Podocnemis expansa, Melanosuchusniger and Podocnemis unifilis was only recorded in the north region (Alves andRosa, 2007a,b; Alves and Santana, 2008). These results corroborated Alves andRosa (2007b) that suggest the close relationship among the locals’ inhabitants andtheir natural environment. As dwellers of areas very close to nature, and havingdaily encounters with their ambient animal resources, they have been able to gain avast experience of local animal resources utilization.
260 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274
Tabl
e1.
Rep
tiles
used
for
med
icin
alan
dm
agic
/rel
igio
uspu
rpos
esin
Bra
zil.
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Cro
codi
lians
Alli
gato
rida
ePa
leos
uchu
spa
lpeb
rosu
sL
R/I
I—
Dw
arf
caim
an,“
jaca
réco
roa”
,“j
acar
é”,“
jaca
ré-p
reto
”,“c
roco
dilo
”
Skin
,he
ad,
teet
h,fle
sh,
fat
Snak
ebi
te,a
sthm
a,st
roke
,rhe
umat
ism
,thr
ombo
sis,
back
ache
,se
xual
impo
tenc
e,ed
ema,
myc
osis
,te
ethi
ng,
disc
harg
e,so
reth
roat
,am
ulet
used
asa
prot
ectio
nag
ains
tsn
ake
bite
,he
rnia
,pr
osta
tepr
oble
ms,
hans
enia
sis,
erys
ipel
as
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als,
mag
icsp
ells
,tra
de(a
ttrac
tcos
tum
ers)
,at
trac
tse
xual
part
ners
,am
ulet
topr
otec
taga
inst
“evi
leye
”
Cai
man
croc
odil
usL
R/I
I—
Com
mon
caym
an,“
jaca
rétin
gaSk
in,
head
,te
eth,
flesh
,fa
t
Ast
hma,
stro
ke,
bron
chiti
s,ba
ckac
he,
eara
che,
rheu
mat
ism
,th
rom
bosi
s,se
xual
impo
tenc
e,sn
ake
bite
s,te
ethi
ng,d
isch
arge
,sw
ellin
g,sc
ratc
h,at
hlet
e’s
foot
,op
htha
lmol
ogic
alpr
oble
ms,
sore
thro
at,
amul
etus
edas
apr
otec
tion
agai
nst
snak
ebi
te,
rheu
mat
ism
,he
rnia
,pr
osta
tepr
oble
ms,
infe
ctio
n,ha
nsen
iasi
s,er
ysip
elas
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als,
mag
icsp
ells
,tra
de(a
ttrac
tcos
tum
ers)
,at
trac
tse
xual
part
ners
,am
ulet
topr
otec
taga
inst
“evi
leye
”
Cai
man
lati
rost
ris
LR
/II
—B
road
-sn
oute
dca
iman
,“j
acar
é-do
-pap
o-am
arel
o”
Skin
,he
ad,
teet
h,fle
sh,
fat
Ast
hma,
sore
thro
at,a
mul
etus
edas
apr
otec
tion
agai
nst
snak
ebi
te,r
heum
atis
m,t
eeth
ing,
hern
ia,p
rost
ate
prob
lem
s,ha
nsen
ia-
sis,
erys
ipel
as
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als,
mag
icsp
ells
,tra
de(a
ttrac
tcos
tum
ers)
,at
trac
tse
xual
part
ners
,am
ulet
topr
otec
taga
inst
“evi
leye
”
Mel
anos
uchu
sni
ger
LR
/II
—B
lack
caym
an,“
jaca
reaç
ú”Sk
in,t
eeth
,fle
sh,f
atT
hrom
bosi
s,in
fect
ion,
swel
ling,
asth
ma,
amul
etus
edas
apr
o-te
ctio
nag
ains
tsn
ake
bite
,inj
urie
sca
used
bysp
ines
ofth
e‘a
r-ra
ia’,
pain
relie
fin
inju
ries
caus
edby
snak
ebi
tes
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als,
mag
icsp
ells
,tra
de(a
ttrac
tcos
tum
ers)
,at
trac
tse
xual
part
ners
,am
ulet
topr
otec
taga
inst
“evi
leye
”
Pale
osuc
hus
trig
onat
usD
D/I
I—
Schn
eide
r’s
smoo
th-f
ront
edca
iman
,“J
acar
éco
roa”
Fat
Rhe
umat
ism
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 261Ta
ble
1.(C
ontin
ued.
)
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Snak
esB
oida
eB
oaco
nstr
icto
rD
D/I
I—
Boa
,“jib
óia”
Skin
,ta
il,ey
e,he
ad,
faec
es,
fat,
cloa
caan
dte
eth
Rhe
umat
ism
,lu
ngdi
seas
e,th
rom
bosi
s,bo
ils,
tube
rcul
osis
,st
omac
hac
he,e
dem
a,sn
ake
bite
,can
cer,
ache
,sw
ellin
g,to
pre-
vent
abor
t,pa
inin
the
body
,in
flam
mat
ion,
athl
ete’
sfo
ot,
cal-
luse
s,tu
mou
rs,c
rack
sin
the
sole
ofth
efe
et,g
oitr
e,so
reth
roat
,ar
thro
sis,
inse
ctst
ing,
dog
bite
,ery
sipe
las,
thro
mbo
sis,
asth
ma,
neck
stra
in,s
trai
nm
uscl
e
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als,
mag
icsp
ells
,tra
de(a
ttrac
tcos
tum
ers)
,at
trac
tse
xual
part
ners
,am
ulet
topr
otec
taga
inst
“evi
leye
”
Cor
allu
sca
ninu
sD
D/I
I—
Am
eric
anem
eral
dtr
eebo
a,“c
obra
papa
gaio
”W
hole
,fa
tPa
inre
lief
caus
edby
stin
gof
anim
als
Cor
allu
sho
rtol
anus
DD
/II
—Sn
ake
Who
leTo
assi
stin
rem
ovin
gsp
ines
orot
her
shar
pst
ruct
ures
from
the
skin
,rhe
umat
ism
Eun
ecte
sm
urin
usD
D/I
I—
Ana
cond
a,“s
ucur
ujú”
,“su
curi
Skin
,fat
Wou
nds,
skin
prob
lem
s,br
uise
s,sp
rain
s,ar
thro
sis,
rheu
mat
ism
,bo
ils,
sexu
alim
pote
nce,
head
ache
,so
reth
roat
,th
rom
bosi
s,sw
ellin
g,tu
mou
r,as
thm
a,m
uscl
est
rain
,num
bnes
s,sy
phili
s,to
redu
cepa
in,l
uxat
ion
Epi
crat
esce
nchr
iaD
D/I
I—
Bra
zilia
nra
inbo
wbo
a,“s
alam
anta
”W
hole
,Sk
in,f
atR
heum
atis
m,p
ain
inar
ticul
atio
ns,i
njur
ies
caus
edby
itsel
f,so
reth
roat
Col
ubri
dae
Spil
otes
pull
atus
—T
iger
snak
e,ca
nina
naW
hole
Pain
relie
fin
inju
ries
caus
edby
stin
gof
inse
cts
and
snak
ebi
te
Oxy
rhop
ustr
igem
inus
—B
razi
lian
fals
eco
rals
nake
,Tri
colo
rW
hole
Rhe
umat
ism
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als
Phi
lodr
yas
natt
erer
i—C
orre
-cam
poW
hole
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als
262 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274Ta
ble
1.(C
ontin
ued.
)
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Wag
lero
phis
mer
rem
i—
Wag
ler’
ssn
ake,
“foc
inho
-de-
cach
orro
”W
hole
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als
Lep
toph
isah
etul
a—
Parr
otsn
ake,
“cob
raci
pó”
Who
lePa
inre
lief
caus
edby
stin
gof
anim
als
Mas
tigo
drya
sbi
foss
atus
—R
iotr
opic
alra
cer,
“jar
acuç
ú”W
hole
Snak
ebi
tes
Cro
talu
sdu
riss
usD
D/I
II—
Neo
trop
ical
rattl
esna
ke,“
casc
avel
”Sk
in,
tail,
cloa
ca,
rattl
ean
dfa
t
Ast
hma,
snak
ebi
te,t
hrom
bosi
s,w
ound
s,lu
xatio
n,rh
eum
atis
m,
pain
inth
ele
gs,e
rysi
pela
s,de
afne
ss,e
pile
psy,
skin
dise
ases
,tu-
berc
ulos
is,h
anse
nias
is,b
acka
che,
tum
our,
boil,
head
ache
,ear
-ac
he,o
steo
poro
sis,
sore
thro
at,t
ooth
ache
,pai
nre
lief
inin
juri
esca
used
byst
ing
ofin
sect
san
dsn
ake
bite
,tee
thin
g
Afr
o-B
razi
lian
ritu
als,
mag
icsp
ells
,tra
de(a
ttrac
tcos
tum
ers)
,at
trac
tse
xual
part
ners
,am
ulet
topr
otec
taga
inst
“evi
leye
Bot
hrop
sle
ucur
us—
Lan
cehe
ad,
“jar
arac
a”Fa
tT
umou
r,bo
ils
Lac
hesi
sm
uta
—B
ushm
aste
r,“s
uruc
ucu
pico
-de-
jaca
”W
hole
,fa
tR
heum
atis
m,
swel
ling,
tum
our,
boil,
pain
relie
fin
inju
ries
caus
edby
stin
gof
inse
cts
and
snak
ebi
te
Ela
pida
eM
icru
rus
ibib
oboc
a—
Caa
tinga
Cor
alSn
ake,
“Cob
ra-c
oral
”W
hole
Rhe
umat
ism
,sna
kebi
te
Turt
les
and
Tort
oise
sC
helid
aeP
hryn
ops
geof
froa
nus
—G
eoff
roy’
ssi
de-n
ecke
dtu
rtle
,“cá
gado
”Fa
tA
sthm
a,so
reth
roat
,sw
ellin
g,ea
rach
e,rh
eum
atis
m,
arth
rosi
s,he
alin
gof
umbi
lical
cord
ofne
wbo
rnba
by,m
umps
Mes
ocle
mm
ystu
berc
ulat
a—
Tub
ercu
late
toad
head
turt
le,
“cág
ado”
,“cá
gado
-d’á
gua”
Fat
Rhe
umat
ism
,di
scha
rge,
thro
mbo
sis,
bron
chiti
s,di
arrh
oea,
haem
orrh
age,
asth
ma,
sore
thro
at,h
oars
enes
s
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 263
Tabl
e1.
(Con
tinue
d.)
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Che
loni
idae
Car
etta
care
tta
VU
/I—
Log
gerh
ead
turt
le,“
tart
arug
aca
beçu
da”
Fat
Inju
ries
caus
edby
bang
,to
otha
che,
diab
etes
,he
adac
he,
back
-ac
he,w
ound
s,co
ugh,
bron
chiti
s,as
thm
a,th
rom
bosi
s,rh
eum
atis
m,
stro
ke,h
oars
enes
s,flu
,bac
kach
e,ea
rach
e,so
reth
roat
,sw
ellin
g
Che
loni
am
ydas
VU
/I—
Gre
ense
atu
rtle
,“ta
rtar
uga
verd
e”,“
arua
nã”
Fat
Inju
ries
caus
edby
bang
,too
thac
he,d
iabe
tes,
head
ache
,bac
kach
e,w
ound
s,co
ugh,
bron
chiti
s,as
thm
a,flu
,th
rom
bosi
s,rh
eum
atis
m,
stro
ke,h
oars
enes
s,ea
rach
e,so
reth
roat
,sw
ellin
g,w
hoop
ing
coug
h,ar
thri
tis,e
rysi
pela
s,bo
il,ar
thro
sis,
infla
mm
atio
n
Ere
tmoc
hely
sim
bric
ata
EN
/I—
Atla
ntic
haw
ksbi
ll,“t
arta
ruga
depe
nte”
Fat
Inju
ries
caus
edby
bang
,too
thac
he,d
iabe
tes,
head
ache
,bac
kach
e,w
ound
s,co
ugh,
bron
chiti
s,as
thm
a,th
rom
bosi
s,st
roke
,hoa
rsen
ess,
flu,r
heum
atis
m,e
arac
he,s
ore
thro
at,s
wel
ling
Lep
idoc
hely
sol
ivac
eaE
M/I
—O
live
ridl
eyse
atu
rtle
,tar
taru
gave
rde
Fat
Inju
ries
caus
edby
bang
,too
thac
he,d
iabe
tes,
head
ache
,bac
kach
e,w
ound
s,co
ugh,
flu,
bron
chiti
s,as
thm
a,th
rom
bosi
s,rh
eum
atis
m,
stro
ke,h
oars
enes
s
Der
moc
hely
idae
Der
moc
hely
sco
riac
eaC
R/I
—L
eath
erba
cktu
rtle
,“ta
rtar
uga
deco
uro”
Fat,
oil
from
skin
Rhe
umat
ism
,ear
ache
,sor
eth
roat
,sw
ellin
g
Geo
emyd
idae
Rhi
nocl
emm
yspu
nctu
lari
a—
Spot
-leg
ged
turt
leFa
tW
ound
s,tu
mou
r,er
ysip
elas
,ear
ache
,rhe
umat
ism
Toca
lman
aggr
essi
vepe
rson
264 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274Ta
ble
1.(C
ontin
ued.
)
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Test
udin
idae
Che
lono
idis
carb
onar
iaD
D/I
I—
Red
-foo
ted
tort
oise
,“ja
buti”
Fat,
head
,sk
in
Cat
arrh
,er
ysip
elas
,br
onch
itis,
tost
opth
ese
nsat
ion
toge
tting
thir
sty,
asth
ma
Toca
lman
aggr
essi
vepe
rson
orea
seth
ean
ger
ofso
meo
nebe
-tr
ayed
byth
eir
wif
eor
husb
and
Che
lono
idis
dent
icul
ata
VU
/II
—Y
ello
w-f
oote
dto
rtoi
se,“
jabu
ti”Fa
t,he
ad,
skin
Sore
thro
at,r
heum
atis
m,h
erni
a,w
ound
s,le
ishm
ania
sis,
vari
co-
cele
,ear
ache
Toca
lman
aggr
essi
vepe
rson
orea
seth
ean
ger
ofso
meo
nebe
-tr
ayed
byth
eir
wif
eor
husb
and
Podo
cnem
idid
aePo
docn
emis
expa
nsa
LR
/II
—A
maz
onri
ver
turt
le,“
tart
arug
ada
amaz
ônia
”Fa
t,eg
gssh
ells
Infla
mm
atio
n,ac
ne,t
umou
r,bo
il,rh
eum
atis
m,p
tery
gium
,ski
nsp
ots,
back
ache
,ear
ache
,art
hros
is,a
rthr
itis,
swel
ling,
wri
nkle
Podo
cnem
isun
ifili
sV
U/I
I—
Yel
low
-sp
otte
dri
ver
turt
le,“
trac
ajá”
Fat
Wou
nds,
tum
our,
erys
ipel
as,e
arac
he,r
heum
atis
m
Podo
cnem
isse
xtub
ercu
lata
—Si
x-tu
berc
led
Am
azon
rive
rtu
rtle
Fat
Bla
ckhe
ad,a
cne
Pelt
ocep
halu
sdu
mer
ilia
naSc
hwei
gger
1812
—“C
abeç
uda”
Fat
Bla
ckhe
ad,a
cne
Liz
ards
Igua
nida
eIg
uana
igua
naD
D/I
I—
Com
mon
igua
na,“
cam
aleã
o”B
one,
fat,
tail
Ear
ache
,er
ysip
elas
,as
thm
a,rh
eum
atis
m,
edem
a,ab
sces
ses,
join
tpa
in,
wou
nds,
acne
,at
hlet
e’s
foot
,so
reth
roat
,sw
ellin
g,bu
rn,t
umou
r,to
assi
stin
rem
ovin
gsp
ines
orot
her
shar
pst
ruc-
ture
sfr
omth
esk
in,
boil,
inju
ries
caus
edby
the
spin
esof
the
‘arr
aia’
and
othe
rsfis
hes,
infla
mm
atio
n,he
rnia
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 265
Tabl
e1.
(Con
tinue
d.)
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Teiid
aeA
mei
vaam
eiva
—gi
ant
amei
va,
“sar
dão
gran
de”
Who
leIn
flam
mat
ion,
derm
atiti
s,ve
nere
aldi
seas
es,s
nake
bite
s
Cne
mid
opho
rus
gr.o
cell
ifer
—L
izar
d,“s
ardã
ope
quen
o”W
hole
Infla
mm
atio
n,de
rmat
itis,
vene
real
dise
ases
,sna
kebi
tes
Tupi
nam
bis
mer
iana
eD
D/I
I—
Liz
ard,
“teg
u”,“
teju
açú”
Fat,
tong
ue,
skin
Ear
ache
,de
afne
ss,
rheu
mat
ism
,er
ysip
elas
,sk
inth
orns
and
wou
nds,
resp
irat
ory
dise
ases
,so
reth
roat
,sn
ake
bite
,as
thm
a,tu
-m
our,
swel
ling,
infe
ctio
n,br
onch
itis
Tupi
nam
bis
tegu
ixin
DD
/II
—L
izar
d,“t
egu”
,“te
juaç
ú”Fa
t,to
ngue
,sk
in
Sexu
alim
pote
nce,
rheu
mat
ism
,ery
sipe
las,
derm
atiti
s,sn
ake
bite
s,as
thm
a,te
tanu
s,ea
rach
e,th
rom
bosi
s,w
ound
s,pa
nari
s,sw
ellin
g,he
rpes
zost
er,
teet
hing
,ja
undi
ce,
infla
mm
atio
n,tu
mou
r,so
reth
roat
,in
fect
ion,
bron
chiti
s,in
juri
esca
used
byth
esp
ines
ofth
e‘a
rrai
a’,
pain
relie
fin
inju
ries
caus
edby
snak
ebi
tes,
toot
hach
e,su
cka
splin
ter
outo
fsk
inor
fres
h,he
adac
he,c
ough
,str
oke,
coar
seth
roat
266 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274
Tabl
e1.
(Con
tinue
d.)
Fam
ily/S
peci
es/lo
caln
ame
Part
sM
edic
inal
use
(Dis
ease
orill
ness
)M
agic
—re
ligio
usus
e
Tro
pidu
rida
eTr
opid
urus
hisp
idus
—L
izar
d,“l
agar
tixa”
,“ca
teng
a”W
hole
Alc
ohol
ism
,de
rmat
omyc
osis
,w
arts
,ab
sces
ses,
boils
,so
reth
roat
,ery
sipe
las,
heal
ing
ofum
bilic
alco
rdof
new
born
baby
Trop
idur
usse
mit
aeni
atus
—L
izar
d,“l
agar
tixa-
de-l
ajed
o”W
hole
Mea
sles
,ast
hma,
alco
holis
m,d
erm
atom
ycos
is,w
arts
Trop
idur
usto
rqua
tus
—L
izar
d,“l
agar
tixa”
Who
leC
hick
enpo
x
Ura
nosc
odon
supe
rcil
iosu
s,“t
amaq
uaré
”W
hole
As
ase
dativ
eTo
calm
anag
gres
sive
pers
onor
ease
the
ange
rof
som
eone
be-
tray
edby
thei
rw
ife
orhu
sban
dG
ekko
nida
eH
emid
acty
lus
mab
ouia
—A
fro-
Am
eric
anho
use
geck
o,“l
agar
tixa”
,“br
iba”
Who
leSo
reth
roat
Cat
egor
ies
ofIU
CN
Red
Lis
t:C
R—
Cri
tical
lyen
dang
ered
,EN
—E
ndan
gere
d,V
U—
Vul
nera
ble,
LR
—L
ower
risk
,DD
—D
efici
entd
ata
and
NE
—N
ote
Eva
luat
ed,C
ITE
SA
ppen
dix
(I,I
Ian
dII
I),I
N—
Ane
xo2
—In
stru
ção
Nor
mat
iva
n.5/
2004
/MM
A.
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 267
Medicinal uses
An analysis of historical documents indicated that reptiles have been used in tra-ditional medicines in Brazil since the beginning of colonization (see Silva et al.,2004; Almeida, 2005; Alves et al., 2007a). For example, during his voyage throughthe interior of Brazil in the nineteenth century, Von Martius (1939) recorded manynatural medicines used by the Amerindian tribes he encountered, such as freshfat of a caiman applied to alleviate rheumatism (Costa Neto, 2005). Even today,caiman fat (Cayman latirostris, Melanosuchus niger and Paleosuchus palpebrosus)is used in rural and urban communities to treat rheumatism (Alves and Rosa, 2006,2007a,b). Some examples of reptiles that have been used in Brazil since colonialtimes include: Iguana iguana, Caiman latirostris, Crotalus durissus, and Micrurusibiboboca.
Reptiles are used to treat approximately 100 illnesses. Thirty-three species havemultiple therapeutic uses, which were prescribed to treat various diseases, whiledifferent reptiles can likewise be used to treat the same illnesses. Products derivedfrom Tupinambis merianae and T. teguixin, for instance, were indicated for treating8 and 18 conditions, respectively, and medicinal products of Eunectes murinus werementioned as useful in the treatment of wounds, skin problems, bruises, sprains,arthrosis, rheumatism, boils, sexual impotence, headache, sore throat, thrombosis,swelling, tumour, asthma, muscle strain, numbness, syphilis, to reduce pain, luxa-tion (Alves et al., 2007a).
Different ways of preparing and administering animal remedies were recorded.Hard parts, such as bones, rattles from snakes and skin generally are sun-dried,grated and crushed to powder, being then administered as tea or taken during meals,while fat and oil are either ingested or used as an ointment, in according to diseasetreated (Alves and Rosa, 2006; Alves et al., 2007).
Human societies often have elaborate typical cultural beliefs, values, and cus-toms regarding wildlife, including reptiles. Besides their role in healing, naturalproducts frequently have magical-religious significance, reflecting the differentviews of health and disease that exist within different cultures. Brazilian traditionalhealing is intertwined with cultural and religious beliefs, and is holistic in nature.The influence of magical beliefs integrated into traditional medicine in Brazil isapparent, and zootherapeutic practices are closely connected with Afro-Brazilianreligions (which have also incorporated elements from indigenous peoples). Rep-tiles are employed within a magical-prophylactic perspective, with the purpose ofwarding off diseases of ‘unnatural’ origin — a practice that encompasses percep-tions related to the belief that supernatural forces are involved in causing diseases,as well as in their treatment. In this context, animal parts are used to prepare clinicalremedies as well as to make amulets or charms used in magical/religious diag-noses. Popular beliefs usually affect the way species are used in zootherapy (Alvesand Rosa, 2006). One form of spiritual treatment involves the use of amulets con-taining reptile parts to protect the user from the ‘evil-eye’ or from diseases (Alvesand Pereira-Filho, 2007). An example is caiman teeth (C. latirostris, M. niger, and
268 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274
P. palpebrosus) used as protection against snake bites (Costa Neto, 2005; Alves etal., 2007a).
Magic religious uses
A variety of wild animals form an integral part of cultural and religious festivalsand ceremonies, some of which seek to promote the good health of local peo-ple and their communities (Ajayi, 1978). During the performance of some ritualsand festivals, for example, certain species may be sacrificed (Adeola, 1992). Rep-tiles are commonly associated to myths in faiths in different countries and alsoused in magic-religious rituals. A good example is the serpent’s cult practice thatpersists in India, central Africa, Oceanic people, Greece, Egypt, Rome and East.The people venerate the proper serpent, serpentiforms illustrations or related to it,ofidaeform gods, sources protectors, representatives of earth fecundity, terrestrialcreative force, of the hermetic secrets, and the infinite (biting the own tail) (Bie-dermann, 1996). Serpent images appear in several objects worldwide. In equatorialAfrica (Congo to Cameroon) the serpent is the shape of good wise persons, forestspirits lead to the right path (Cascudo, 1988).
In Brazil, at least 13 reptile species were recorded as having magic religioususes (Alves, 2006a; Alves and Pereira Filho, 2007; Alves 2008). Reptiles werecommonly sold in outdoor markets and stores that sell religious articles. Reptileproducts are used mainly by Afro-Brazilian religious followers. The animals areoccasionally sold whole, but mostly cut into pieces (flesh, skin, tail, eyes, head,tooth, cloaca, fat, rattle, carapace) with a single reptile providing many differentraw materials (Alves, 2006a; Alves and Pereira Filho, 2007).
Some reptiles uses for magical-religious purposes recorded in Brazil are sim-ilar to uses in Africa, clearly reflecting an African influence. In the dry regionsof Nigeria, animal products are used in cultural ceremonies (e.g., in funerals orwhen leaders take office), in traditional rites (e.g., to invoke or reconcile with theGods), and have a very significant role in the traditional pharmacopoeia (Adeola,1992). Sodeinde and Soewu (2001) report that in Nigeria animals and their partsare used as charms in ameliorating/treating other conditions. For example, the en-tire Senegal Chameleon Chamaeleo senegalensis making the recipient invincible todetractors/charm. Reptiles and their parts also are used as a sacrifice to appease andinvoke spirits and traditional gods, for example, the head of Python sebae (AfricanPython) is used to invoke and protect against witches. In Brazil, the head of otherBoidae (Boa constrictor) is used for similar purposes.
In addition to whole animals or their parts, other products derived from reptilesare offered for sale in Brazilian cities, principally “águas” (waters) or perfumes and“pó” (dust). The águas or perfumes are products that contain reptiles suspended iningredients such as alcohol, rose water, or solutions containing other plant materi-als. The “waters” or “perfumes” are mixed with water during baths or utilized as aperfume following the bath. It is believed that this procedure will make the bath user
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 269
achieve love and financial success (Alves, 2006a; Alves and Pereira Filho, 2007).The pó is produced from the animals or their parts, which are dried in the sun andthen ground to a fine powder with a mortar and pestle. Reptile species utilized forthe preparation of “waters” or “perfumes” and pó (“dust”) are Boa constrictor, Ura-noscodon superciliosus, Chelonoidis denticulata and C. carbonaria.
Reptiles that move slowly (“lerdos”) are used to calm people (“lerdar”). For ex-ample, the products produced from U. superciliosus (dust and water) are used to“amansar” (to calm an aggressive person or ease the anger of someone betrayed bytheir wife or husband). There is an association between the biological characteris-tics of a lizard and the effects its use is expected to generate (Alves, 2006a; Alves,2008). This observation is similar to that of Radbill (1976) who pointed out thatin homeopathic or imitative magic, it is assumed that certain qualities attributed toanimals can be transferred to humans, and that this transfer can occur by inhalation,ingestion or application of the body parts of those animals.
Another product derived from reptiles and very popular in stores are the “patuás”,a kind of amulet that is hung around the neck, glued on a piece of cloth or kept ina pocket or wallet. They are square or round objects, usually made of leather orsome syntactical material, inside which are put animal parts (pieces of snake skinor a dolphin eye) (Alves and Rosa, 2008). According to the owners of shops inwhich this material is traded these amulets are very popular among custumers thatseek good luck, love and financial success (Alves, 2006a; Alves and Pereira-Filho,2007).
There is a great deal of overlap in the use of species as the same species canbe used for multiple magical religious purposes. For example, B. constrictor canbe sold in parts: skin, tail, cloaca, eyes, head, excrement, fat and teeth and alsoproduces águas and pó with the head or body and use of these products have variousindications, such as success in love, with money, with gambling, travel, and businessdealings (Alves, 2006a; Alves and Pereira-Filho, 2007).
Implications for conservation
Our observations demonstrate that 44 reptile species are used in traditional medi-cine and for magic religious purposes in Brazil and that these are collected from thewild. Of these, 23 (52.3%) are included on endangered species lists. The trade ofmedicinal and magic religious reptiles in urban areas (Freire, 1996; Alves, 2006a;Alves and Pereira-Filho, 2007; Alves and Rosa, 2007b) represents an importantfactor for their over-exploitation. Of the species catalogued in this study, 23 are in-cluded in one of three CITES Appendices (see table), although the reasons for theirinclusion are not necessarily related to medicinal use. These results demonstrate theneed to assess the implications of the trade of reptile used for medicinal or magicreligious purposes on their wild populations, and the need for including such usesin discussions of reptile conservation.
270 R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274
Apparently, the magic and medicinal use of reptiles is not a threat to populationsin Brazil. Although capture for these purposes causes an impact, it seems to be lessserious when compared to habitat degradation and capture of animals for other pur-poses. Marques (1997) highlights the medical potential of the Brazilian fauna andthe possibility of its depletion through overexploitation or even species extinction.
Eleven species are used for medicinal and/or magic religious purposes. Someare also hunted as food and represent important protein sources for the inhabi-tants of rural areas and include Podocnemis expansa, P. unifilis, Chelonia mydas,Chelonoidis denticulata, C. carbonaria, T. merianae, Paleosuchus palpebrosus,P. trigonatus, Melanosuchus niger. In addition, some medicinal reptiles are kept aspets, for instance C. carbonaria, C. denticulata and Boa constrictor. These multipleuses of reptiles and their impact on animal populations must be properly assessed(Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007a) and taken into consideration when implementingrecovery plans for these species, especially those that are highly exploited (Alves etal., 2008b).
Ultimately the most successful conservation programs are those that identify anddeal with the reason a species is endangered and the same time provide economicbenefits to local people (Pough et al., 2004). In that sense, which are the possiblestrategies of management plans and reptiles conservation that can be establishedto minimize the impact of the traditional populations which use several species asfood, medicine and in religious rituals? An alternative proposal can be the creationof cooperatives in rural gatherers communities of reptile breeders for raw mate-rial supplies and products manufacture of medicinal and magic-religious usage.These cooperatives could be part of breeding sites of species such as Podocne-mis expansa, P. unifilis, Chelonia mydas, Chelonoidis denticulata, C. carbonaria,T. merianae, Paleosuchus palpebrosus, P. trigonatus, Boa constrictor, Uranoscodonsuperciliosus, Tupinambis spp. among others, with the appropriate authorizationand regulation of competent governmental bodies, besides a specialists attendancein the area (biologists, veterinarians and zootecnics). An example of a successfulcooperative can be the snake collectors for poison extraction in India (Whitaker,1989).
In addition, the therapeutic indications of wild animals and plants and domesticor cultived species also overlapped in many cases (Alves et al., 2007a). This as-pect opens the possibility of, where suitable, replacing the use of threatened specieswith others in traditional medicine recipes. Such replacement of products is of in-terest from a conservationist perspective, in the context of reducing the pressure onoverexploited populations, or legally protected species (Alves and Rosa, 2007a).Educational programs are also alternatives quite viable, mainly when focused onrural communities where inhabitants eat the reptiles and use in traditional medicineand religious practices. Projects seeking teachers’ formation in those communitiesand the old hunters’ train in sites nearby protected areas helps to minimize the im-pacts upon reptiles. As pointed out by Pough et al. (2004), education is urgentlyneeded at all levels to maintain viable populations of reptiles. Training in areas of
R.R.N. Alves et al. / Applied Herpetology 6 (2009) 257–274 271
habitat protection, wildlife management, and conservation biology is needed, espe-cially in tropical countries where most species of reptiles are found. The successof conservation and management programs ultimately depends on how well theprograms are tailored to the interests and needs of the people on whose land thethreatened or endangered animal live.
The manner in which natural resources are used by human populations and cul-tural norms associated with that use are extremely relevant to the definition ofpossible conservation strategies (Alves et al., 2008b). Gibbons et al. (2000) pointedout that the use of reptiles is an integral part of many cultures. The great diversity ofinteractions between humans and reptiles provide the foundations for the cultural,economic, emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual motivations that determinehow conservation and management activities are designed, conducted, and assessed(Frazier, 2005; Alves et al., 2008b). Hence, an understanding of the cultural, social,and traditional role of these reptiles is fundamental for establishing managementplans directed towards the sustainable use. However, because the information iswidely dispersed, and impacts of different types of human-reptiles interactions haverarely been evaluated in a systematic way, this issue needs much greater attention.
References
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Alakbarli, F. (2006): Medical Manuscripts of Azerbaijan. Baku, Heydar Aliyev Foundation.Almeida, A.V. (2005): Prescrições zooterápicas indígenas brasileiras nas obras de Guilherme Piso
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Received: 23 February 2009.
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