Report on evolution of processor by sandesh agrawal

Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of

Technology and Science, Indore

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

A REPORT ON

EVOLUTION OF PROCESSORS

Submitted on – 3rd April 2014

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY: -

Smt. S.V CHARHATE SANDESH AGRAWAL

Dr. S. K. Jain Roll no. – AB37039

Enroll. No. - 0801EI11047

ii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

Many people have contributed to the success of this. Although a single sentence hardly suffices, I

Sandesh Agrawal, AB37039 would like to thank Almighty God for blessing us with His grace. I

extend my sincere and heartfelt thanks to Mrs. S. V. Charhate (Dean Academics) Electronics and

Telecommunication, for providing us the right ambience for carrying out this work. I am profoundly

indebted to my seminar guide Dr. S. K. Jain for innumerable acts of timely advice, encouragement

and I sincerely express my gratitude to him.

I express my immense pleasure and thankfulness to all the teachers and staff of the

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, SGSITS for their cooperation and support.

Last but not the least, I thank all others, and especially my classmates who in one way or

another helped me in the successful completion of this work.

By-

Sandesh Agrawal (EI 3rd Year)

AB37039

0801EI111047

iii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

ABSTRACT:

The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central

processing unit (CPU). The CPU performs the system’s calculating and processing. The processor is

easily the most expensive single component in the system, costing up to four or more times greater

than the motherboard it plugs into. Intel is generally credited with creating the first microprocessor in

1971 with the introduction of a chip called the 4004. Today Intel still has control over the processor

market, at least for PC systems. This means that all PC-compatible systems use either Intel

processors or Intel-compatible processors from a handful of competitors (such as AMD or Cyrix).

Intel’s dominance in the processor market had not always been assured. It is generally credited

with inventing the processor. It is interesting to note that the microprocessor had only existed for 10

years prior to the creation of the PC! The microprocessor was invented by Intel in 1971. The PC was

created by IBM in 1981. Now nearly 20 years later, we are still using systems based more or less on

the design of that first PC (and mostly backward compatible with it). The processors powering our

PCs today are still backward compatible in many ways with the 8088 selected by IBM in 1981.

Processors can be identified by two main parameters: how wide they are and how fast they are. The

speed of a processor is a fairly simple concept. Speed is counted in megahertz (MHz), which means

millions of cycles per second—and faster is better! The width of a processor is a little more

complicated to discuss because there are three main specifications in a processor that are expressed in

width. They are

l. Internal registers

2. Data input and output bus

3. Memory address bus

Systems below 16MHz usually had no cache memory at all. Starting with 16MHz systems, high-

speed cache memory appeared on the motherboard because the main memory at the time could not

run at 16MHz.

Microprocessors are mainly found in 4, 8, 16, 20, 32, 64-bit configuration. Many embedded uses of

4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon

after. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose

microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.

Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors. These include large

and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment units), car keys, tools and test

instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi

audio/visual components (from DVD players to phonograph turntables). Such products as cellular

telephones, DVD video system and HDTV broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with

powerful, low-cost, microprocessors.

iv SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Table of Contents:-

1. Introduction iv

2. Microprocessor v

2.1. Definition

2.2. block diagram

2.3. Microprocessor based system

3. Microcontroller viii

3.1. Definition

3.2. Block diagram

3.3. Basic difference between microcontroller & microprocessor

4. Memory ix

4.1. Types of Memory

4.2. Description in brief

5. Evolution of computer xi

5.1. Mechanical

5.2. 1st generation- “Vacuum tubes”

5.3. 2nd generation – “transistors”

5.4. 3rd generation – “IC”

5.5. 4th generation – “Microprocessor”

6. Description of Each microprocessor xiii

7. Various facts regarding Microprocessor xx

8. Future xxi

9. Conclusion & Recommendation xxi

10. Bibliography xxii

11. Appendix: Year-wise table for evolution of Intel microprocessor xxiii

v SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

INTRODUCTION:-

If we take a look around us, we would be sure to find a device that uses a microprocessor in some

form or the other. Microprocessors have become a part of our daily lives and it would be difficult to

imagine life without them today. From digital wrist watches, to pocket calculators, from microwaves,

to cars, toys, security systems, navigation, to credit cards, microprocessors are ubiquitous. All this

has been made possible by remarkable developments in semiconductor technology enabling in the

last 30 years, enabling the implementation of ideas that were previously beyond the average

computer architect’s grasp.

The basic evolution in microprocessor was came in to known with the invention of Intel 4004,

The 4004 processor was introduced on November 15, 1971, and originally ran at a clock speed of

108KHz (108,000 cycles per second, or just over one-tenth a megahertz). The 4004 contained 2,300

transistors and was built on a 10 micron process. And then in April 1972, Intel released the 8008

processor, after this various 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit and various dual core Pentium, Celeron

processors. But there is a big question.

What was before microprocessor??

We will also come to learn this thing in our syllabus. We will start our discussion with mechanical

age, followed by 1st, 2nd, 3rd and present generation.

I have said lot of things regarding microprocessor and its evolution but beginners have a lot of

questions which are related to basics of microprocessor, they also have various questions like – what

is microprocessor ?, what is the difference between microprocessor and microcontroller? How

many types of memory exist? How microprocessor’s programming is done? And a lot of questions,

queries.

So we will also cover some of these questions, some in detail and some in brief, depending upon

the requirements. While discussing regarding evolution we will restrict ourselves to some Intel’s

microprocessors including Pentium series, Celeron series etc. and will touch to some of the

processors which are being produce by AMD, it is because only if we look around us we will found

most are Intel processor, mostly used in laptops like i3, i5, i7 processor. AMD processors are also

seen in the market.

vi SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Microprocessor

A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a

single integrated circuit (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits. All modern CPUs are

microprocessors making the micro- prefix redundant.

Definition- The microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as

input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output.

It is an example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on

numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system.

The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society. General-

purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia

display, and communication over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part of embedded

systems, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular

phones and industrial process control.

In the NASA Apollo space missions to the moon in the 1960s and 1970s, all onboard computations

for primary guidance, navigation and control were provided by a small custom processor called

"The Apollo Guidance Computer". It used wire wrap circuit boards whose only logic

elements neither were three-input NOR gates.[1]

The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of

processing power. The integrated circuit processor was produced in large numbers by highly

automated processes, so unit cost was low. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are

many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get faster, the cost of

manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size)

generally stays the same.

Microprocessors integrated into one or a few large-scale ICs the architectures that had previously

been implemented using many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Continued increases in

microprocessor capacity have rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete

(see history of computing hardware), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the

smallest embedded systems and handheld devices to the largest mainframes and supercomputers.

The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used for electronic calculators,

using binary-coded decimal (BCD) arithmetic on 4-bit words. Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit

microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after.

Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose

microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.

vii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

BLOCK DIAGRAM

A simple block diagram is shown in the figure which is clearly showing all the parts of a

microprocessor-

Microprocessor Based System:-

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU is one of the basic units of a microprocessor. All the computing functions are maintained in this

unit. As the name shows, the ALU can perform all the arithmetic operations (,-,*, /, %, etc) and all

logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc).

Control Unit (CU)

Control unit is another important part of a microprocessor. The CPU’s control unit coordinates and

times the CPU’s functions, and it uses the program counter to locate and retrieve the next instruction

viii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

from memory. Another purpose of control unit is, controlling the data flow between microprocessor

and peripheral devices/peripheral chips.

Registers

Registers are the important section of microprocessor chip. Registers are primarily used to store the

data temporarily during the execution/runtime of the program. A microprocessor contains several

kinds of registers that can be classified according to the instructions provided to the processor. These

instructions are called instruction sets. The registers are basically 8bit, 16bit or 32 bit according to the

type. Registers can easily accessible to the user by using various commands (instructions). Some

registers are used to store address of memory locations that can be easily accessed by the

microprocessor.

Memory

As in the name shows, memory are used to store the information (data & instructions) as in the binary

form. According to this binary information’s, a microprocessor perform its operation during the

execution period.

ix SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Microcontroller

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a

single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and

programmable input/output peripherals. Programmer memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP

ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers

are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal

computers or other general purpose applications. Micro-controllers may not implement an external

address or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU.

Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.

General Block diagram

As we will see over block diagram we will found that CPU, memory, and various I/O functions are

inbuilt to Microcontroller.

x SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Difference between Microprocessor and microcontroller:-

MEMORY

Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data

(e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or

other digital electronic device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical

systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are

physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory

capacity. Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual memory". An archaic

synonym for memory is store [2].

xi SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Types of memory

Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory is internal memory of the computer. RAM AND ROM both form part of primary

memory. The primary memory provides main working space to the computer. The following terms

comes under primary memory of a computer are discussed below:

Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory

(RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store

and retrieve data.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the

ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent.

The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the

personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic

input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached

to the PC when the power switch is ON. The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of

power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.

PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read

Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM,

but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip.

xii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the problem

of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information

stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light

and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use

information can only be read.

Evolution of processor:

Mechanical Computers

A French engineer by the name of ‘Blaise Pascal’ built the first working mechanical computer. This

device was made completely from gears and was operated using hand cranks. This machine was

capable of simple addition and subtraction, but a few years later, a German mathematician by the

name of Leibniz made a similar machine that could multiply and divide as well. After about 150

years, a mathematician at Cambridge, Charles Babbage made his Difference Engine. This was

primarily used to computer navigational charts, but could only add or subtract. This machine was

designed to run a single algorithm and output the result by punching it into a copper engravers 4

plate. He then began to design the successor, the Analytical machine. This device had memory, a

computational unit, input subsystems (card reader) and output systems (card puncher and printed

output). The advantage of this machine was that it was the first general-purpose machine. It could

read instructions from punched cards and then carried them out. Since this was one of the first

rudimentary programmable machines, it needed assembly software [3]

1st Generation – “Vacuum Tubes”

The first vacuum tube machine was the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). It

consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1500 relays. Architecturally, the machine had 20 registers,

each capable of holding a 10 digit decimal number. Programming this behemoth was a herculean

task; one had to set up 6000 multi-position switches and connect a multitude of sockets with jumper

cables. This was followed by a myriad of other such machines including EDSAC, EDVAC.

However, one of the most important inventions of the time was by Jon Von Neumann, who figured

out that programming computers with huge number of switches and cables was slow and inflexible.

He came to realize that the program could be represented in digital form in the computer memory,

along with the data. He also figured that data could be manipulated in parallel rather than in series.

The basic design, which he first described, is known as the Von Neumann machine. It was first used

xiii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

in the EDSAC, the first stored program computer, and is still the basis for nearly all digital

computers, even now, more than half a century later [4]

2nd Generation- “Transistors”

The transistor was invented at Bell labs in 1948. Within 10 years the transistor revolutionized

computers, and by the late 50’s, vacuum tube computers were obsolete. The first of these devices

were built at Lincoln Lab, MIT, called the TX-0 (Transistorized Experimental Computer – 0). Ken

Olsen, one of the engineers working at this lab, formed a company, Digital Equipment Corporation

(DEC) in ’57 and in ’61 rolled out the PDP-1 the transistorized successor to the 709, the fastest

computer in the world at the time. The PDP-1 cost $120,000; a direct result of the PDP-1 was a visual

display and the ability to plot points anywhere on its 512 by 512 screen [3]. Within a few years, DEC

released the PDP-8, a 12-bit machine, much cheaper than its predecessor, but with one important new

invention: a single bus or ‘omnibus’ as they called it, a collection of parallel wires used to connect

the components of the machine.

3rd Generation – “Integrated Circuits (IC)”

With the invention of the IC, it was possible to make processors smaller, faster and cheaper than with

transistors. IBM introduced its System 360 series of machines based on integrated circuits. These

systems were designed so that they could perform both scientific as well as business calculations,

since the entire family shared the same assembly language. Therefore commercial computing could

be performed on low end System /360 Model 30’s while scientific computing could be performed on

higher end System /360 Model 75’s. [5].

4th Generation – “VLSI (Microprocessor)”

When the IC was invented, it was feasible to put dozens of transistors on a single chip, but as time

passed by, a few dozen became thousands, and tens of thousands and soon millions of transistors

could be fit on a single chip. This allowed for more complex microprocessor design and faster

processors. By the 80’s, the prices for the processors had dropped so low, that even individuals could

afford small personal computers or PCs. Intel’s 8088 was the processor of choice and they built the

machine from commercially available parts, introduced in 1981 and instantly became one of the best

selling computer in history. However, in an effort to push the sales of PCs even further by allowing

other companies to make plug in boards for the IBM PC, they committed one of the biggest blunders

xiv SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

in computing history. They published the entire plans and circuit diagrams and sold it for $49. Since

the design was now completely public, other small companies started to build clone machines and

thus the IBM PC clone market was born. Other companies also started to sell machines some of the

interesting ones have been by Apple, Amiga, Commodore and Atari. However, the IBM PC was so

popular, that others found it difficult to compete. The IBM PC’s came with MS DOS installed,

supplied by Microsoft, together forming an alliance that has revolutionized home computing, as we

know it. What was earlier an entire machine can now be fit into a small part of a microprocessor. In

1965, Gordon Moore had postulated that the power of these microprocessors would grow

exponentially, doubling every two years. This law, better known as Moore’s law has, has more or

less been accurate till this date in predicting microprocessor complexity and power.

Description of microprocessors

INTEL 4004

The 4004 processor was introduced on November 15, 1971, and originally ran at a clock speed of 108

KHz (108,000 cycles per second, or just over one-tenth a megahertz). The 4004 contained 2,300

transistors and was built on a 10 micron process. This means that each line, trace, or transistor could

be spaced about 10 microns (millionths of a meter) apart. Data was transferred four bits at a time, and

the maximum addressable memory was only 640 bytes. The 4004 was designed for use in a

calculator, but proved to be useful for many other functions because of its inherent programmability

xv SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Intel 8008

In April 1972, Intel released the 8008 processor, which originally ran at a clock speed of 200 KHz

(0.2MHz). The 8008 processor contained 3,500 transistors and was built on the same 10 micron

process as the previous processor. The big change in the 8008 was that it had an 8-bit data bus, which

meant it could move data 8 bits at a time—twice as much as the previous chip. It could also address

more memory, up to 16KB. This chip was primarily used in dumb terminals and general-purpose

calculators.

Intel 8080

Introduced in April 1974, running at a clock rate of 2MHz. due mostly to the faster clock rate, the

8080 processor had 10 times the performance of the 8008. The 8080 chip contained 6,000 transistors

and was built on a 6 micron process. Like the previous chip, the 8080 had an 8-bit data bus, so it

could transfer 8 bits of data at a time. The 8080 could address up to 64KB of memory, significantly

more than the previous chip. It was the 8080 that helped start the PC revolution, as this was the

processor chip used in what is generally regarded as the first personal computer, the Altair 8800. The

CP/M operating system was written for the 8080 chip, and Microsoft was founded and delivered its

first product: Microsoft BASIC for the Altair. These initial tools provided the foundation for a

revolution in software because thousands of programs were written to run on this platform. In fact,

the 8080 became so popular that it was cloned. A company called Zilog formed in late 1975, joined

by several ex-Intel 8080 engineers. In July of 1976, it released the Z-80 processor, which was a

vastly improved version of the 8080. It was not pin compatible, but instead combined functions such

as the memory interface and RAM refresh circuitry, which allowed cheaper and simpler systems to

be designed. The Z-80 also incorporated a superset of 8080 instructions, meaning it could run all

8080 programs. It also included new instructions and new internal registers, so software that was

designed for the Z-80 would not necessarily run on the older 8080. The Z-80 ran initially at 2.5MHz

(later versions ran up to 10MHz), and contained 8,500 transistors. The Z-80 could access 64KB of

memory.

Intel 8085

Intel released the 8085, its follow up to the 8080, in March of 1976. Even though it predated the Z-80

by several months, it never achieved the popularity of the Z-80 in personal computer systems. It was

xvi SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

popular as an embedded controller, finding use in scales and other computerized equipment. The

8085 ran at 5MHz and contained 6,500 transistors. It was built on a 3-micron process and

incorporated an 8-bit data bus.

Intel 8086

Intel introduced the 8086 in June 1978.The 8086 chip brought with it the original x86 instruction set

that is still present on x86-compatiblechips such as the Pentium III. A dramatic improvement over the

previous chips, the 8086 was a full16-bit design with 16-bit internal registers and a 16-bit data bus.

This meant that it could work on 16-bit numbers and data internally and also transfer 16-bits at a time

in and out of the chip. The 8086contained 29,000 transistors and initially ran at up to 5MHz. The chip

also used 20-bit addressing, meaning it could directly address up to 1MB of memory. Although not

directly backward compatible with the 8080, the 8086 instructions and language was very similar and

allowed older programs to be ported over quickly to run. This later proved important to help

jumpstart the PC software revolution with recycled CP/M (8080) software. Although the 8086 was a

great chip, it was expensive at the time and more importantly required inexpensive 16-bit support

chip and board design. To help bring costs down, in 1979, Intel released crippled version of the 8086

called the 8088. The 8088 processor used the same internal core as the8086, had the same 16-bit

registers, and could address the same 1MB of memory, but the external data bus was reduced to 8

bits. This allowed support chips from the older 8-bit 8085 to be used, and far less expensive boards

and systems could be made. It is for these reasons that IBM chose the crippled chip, the 8088, for the

first PC. This decision would affect history in several ways. The 8088 was fully software compatible

with the8086, so it could run 16-bit software. Also, because the instruction set was very similar to the

previous 8085 and 8080, programs written for those older chips could be quickly and easily modified

to run. This allowed a large library of programs to be quickly released for the IBM PC, thus helping it

become a success. The overwhelming blockbuster success of the IBM PC left in its wake the legacy

of requiring backward compatibility with it. In order to maintain the momentum, Intel has pretty

much been forced to maintain backward compatibility with the 8088/8086 in most of the processors it

has released since then.

Intel 80286

Introduced February 2, 1982

xvii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Clock rates:

6 MHz with 0.9 MIPS

8 MHz, 10 MHz with 1.5 MIPS

12.5 MHz with 2.66 MIPS

16 MHz, 20 MHz and 25 MHz available.

Bus width: 16 bits data, 24 bits address.

Included memory protection hardware to support multitasking operating systems with per-

process address space.

Number of transistors 134,000 at 1.5 μm

Addressable memory 16 MB

Added protected-mode features to 8086 with essentially the same instruction set

3–6X the performance of the 8086

Widely used in IBM-PC AT and AT clones contemporary to it.

Intel 80386

Introduced October 17, 1985

Clock rates:

16 MHz with 5 MIPS

20 MHz with 6 to 7 MIPS, introduced February 16, 1987

25 MHz with 7.5 MIPS, introduced April 4, 1988

33 MHz with 9.9 MIPS (9.4 SPECint92 on Compaq/i 16K L2), introduced April 10,

1989

Bus width 32 bits data, 32 bits address

Number of transistors 275,000 at 1 μm

Addressable memory 4 GB

Virtual memory 64 TB

First x86 chip to handle 32-bit data sets

Reworked and expanded memory protection support including paged virtual memory and

virtual-86 mode, features required at the time by Xenix and UNIX. This memory

xviii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

capability spurred the development and availability of OS/2 and is a fundamental

requirement for modern operating systems like Linux, Windows, and OS X.

Used in desktop computing

Pentium Pro

Introduced November 1, 1995

Precursor to Pentium II and III

Primarily used in server system

Socket 8 processor package (387 pins) (Dual SPGA)

Number of transistors 5.5 million

Family 6 model 1

256 KB integrated L2 cache

60 MHz system bus clock rate

Pentium II

Introduced May 7, 1997

Pentium Pro with MMX and improved 16-bit performance

242-pin Slot 1 (SEC) processor package

Voltage identification pins

Number of transistors 7.5 million

32 KB L1 cache

512 KB ½ bandwidth external L2 cache

The only Pentium II that did not have the L2 cache at ½ bandwidth of the core was the

Pentium II 450 PE.

Pentium III

Katmai – 0.25 μm process technology

Introduced February 26, 1999

Improved PII, i.e. P6-based core, now including Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

xix SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Number of transistors 9.5 million

512 KB ½ bandwidth L2 External cache

242-pin Slot 1 SECC2 (Single Edge Contact cartridge 2) processor package

System Bus clock rate 100 MHz, 133 MHz (B-models)

450, 500 MHz Introduced February 26, 1999

550 MHz Introduced May 17, 1999

600 MHz Introduced August 2, 1999

533, 600 MHz Introduced (133 MHz bus clock rate) September 27, 1999

Coppermine – 0.18 μm process technology

Introduced October 25, 1999

Number of transistors 28.1 million

256 KB Advanced Transfer L2 Cache (Integrated)

242-pin Slot-1 SECC2 (Single Edge Contact cartridge 2) processor package, 370-pin FC-

PGA (Flip-chip pin grid array) package

System Bus clock rate 100 MHz (E-models), 133 MHz (EB models)

Slot 1, Socket 370

Intel Pentium

Clarkdale – 32 nm process technology

2 physical cores/2 threads

3 MB L3 cache

Introduced January 2010

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Integrated HD GPU

Variants

G6950 – 2.8 GHz (no Hyper-Threading)[7]

G6960 – 2.933 GHz (no Hyper-Threading)

xx SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Core i3

Clarkdale – 32 nm process technology

2 physical cores/4 threads

64 Kb L1 cache

512 Kb L2 cache

4 MB L3 cache

Introduced January, 2010

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Integrated HD GPU

Variants

530 – 2.93 GHz Hyper-Threading

540 – 3.06 GHz Hyper-Threading

550 – 3.2 GHz Hyper-Threading

560 – 3.33 GHz Hyper-Threading

Core i5

Lynnfield – 45 nm process technology

4 physical cores

32+32 Kb (per core) L1 cache

256 Kb (per core) L2 cache

8 MB common L3 cache

Introduced September 8, 2009

Family 6 Model E (Ext. Model 1E)

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Variants

xxi SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

750S – 2.40 GHz/3.20 GHz Turbo Boost

750 – 2.66 GHz/3.20 GHz Turbo Boost

760 – 2.80 GHz/3.33 GHz Turbo Boost

Clarkdale – 32 nm process technology

2 physical cores/4 threads

64 Kb L1 cache

512 Kb L2 cache

4 MB L3 cache

Introduced January, 2010

Socket 1156 LGA

2-channel DDR3

Integrated HD GPU

AES Support

Various facts regarding Microprocessor

In 2003, about US$44 billion worth of microprocessors were manufactured and

sold.[6] Although about half of that money was spent on CPUs used in desktop or

laptop personal computer, those count for only about 2% of all CPUs sold.[7]

About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are 8-bit microcontrollers, over two billion of which

were sold in 1997.[8]

As of 2002, less than 10% of all the CPUs sold in the world are 32-bit or more. Of all the 32-

bit CPUs sold, about 2% are used in desktop or laptop personal computers. Most

microprocessors are used in embedded control applications such as household appliances,

automobiles, and computer peripherals. Taken as a whole, the average price for a

microprocessor, microcontroller, or DSP is just over $6.[7]

About ten billion CPUs were manufactured in 2008. About 98% of new CPUs produced each

year are embedded.[9]

xxii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

Future

There may be less cores and less GHz! However, there will be more GPU power. The most

advanced games will require less CPU power, but more GPU power.

It's possible in the future multiple processors could be getting used instead of a single

processor, like some servers do, but that's not a change in the processor itself, so much as

motherboard and OS

Currently Intel is working with new materials (not silicon) to make CPUs. Carbon structured

materials like Nano-tubes are being worked with to reduce wire sizes (which are already

microscopic) and improve efficiency to make CPUs either smaller or far more powerful.

Tomorrow's machines won't just be faster – they may be radically different. By aping how the

brain works or making use of sci-fi grade goo, tomorrow's computers will likely be

unrecognisably by today's standards and definitions. In 25 years' time we may look back on

silicon in the same way we now regard Babbage's Difference Engine.

Conclusion

New applications that make use of voice recognition, and image recognition use a lot of

computational power. These kinds of applications have not been the research focus in the past in

academia, where the focus is more on scientific and heavy engineering workloads. Indeed, ENIAC,

one of the earliest computers was built to calculate missile trajectories, but now the focus of

computing has shifted to non-scientific areas such as multimedia and graphics. The thinking in

academia is still influenced by this early history and has led to the development of research areas that

may not be the most relevant today. Future research in microprocessor architecture should span a

wide variety of subjects, from incremental improvement in design and fabrication to revolutionary

new designs and architectures. Parallelism, an area of research that has been already explored

widely, has had mixed results. Although these machines are not difficult to build, the difficulty in

programming has presented a formidable barrier to the use of massively parallel processors.

xxiii SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

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7. Turley, Jim (18 December 2002). "The Two Percent Solution". Embedded Systems Design.

TechInsights (United Business Media). Retrieved 2009-12-23.

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xxiv SGSITS, Indore [Evolution of Processors]

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