Report No. 14767-UNI Nigeria Impact Evaluation Report€¦ · Report No. 14767-UNI Nigeria Impact Evaluation Report Kano Agricultural Development Project ... Currency Unit = Naira

Report No. 14767-UNI

NigeriaImpact Evaluation ReportKano Agricultural Development Project (Loan 1 982-UNI)Sokoto Agricultural Development Project (Loan 2185-UNI)June 29, 1995

Operations Evaluation Department

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Currency Equivalents

Currency Unit = Naira (N)

1980 US$1.00 N 0.551981 US$1.00 N 0.611982 US$1.00 N 0.671983 US$1.00 N 0.721984 US$1.00 N 0.771985 US$1.00 N 0.891986 US$1.00 N 1.761987 US$1.00 N 4.021988 US$1.00 N 4.541989 US$1.00 N 7.371990 US$1.00 N 8.041991 US$1.00 N 9.911992 US$1.00 N 19.651993 US$1.00 N21.881994 US$1.00 N22.00

Weights and Measures

1 metric ton (mt = t) = 2,205 pounds (Ibs) or 0.9842 long ton1 hectare (ha) 2.4711 acres (ac)1 acre (ac) 0.4047 hectare (ha)1 kilometre (km) = 0.6214 miles (mi)1 mile (mi) 1.6093 kilometres (km)

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

THE WORLD BANKWashington, D.C. 20433

U.S.A.

Office of Director-General June 29, 1995Operations Evaluation

MEMORANDUM TO THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS AND THE PRESIDENT

SUBJECT: Impact Evaluation Report on Nigeria -Kano and Sokoto Agricultural Development Projects (Loans 1982 & 2185-UNI)

Attached is the Impact Evaluation Report (IER) on the Nigeria-Kano AgriculturalDevelopment project (Loan 1982-UNI, approved in FY81) and the Sokoto Agricultural Developmentproject (Loan 2185-UNI, approved in FY82) prepared by the Operations Evaluation Department. Thedraft report was discussed with the Borrower, and formal comments are not expected.

The projects were among a series of statewide agricultural development projects (ADPs)aimed at raising the productivity and real incomes of farm families through a coordinated approach torural development. The main elements were improved technology (backed by an expanded extensionservice), increased supplies of inputs, and infrastructure improvements. However, both projectscontained pilot efforts to increase dry season crop production in small flood plains (fadamas). Thesewere by far the most successful elements of the projects and were greatly expanded beyond originalplans. The approach is now being repeated in an ongoing National Fadama Development Project.The Project Completion Reports rated the outcome of both projects as unsatisfactory. The Auditreaffirmed the PCR outcome rating for the Sokoto ADP, but judged the Kano ADP to have had asatisfactory outcome in large part because of the performance of the fadama development component.

The impact evaluation focussed particularly on fadama development and is based, inlarge part, on a field survey of farmers and pastoralists, and discussions with other well informed localofficials and inhabitants. The field survey shows that without the active efforts of the ADPs infostering the development of small-scale irrigation through the introduction of pumps, tubewells, andwashbores (wells drilled using a high pressure stream of water), the scale of dry season production inthe fadamas would have been much smaller. The field survey also indicates that farmers recognizethis contribution and see the ADPs as trustworthy sources of information on agricultural technologyand practices. Data obtained from community leaders and farmers also indicated that thesetechnologies supported a shift towards greater market orientation of production, which has enabledfarm households to both increase cash incomes and improve food security. In consequence, there hasbeen a broad improvement in the welfare of the communities that farm the fadamas. Focus groupdiscussions with women indicated that, although their direct participation in these programs wasmodest, they see clear benefits to their families and themselves which they associate with the projects.

The survey confirmed the traditional tension between farmers and pastoralists andnoted that this has been heightened by increased cropping. The findings also showed the significanceof livestock to crop farmers and this, in addition to the importance of greater integration of crops andlivestock as agriculture intensifies, underlines the need for the integration of related public extensionand research activities. This matter is to be a central feature of the proposed Second AgriculturalTechnology project, which is national in scope and expected to be approved in FY96.

Attachment

This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of theirofficial duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.

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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADP Agricultural Development ProjectAPMEU Agricultural Projects Monitoring and Evaluation UnitAPMEU Agricultural Projects Monitoring and Evaluation UnitARMTI Agricultural and Rural Management Training InstituteASP Advanced Service PackageATAP Agricultural Technical Assistance ProjectERR Economic Rate of ReturnFACU Federal Agricultural Coordinating UnitFASCOM Farmers' Agricultural Supply CompanyFASU Regional Office of FACUFDRD Federal Department of Rural DevelopmentFGN Federal Government of NigeriaFMA Federal Ministry of AgricultureFOS Federal Office of StatisticsFSC Farmer Service CentresFUA Fadama Users AssociationGDP Gross Domestic ProductHND Higher National DiplomaITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Ibadan)KASCO Kano State Agricultural Supply CompanyKNADP Kano State Agricultural Development ProjectKNARDA Kano State Agricultural and Rural Development AuthorityLGA Local Government AuthorityLPU Livestock Planning UnitM&E Monitoring and EvaluationMANR Ministry of Agriculture and Natural ResourcesMIS Management Information SystemMUTR Mid-Term ReviewNATSP National Agricultural Technology Support ProjectNFDP National Fadama Development ProjectNGO Non-government OrganizationNWRI Nigeria Water Resources InstituteOED Operations Evaluation DepartmentOFAR On-Farm Adaptive ResearchPAR Performance Audit ReportPCR Project Completion ReportPMU Project Monitoring UnitSADP Sokoto Agricultural Development ProjectSAR Staff Appraisal ReportSARDA Sokoto State Agricultural and Rural Development AuthoritySPAT Small Plot Adoption TechnologyTA Technical AssistanceT&D Training and Demonstration (Extension System)T&V Training and Visit (Extension System)VEA Village Extension AgentWIA Women in Agriculture

[This document has a rcstricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of theirI ofricial duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. l

Contents

Preface .............................................. 7Basic Data Sheets .............................................. 9Related Bank Loans and Credits .......................................... 13Executive Summary ............................................... 5

1. Background ............................................... 23

A. Historical Context of the AgriculturalDevelopment Projects (ADPs) .............. ...................... 23

B. Summary of ADP Performance ............. ....................... 24C. The Significance of These Results ........... ....................... 25D. The Context of the Analysis ........................................ 27

2. The Kano and Sokoto ADPs .......................................... 31

A. Content and Results ............................................ 311. Objectives and Major Elements of the Projects ...................... 312. The Kano Project (KNADP) ............. ....................... 323. The Sokoto Project (SADP) ............. ....................... 324. The Audit Estimate of Rate of Return ........ .................... 33

B. The Impact Evaluation ........................................... 331. Objectives of the Impact Evaluation of Kano

and Sokoto ADPs . ......................................... 332. Approach ............................................ .. 34

C. The ADP Programs ............................................. 351. Institutional Strengthening ............... ...................... 352. ADP Fadama "Packages" ........................................ 36

3. Agricultural and Economic Impact of Fadama Development ..... ............ 39

A. Expansion in Dry Season Fadama Farming ............ ................ 391. Increasing Proportion of Fadarna Farmers Practicing

Dry Season Cultivation . ..................................... 392. Increasing Dependence upon Fadama Areas ........................ 40

B. Dry Season Fadama Farming Practices ......... ...................... 42

This report was prepared by John English (Task Manager), and Janice Olawoye(Consultant) who evaluated the projects in 1994. Constance Frye provided administrativesupport.

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C. Ownership and Management of Pumps and Tubewells ..... .. ............ 451. Individual vs. Group Ownership and Management .................... 452. Cost of Irrigation Pumps ....................................... 483. Problems and Benefits from the use of Improved Technology .... ....... 48

D. Changes in Farming Systems ................. ..................... 501. Cropping Pattern .............. .............................. 512. Adoption of Innovations ....................................... 523. Livestock Production and Ox-Drawn Traction ....................... 534. Use of Hired Labor ..... ..................................... 565. Economic Benefits of Cropping .................................. 59

E. Village Level Impacts .............. .............................. 60

4. Impact of ADP Programs on Fadama Development ........ .. .............. 63

A. Farmer Response to the ADP Fadama Development Program .... ......... 631. Initial Reaction to Recommendations ............................. 632. Extent and Evaluation of Extension Contact ........................ 643. Sources of Innovation ......................................... 654. Relations with the Fulani ...................................... 695. Overall Farmer Perception of ADP Performance .................... 69

B. ADP Self Evaluation . ............................................ 73

S. Social and Other Impacts of Fadama Development ........ .. .............. 75

A. Social Change ................................................ 751. General Well-being of Members of the Community ................... 752. Migration .................................................. 78

B. Gender Issues in Fadama Development ........... .. ................. 791. Gender Roles in Agricultural Production in

Northern Nigeria . .......................................... 792. Impact of Fadama Development on Rural Women ................... 813. The ADPs and Women Farmers ................................. 83

C. Land Use Conflict at the Village Level ........... .. ................. 831. Relationship Between Fulani and Indigenous Cultivators ............... 842. Land Use Arrangements ........................................ 843. The Pastoralists' View of the Cause of Recurrent

Conflicts .................................................. 87

6. Environmental Impact .............................................. 91A. Cause of Environmental Changes ................................... 91B. Water, Soil and Cropping Patterns .................................. 92C. Wildlife ... .................................................. 93D. Fish and Fisheries ............................................... 94

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E. Public Health ...................................... 94F. Overall Impact ...................................... 94

7. Conclusions ......................................... 95A. The Projects ......................................... 95B. The Fadama Components ........................................ 95C. A Parallel Case .......................................... 97D. Lessons and Implications ........................................ 98

1. Technology and Extension ..................................... 982. Livestock and Intensification . .................................... 993. Women .0......................................... 14. The Role of ADPs in Fadama Development ....... ................ 1015. Program Funding ............................. 102

AnnexesI - Fadama Physical Characteristics and Ecology .............. .............. 1032 - River Bottomland Development in Sub-Saharan Africa ..................... 1073 - Methodology for the Field Survey ........... .......................... 1134 - Techniques of Small-scale Irrigation in Fadamas .......................... 1235 - Tables .................................................... 1276 - Land Tenure in Fadama Areas ............. .......................... 1377 - Socio-Cultural Characteristics of the Fulani People ........................ 141

Boxes1.1: What is'Fadama' .................................................. 263.1: Subsidization of Pumps and Tubewells ................................. 464.1: Tensions between Farmers and ADPs ................................. 705.1: Seclusion and Women's Work ............. .......................... 805.2: Economic Relationships Within the Household .......................... 825.3: Causes and Consequences of Conflicts ................................. 86

Figures3.1 - Use of Inputs by Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States ..... .......... 554.1 - Information Sources and Contacts with ADP Staff by

Sampled Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States ..... ............. 664.2 - Source Through Which Fadama Farmers First Learned About

Agricultural Inputs in Kano and Sokoto States ........................ 67A6. 1 - Number of Upland and Fadama Plots Operated by Sampled

Farmers, by State . ............................................ 138

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Tables2.1: Summary of Field Survey Methods used in Study and Objectives

of Each Method . ................................................ 343.1: History of Dry Season Farming on Fadama Land in Kano and

Sokoto States from a Sample of Rural Community Leaders ..... ........... 403.2: Access to Land for Sampled Fadama Farmers in Kano and

Sokoto States . .................................................. 413.3: Rural Income-Generating Activities in Fadama Areas of Kano

and Sokoto States as Ranked by Farmers ............................. 413.4: Dry Season Fadama Farming Practices in Kano and Sokoto States .... ........ 433.5: Information on Pumps and Tubewells or Washbores from a

Sample of Fadama Farmers from Kano and Sokoto States ..... ............ 473.6: Impact of Securing Motorized Pump upon Agricultural

Production by Different Categories of Fadama Farmers inthe Central Zone of Sokoto State ................................... 50

3.7: Farmers' Most Important Crops: 10 Years ago and Today:Kano and Sokoto States ........... .............................. 52

3.8: Kano State: Proportion of Households Keeping Livestock andMean Number of Animals/Household/Zone ............................ 54

3.9: Sources of Funds for Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto State .... ......... 543.10: Livestock Production and Ox-Drawn Traction for a Sample

of Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States ......................... 573.11: Use of Hired Laborers by Sampled Fadama Farmers from

Kano and Sokoto States ............ .............................. 583.12: Sokoto State: Main Road Types/LGA in the Western

Zone (1987) . ................................................. 603.13: Marketing Activities of Sampled Fadama Farmers in Sokoto

States: A Comparison of Marketing Wet Season andDry Season Products . ............................................ 61

3.14: Access to Markets from a Sample of Rural CommunityLeaders in Fadama Areas of Kano and Sokoto States .................... 62

4. 1: Farmers' Initial Reaction to ADP Fadama "Package":Findings from Interviews with ADP Staff .............................. 64

4.2: Impact of ADP for Securing Pumps, Tubewells or Washboresfrom a Sample of Fadama Farmers from Kano and Sokoto States .... ....... 68

4.3: Evaluation of Present ADP Performance compared to 10 YearsAgo by a Sample of Rural Community Leaders .......................... 72

4.4: Types of Assistance Received by Fadama Farmers in Kanoand Sokoto States . .............................................. 72

5. 1: Indicators Differentiating Between Agricultural Activitiesof Better-off and Poorer Rural Households in Fadama

Areas of Northern Nigeria .......... ............................. 765.2: Perceived Food Security for Fadama Farmers in Kano and

Sokoto States . ................................................ 775.3: Migrant Status and Migration Pattern for Fadama Farmers

in Kano and Sokoto States ...... ............................... 795.4: Relationship between Pastoralists and Cultivators in Kano

and Sokoto States . .............................................. 85

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5.5: Arrangements for Dry Season Grazing Made by Fulani andImpact of Increased Dry Season Cultivation on Them .................... 88

5.6: Changes in Number and Health of Cattle and Access toGrazing and Water ............. ................................. 89

6.1: Environmental Impact of Fadama Development According toSampled Community Leaders in Kano and Sokoto States .................. 92

A2. 1: Outcome of Component by Type and Percentage Distributionof Outcome by Type ........... ................................. 111

A3. 1: Inventory of Indicators for Impact Evaluation of FadamaComponent of Sokoto and Kano ADPs .............................. 117

A3.2: Sampled Villages, Fadama Farmers, Fulani Pastoralists,Key Informants and FGDs in Kano State ............................ 118

A3.3: Sampled Villages, Fadama Farmers, Fulani Pastoralists,Key Informants and FGDs in Sokoto State ........................... 119

A3.4: Kano State: Population and Land Area Statistics byLocal Government Area ......................................... 120

A3.5: Sokoto State Population by Land Area/Population Densityby LGA . ..................................................... 121

A5.1: Use of Inputs by Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States ........... .. 127A5.2: Sources of Credit for Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto

States ................................................... ... 128A5.3: Information Sources and Contact with ADP Staff by Sampled

Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States .......................... 129A5.4: Source Through Which Fadama Farmers First Learned About

Agricultural Inputs in Kano and Sokoto States ........ ................ 130A5.5: Number of Upland and Fadama Plots Operated by Sampled

Farmers, by State . .............................................. 131A5.6: Kano State Crop Production (Yields, Area, Tonnages) ..... .............. 132A5.7: Farm Budget for a Representative Farm - at Financial

Prices on per Ha. Basis - Crop: Tomato ..... ................. .... 133A5.8: Farm Budget for a Representative Farm - at Financial

Prices on per Ha. Basis - Crop: Pepper ..... .................. . . 134A5.9: Farm Budget for a Representative Farm - at Financial

Prices on per Ha. Basis - Crop: Onion ...... ..................... 135A5.10: Economic Analysis of Fadama Crop Using Tubewells

(in Nairas) ................................... 136

References ...................................... 143

Map - IBRD No. 27033

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Preface

Since 1974 the World Bank has assisted with the financing of 17 AgriculturalDevelopment Projects (ADPs) in Nigeria (see Basic Data Sheet, page 13). The first nineof these were implemented in selected parts of states and were described as 'enclave'projects. These were followed by five state-wide projects, and finally by three multi-stateprojects which are still ongoing. Nine of the enclave projects and three of the state wideprojects have been audited by OED.

This Impact Evaluation Report (IER) covers two of the state wide projects, KanoState ADP and Sokoto State ADP. It focuses in particular on the activities of theseprojects directed at the promotion of small scale irrigation using lift pumps, tubewells andrelated technology, in valley bottom areas with shallow water tables. The audit reportsnoted the particular success of this activity, which has also been almost uniquely successfulamong Bank supported efforts to promote intensified agricultural use of such areas inWest Africa. It was, therefore, considered to be useful to examine in more detail theimpact of these activities, as a guide both to the ongoing projects in Nigeria which areextending this work, and to future efforts in the wider region to support the developmentof this key agricultural resource.

This report is based partly on the PCRs and PARs, the appraisal reports, loandocuments, discussion with Bank staff and with officials of the Federal Ministry ofAgriculture and Natural Resources, the Federal Agricultural Coordinating Unit (FACU)in Abuja, the Agricultural Projects Monitoring and Evaluation Unit (APMEU) in Kaduna,and the staffs of the projects. The principal basis of the report is a field survey, conductedby Dr. Janice Olawoye, of the University of Ibadan, between August and December, 1994.This survey included individual interviews of farmers, community leaders, ADP officials,and Fulani herders, and focus group discussions with men and women. The kindcooperation and valuable assistance provided by all these agencies and individuals isgratefully acknowledged.

The draft report was discussed with Government and the points raised havebeen reflected in the final report. Additional formal comments have not been received.

9

Basic Data Sheet

KANO STATE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (LOAN 1982-UNI)

Key Project Data

Apprsall Acual Actl at 5Etdmaie of Appralt

Project Coats (USSm) 482.2 320.4 66Loan Amount (USSm) 142.0 137.4 97Cancellation (USSm) - 4.6 3Economic Rate of Return 36 38'Institutional Performance - GoodTechnical Perfomance Fair

Cumulative Eainated and Actual Dsurumeat (USS m;miaos)

FY FT FY FT FY FY FT FY Fr FY82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

Appraiul Estimate 24.5 65.9 90.6 112.1 137.5 142.0 - - - -

Actual 1.9 21.6 42.4 58.5 81.S 10.1 123.2 129.9 136.1 137.4Actual as % of Estinate 8 33 47 52 59 76 S7 91 96 97

Date of Final Disbursement: August 20,1990

Project runtable

Isem Date Planned AcAl Date

Identification 1977Preparation 197S-1979Prappraisal na.Appraisal 05/80Loan Negotiations 11/24/S0Board Approval 05/05/81 04/30/81Loan Signature 09/02181lIan Effectivenew 12/02/81 12/29181Loan Closing 06/30/36 12/31/19

Staff Inputs Wff weeks)

FY FY FT FT FT FY FY FY FY FY FY FT FT FT Total78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

Preapp. 0.4 21.3 13.7 - - - - - - - - - - - 35.5Appr. 79.3 27.9 107.2Neg. 5.3 5.3Sup. 3.0 31.3 31.1 23.3 24.6 27.9 23.8 1.2 15.S 19.9 7 .2b 226.3Other 0.3 8.4 0.2 0.5 9.4Total 0.4 21.3 93.3 44.5 31.3 31.1 23.3 24.6 28.1 23.8 18.7 15.8 19.9 7.3 313.6

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Mhd.a Data

Midoc Mo/lh/ No. of Sqff Days Speciafizaaon Perfornance Raaig Tpe OfYear Persons in Field Represented Raging 7rend P robkm

IdealPrep 1977179 4 5 e,d - -Apprisal 05/80 10 250 a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h - -Supevision 1 06/81 3 15 a,b,d - - F,TSuperviion 2 10181 3 15 a,b,d - -

Superviso 3 10/81 2 6 a,b - -

Supervision 4 11/81 3 15 a,b,d I ISupervisi S 02182 2 8 a,b 1 2 M

Supervision 6 10/82 1 3 a - -

Supervisio 7 10/82 2 8 a,b 3 3

Superision 8 01/33 2 4 a,b - -

Superviuion 9 07/33 1 5 d 2 2 F,TSuperviuon 10 01/4 1 3 b - -

Supervision 11 05184 3 15 a,b 2 3 M,FSupervision 12 10/14 2 10 d - -Supervision 13 12/34 1 2 aSupervision 14 02/85 3 6 a,b -

Supervision 15 06/85 1 4 a 4 - F,MSupervision 16 07/86 3 18 a,b,d 4 4 F,MSupervision 17 11/86 3 24 a,c 4 - F,MSupervsion 18 07/87 1 3 c 2 3 F,MSuperviion 19 07/87 1 3 c 2 3Supervision 20 071/8 1 3 c - -

Supernieon 21 11/89 1 3 c 3 2a. On aricultumi componeA only, and heavily dependent on ladama (irrigation) investnent.b. Supervision conliaed until 1992. Added into 1991 - 0.2. Preparation/preappraisal was done by Government consultants.c. a - Agriculturist; b - Fmncial Analyst; c - Agricultural Economist; d - lrrigation Engineer; e - Forestry Specialist; f-Training Specilit; g - Marketing Specialist; b - Roads Engineer.d. I - problem free or minor problems; 2 - modermte problems; 3 - major problems; 4 - critical situation.:. I - impnrovug; 2 - stationary; 3 - deteriorating.f F - Financial; M - Management; T - Technical.

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Basic Data Sheet

SOKOTO STATE AGRICULTuRAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (LOAN 2185-UNI)

Key Project Data

Apprai Acai AcaWr - %Esaimaze of App.ura

Project Coa (USSm) 498.7 257.0 52Loan Amount (USSm) 147.0 147.0 100Cancellation (USSm) - 0Economic Rate of Return 20 na.Institutional Performuance - FairTechnical Performance Poor

Cumulative F-timated and Acbtl Disburnemet (USS miNioms)

pF FY Fr FT FY F)' FY FY FY83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

Appraisal Estimate 44.6 71.8 94.9 122.0 147.0 - - - -Actual 4.0 24.0 41.8 65.6 83.2 98.9 123.4 146.5 147.)0Actual as % of Estimate 9 33 44 54 57 67 84 99.7 100

Date of Final Disbursement: April 10, 1991

Project Timetble

Iem Date Planned Aciuai Daze

Identification 1976Preparation 1977-1979Preappraisal 10/79Appraisal 10SO0Loan Negotiations 06/22181Board Approval 06/17tb2Loan Signature 06/23/82 01/04/83Loan Effectiveneu 11/01/82 04/28/83Loan Closing 06/30/87 12/31/90

Stff laputs (staff weels)

Fl FY FY FY FY FT FY F)' F FT F) F) FY ro0al80 8) 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92

Preappraisar 30.9 2.8 33.7Appraisal 58.4 58.4Negotiation 1.4 17.2 18.6Supervision 20.4 14.7 25.7 19.0 23.6 27.4 28.9 20.9 17.9 0.1 198.6Other 0.5 3.9 1.7 0.2 0.2 6.5Total 31.4 66.5 18.9 20.4 14.7 25.7 19.2 23.8 27.4 28.9 20.9 17.9 0.1 315.3

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Mision Datu

Mission Month/ Mi. of Staff Days Specializanon Perfonnance Radng Type ofYear Penons in Field Represented' Radng Trend 4 Probl

Ident/Prep 1977/80Appraisal 10/80 5 120 b,c,d,oSupervision 1 05/83 2 6 a,c 3 1 F,MSupervision 2 03/84 3 12 a,c 3 1 FSupervision 3 10/84 2 12 a,d 3 1 TSupervision 4 02/85 3 9 a,cSupervision 5 07/S5 1 9 b 3Supervision 6 10/85 2 6 b,oSupervision 7 06/86 3 18 a,b,d 4Supervision 8 08/S6 3 9 a,oSupervision 9 09/86 3 21 asc 4Supervision 10 05/87 3 1 a,c,d 2Supervision 11 02/8S 3 1S *,b,c 2Supervision 12 10/88 2 8 aSupervision 13 06/89 3 12 b,c,o 2Supervision 14 10/89 1 6 a JSupervision 15 02/89 5 25 a,b,d,o k

Supervision 16 05/90 3 27 a,o 2a. Preparmtionpremappraisl was done by Government-paid consultant.b. a - Agriculturist; b - Agriculturml Economist; c - Financial Analyst; d = Irrigation Engineer; o = Other.c. I - problem free or minor problems; 2 = modermte problems; 3 = major problems; 4 = critical situation.d. I = improving; 2 - stationary; 3 = deteriorating.e. F = Finncial; M - Management; T = Technical.f The project was prepared by local staff with the assistance of consultants and periodically assisted by the Bank.g. Review mission: rephasing, recosting.h. Review mission: agricultural extension.i. Thematic supervision: agricultural extension.j. Thenatic supervision: adaptive research.k. Thenatic supervision: smIall cale irrigation.

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Related Bank Loans and Credits

Loan No. Project Name Loan Year of Year of OED PARAmount Approval Closing(US$ m)

Year No.

First Generation: Enclave ADPs

1092-UNI Funtua ADP 29.1 1974 1982 1982 39751099-UNI Gusau ADP 19.0 1974 1982 1982 39751164-UNI Gombe ADP 21.0 1974 1982 1982 39751454-UNI Lafia ADP 27.0 1977 1984 1985 59721455-UNI Ayangba ADP 35.0 1977 1983 1985 59721667-UNI Bida ADP 23.0 1979 1986 1990 85571668-UNI llorin ADP 27.0 1979 1988 1993 120161838-UNI Oyo North ADP 28.0 1980 1988 1993 120161854-UNI Ekiti Akoko ADP 32.5 1980 1985 1990 8557

Second Generation: Statewide ADPs

1981-UNI Bauchi State ADP 132.0 1981 1989 1993 120161982-UNI Kano State ADP' 142.0 1981 1989 1993 120162185-UNI Sokoto State ADP 147.0 1982 1990 1993 120162436-UNI Kaduna State ADP 122.0 1984 19942741-UNI South Borno ADP 25.0 1986 1994

Third Generation: Multistate ADPs

2733-UNI Multi-state ADP I 162.0 1986 ongoing2988-UNI Multi-state ADP II 85.2 1989 ongoing2035-UNIb Multi-state ADP III 100.9 1989 ongoing

Other Subsector Support, and Follow-up Projects

2029-UNI Agricultural T. A. 47.0 1981 1989 1993 120162345-UNI Fertilizer Loan 250.0 1983 1986 1991 96733483-NIR National Agricultural

Technology Support 42.5 1992 ongoing3451-NIR National Fadama Dev. 67.5 1992 ongoing

a. Prjects covered under this impact evalulation.b. This project was finarnced by an IDA credit.

15

Executive Summary

Background

1. The Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) were initiated in the mid-1970s asNigeria's oil production and revenues were rapidly expanding and stimulating rapid urbangrowth. At the same time, Government adopted policies which maintained the value ofthe Naira at a high level. The potential detrimental impact of these changes onagricultural production became a cause for concern. The ADPs were designed to increasecrop production through a coordinated approach to rural development. The mainelements were improved technology (and the means to get it to farmers), increasedsupplies of farming inputs (especially fertilizer), and extensive infrastructure improvements(especially rural roads and water supplies).

2. Initially three pilot, enclave projects were undertaken in the North of the country.By the late 1970s the initial results were considered sufficiently encouraging to justifyexpansion. Accordingly, a series of similar projects, some covering whole states wereprepared. Implementation began in the early 1980s, and lasted through the decade. TheKano and Sokoto State ADPs were two of this group. Each included four basiccomponents; farm and crop development (expanded research, extension, and inputsupply); infrastructure development (feeder road construction and maintenance, watersupplies, markets and storage facilities); institutional support, establishing project entitiesseparate from the state agriculture departments; and technical assistance, largely tomanage the new institutions.

3. The performance of these projects is commonly considered to have beendisappointing. A combined audit of six of them, including Kano and Sokoto, wasconducted in 1993, and concluded that the project targets were unrealistic and based onunproven technological assumptions, that there was too little emphasis on farmers'production priorities, and that the institutional structure led to a top-down effort andoveremphasis on physical targets.

4. However, the audit rated two of the projects, Kano and Bauchi, as successful. Aprincipal element in this assessment was the increased production engendered in 'fadama'areas.' Northern Nigeria is a sub-humid to semi-arid region and soil moisture is theprincipal constraint on crop production. The projects made available motor pumps atsubsidized prices, and drilled tubewells, which enabled farmers to greatly increase their useof the surface and groundwater resources, especially for crop production in the dry season.

1. Fadafas are river valley areas which are rasonally flooded or have high water tables for all, or a large part, of the year.

16

Focus of the Evaluation

5. The impact evaluation focussed on two projects (Kano and Sokoto State ADPs)and, because of their conspicuous success, the performance of the fadama developmentprograms within them. This success stands out in comparison with the bulk of theactivities undertaken by the ADPs, and also with the several other efforts in Bankfinanced projects to promote increased production in such valley bottom areas in WestAfrica, most of which have not been successful.

6. The major focus of this study is, therefore, on the economic, agricultural, socialand environmental impacts of the technologies promoted by the ADPs to improve theland and water management of the fadama areas. Special consideration is given to thelessons of this experience for the on-going ADP related program in Nigeria (including thefollow-on National Fadama Development Project (NFDP), currently underimplementation) and for the development of fadama type areas elsewhere in West Africa.

Methodology

7. The principal investigative device was a field survey, carried out in the two states(in a sample of villages whose farmers cultivated fadama land), between August andDecember, 1994. This comprised a purposively selected sample survey of just over 250farmers, plus interviews with twenty-one community leaders from the survey villages,sixteen key informants from the ADPs and sixteen Fulani pastoralists. To complementthese interviews, a limited number of focus group discussions were also held separatelywith groups of men and women, to identify where there might be gender or statusdifferences in the responses.

8. In order to disentangle the various impacts of the project, an assessment was firstmade of the extent of the agricultural changes which followed the adoption of pump andtubewell irrigation in the states. Subsequently, the role of the ADPs in fostering theadoption of these technologies was determined. In addition, the study assessed thebroader social impact of the technological changes, as perceived by the parties involved,focussing in particular on the relationship between crop producers and pastoralists, and onwomen's perception of the changes and their impact on them.

9. Economic Rate of Return. Estimation of ex-post rates of return for ADPs hasbeen hampered by a lack of reliable production data. The combined audit only felt ableto estimate an ERR for Kano State and Bauchi State ADPs, and this by using an indirectmethod, based on an estimate of the share of incremental production which could beattributed to the activities of the ADP. For Kano, the estimated ERR was 38 percentincluding fadama cropping, and 16 percent for dryland cropping only. Given the extent ofthe background data problems the present study did not attempt a re-estimate, but itsfindings broadly confirm the judgment of the earlier audit.

Project Impacts

10. Agriculture. The projects drilled about 10,000 tubewells, which were madeavailable to farmers at less than cost, and also sold about 65,000 gasoline powered pumps

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(and later washbores). Traditionally, many families had cultivated small areas in thefadamas during the dry season using water drawn manually from shallow wells or streams.The advent of pumps and tubewells allowed the extraction of greatly increased amounts ofwater at modest cost, and it is estimated that, by the end of the projects a total of nearly100,000 ha are being irrigated, in the two states.

11. Apart from initially providing price incentives (subsidies) to encourage adoption,the ADPs made some efforts to promote group ownership of pumps and wells, and theymade available diesel pumps, suitable for group use. Uptake was quite limited untilsmaller gasoline pumps, suitable for individual use, were made available. Data from thesurvey indicate that very few pumps or tubewells were, or remain, group owned. A keyadvantage of the tubewell, pump and washbore technologies is that they are suitable forownership and use by an individual farmer.

12. At first uptake was slow as farmers tended to irrigate low value grain crops,including supplementary irrigation for rice in the wet season. However, when thepotential for dry season production of vegetables etc. was appreciated, uptake increasedmarkedly. Improved transport services (in part resulting from project built roads) reducedthe costs of transport from the project areas to the major urban markets of the south, anddry season fadama production of onions, peppers, garlic and tomatoes became veryprofitable (except where localized gluts, especially of tomatoes and other more perishableitems, led to very low prices).

13. The profitability of dry season irrigation resulted in a rapid expansion in the use ofmotorized pumps. Seventy percent of the farmers surveyed for the study in 1994 said thatthey used pumps for irrigation, but that less than five percent of them had used pumps tenyears ago. At that time they either used manual methods (the ancient shadouf) or did notirrigate. As a result, among farmers surveyed, one-third said that dry season cropping isnow their most important source of income, and half said that it was their second mostimportant income source. There has been a clear switch towards market orientedproduction, a parallel increase in the use of cash inputs, and a widening of the range ofproducts. Sixty percent of the farmers surveyed indicated that ten years ago their mostimportant crop was a staple, whereas now only 35 percent consider that to be the case.The expanded product range enhances farmers' ability to spread risks and increasesconsumer choice.

14. General welfare. The local community leaders surveyed indicated that, in theirview, people in their villages are better off today than they were a decade ago as a resultof the dry season cropping. In Sokoto State, where population densities are relativelylow, and access to fadama land is widespread, leaders said that almost all households arebetter off as a result of the changes. However, in Kano State, where population densitiesare high, and not all families have access to fadama land, benefits were reported to be lesswidespread.

15. A widely noted benefit is in the food supply situation. This has two dimensions.First, a majority of farmers indicated that they have more food now than before.Increased fadama cropping has allowed them to increase food production as needed, i.e.basic food security has improved. Second, people have a better and a wider choice of

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foods than before the projects (eg. more meat, vegetables etc.), since increased incomeshave given them a greater ability to buy food on a discretionary basis.

16. Sustainability. The pumps and tubewells supplied by the project are owned andoperated by individual farmers and, with over 50,000 pumps now operating, a thrivingservicing industry has developed to maintain them. The latter has been reinforced by thefact that farmers now pay the full cost incurred by the ADPs for pumps and tubewells.Sustainability of this activity is more dependent on the macro-economic environment (i.e.,the continued availability of fuel and spare parts and maintenance of effective demand fortruck crops) than on any on-farm technical problems.

17. Environrental Impact. Large dams constructed in Northern Nigeria have had ademonstrable impact on downstream hydrology with consequent impacts on fish andwildlife. However, monitoring of environmental indicators under the NFDP has notindicated any changes which can be linked to wells and surface pumping of water or toother activities promoted by the ADPs.

Conclusions and Implications

Source of change

18. The ADPs played a central role in fostering these changes. More than half thefarmers interviewed noted that they obtained their pumps directly through the ADPs. Theremainder purchased them from the local market. Since many ADP pumps were sold totraders, it is very likely that a significant share of those who purchased from the market, infact purchased ADP supplied pumps. The contribution of the ADPs is also illustrated bythe situation in the former Kaduna State (which lies between Kano and Sokoto), wherethe ADP only recently developed an effective fadama program, and pump and tubewellirrigation was estimated to extend to only 11,000 ha in 1994 (i.e. about one-quarter of theextent in each of the two former states covered in the present study). Moreover, Nigeriais the only country in West Africa where this technology is being used to any significantextent. Therefore, it is unlikely that the technology would have been widely adoptedwithout the initial impetus from the ADPs.

19. The ADPs also made effective use of TA inputs in this program. The initial pilotoperations drew heavily on Asian experience, and the continued support of experts fromthat region was a key factor in the subsequent modifications of the initial approach and inintroducing the washbore technology.

Reasons for Success

20. Four major factors determined this success: (i) effective demand for theincremental output; (ii) positive incentives for the adoption of the new technology,including reduction of crop failure; (iii) the suitability of the technology for use by theindividual farmer (technological divisibilities); and (iv) improvement in the technologies toenhance their attractiveness to farmers.

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21. Of these four factors, the first was probably the most important. The incomeelasticity of demand for basic staples, such as sorghum and millet, on which the projectsfirst concentrated their efforts, is low. Increases in production generally do not permit asignificant increase in income, and local markets may quickly become glutted. On theother hand, the new fadama technologies permitted farmers to significantly increase theiroutput of products with high income elasticity of demand and a substantial, and growing,domestic market. Following substantial improvements in the highway system andexpansion of the transport fleet during the 1970's,the major markets in the south hadbecome accessible to northern farmers, who received prices which made the newtechnology very remunerative. Survey findings on the availability of food indicate thatthere was little or no substitutes in production as farmers maintained production ofstaples, thus increasing both the gross value of output and food security.

22. Implications. Whether the project designers can be credited with this success orwhether it is mostly attributable to fortuitous circumstances is uncertain. There has beenmuch discussion over the need for technologies to be carefully targeted to areas where thepreconditions for intensification exist. However, there is a considerable element of chancein forecasting whether a particular technology will be attractive to farmers, especiallyunder conditions of economic uncertainty and change typical of SSA. Therefore, toogreat an emphasis on picking winners may not be desirable. For extension and technologyrelated operations such as the ADPs this general proposition has two implications:

(i) introduction of technologies should be viewed with a broad perspective asit is difficult to assess precisely where success is likely to arise 5 - '0 years in advance, andadequate emphasis should be given to technology which would enable farmers to expandproduction of products with a high income elasticity of demand, as well as basic staples;and

(ii) organizations should be agile and have an ability to follow up on success,and to modify technologies to increase their suitability for those interested, whenpromising conditions are met, as has been the case in the fadama program studied here.

23. Rapid inflation in Nigeria and the resulting pressure on the budget, promptsquestions about the sustainability of frequent village visits hy a large number of VillageExtension Agents (VEAs) inherent in the T&V extension system. The farmers surveyedfor this study indicated that they look to a variety of sources for information onagricultural problems, including the mass media, although they viewed the ADP extensionagent as the most trustworthy. The ADPs do contribute significantly to radio and othermedia programming on agriculture. More than 40 percent of the farmers interviewedreported that they saw the VEA every two weeks or more, while a quarter reported nocontact. At this stage, quality of interaction is perhaps more important than quantity.Accordingly, there may be scope for reducing coverage of the system at the farm level insome areas, most likely by reducing the frequency of agent/farmer contact and focussingmore on 'problem solving' than 'message delivery'. However, this would create a need toincrease the focus at the level above the field worker-the subject matter specialist. Thisis the point at which modifications to the 'messages' are formulated as technologies areadapted, as was a feature in the fadama program.

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Livestock

24. The Kano and Sokoto ADPs did not include components related to livestock.This appears to have been an important omission:

(a) relations between the pastoral Fulani and crop producers are the majorsocial issue resulting from greater use of fadama land for crop production. The presenceof components directed towards livestock might have helped the projects improve theircontacts with the Fulani, and, perhaps act, as one channel for reducing the levels offriction which have arisen. The interviews showed that the Fulani do not see the ADPs ashaving any benefits for them and, in fact, they see the structure and focus of the ADPs asjust one more indication that Government etc. consider their problems to be of littleconsequence.

(b) the primary issue in these states is the intensification of agriculture. Thekeys to this are methods to maintain soil nutrient status and improve soil structure. Animportant element in this process is the ability to recycle organic matter, a process inwhich increased use of livestock has usually been an important factor.

(c) there is considerable interest in livestock among farmers. A large majorityof both farmers and Fulani interviewed indicated that they had increased their numbers ofanimals over the past decade.

(d) under most conditions in low-income societies suc[ as Nigeria, there is ahigh income elasticity of demand for livestock products, so that they represent an area ofmarket opportunity as the economy grows; and

(e) animal traction is still attractive as a means of increasing productivity perman hour, even if crop yields do not increase.

25. At present, with veterinary services (the area of greatest interest to the Fulani)being provided by a different service, there is no one part of the bureaucracy th:it ;form a bridge between the major groups involved, and foster greater integration otlivestock and cropping. A small pilot operation has been iitiated by the ongoing Bankfunded Livestock Project, which is channeling support to the Fulani through the ADPstructure. The results of this study strongly support this initiative which, if expanded,would increase the opportunities and incentives for livestock and crop research andextension staff to work together. This would also have the advantage of facilitating thedevelopment of 'packages' etc. in support of the development of mixed farming systems(eg. development of fodder crops and use of residues). Such efforts to integrate extensionactivities are to be expanded in the proposed Second Agricultural Technology SupportProject.

Women

26. The ADPs did not provide assistance targeted to women and there was no directcontact. Women have benefitted from increased dry season farming on fadarna lands in anumber of direct and indirect ways. Gender roles in agricultural activities vary but, in

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general, women's direct role in the field is limited, whereas they are heavily involved infood processing and preparation for market. Interviews in focus group discussionsindicated that the ADPs have increased their husband's farming productivity, broughtmore money into the community, and increased the demand for fadama land. Particularlyfor women who own land there are increased opportunities for renting it to others. Atthe same time, while rural women's workload may have increased, the benefits justify theextra effort. For the family, as well as for their own incomes, women felt that the changesthey associated with the ADP had been positive, even if they had not been directed atthem.

27. The technologies, which have been introduced by the ADPs, were developedwithout the priorities of women or the internal needs of the households in the projectareas in mind. For example, many women engage in food processing for sale and makemore money from their trade now that fadama farmers have more money to spend, butlittle ADP attention has been paid to this stage in the food chain. Given the nature ofthe social setting, the creation of the Women in Agriculture (WIA) program under theADPs was desirable. This should help to develop a dialogue with women's groups so thattheir perspective can be considered as new technologies are developed and refined,particularly in areas such as post harvest processing and marketing, where women arepredominant. There may also be greater scope for group operated pumps and tubewellsamong women than men.

Improved Farmer Involvement

28. One impression left with those who conducted the interviews and groupdiscussions for this study was that the individual farmers and even the community leaderswere not clear as to the goals, objectives and operations of the ADPs. A "take-it-or-leave-it" attitude was often associated with the ADP packages, particularly in the case of themoddls, prices and repayment conditions for pumps and there may be little real 'two-waycommunication' with farmers. Input from farmer representatives when programs are beingdesigned may not be apparent to the average farmer, especially if the emphasis ofextension is on disseminating messages rather than solving problems. Because of thisfarmers sometimes wondered about how policies on input distribution and selection ofinputs were made, feeling they had little control aside from deciding whether, asindividuals, they would adopt or not. Selection of contact farmers and early beneficiarieshas not always identified local opinion leaders, reducing the ability of the contact farmersto mobilize and influence others.

29. Fadama Users Associations (FUAs). The ongoing NFDP is organizing FadamaUsers' Associations (FUAs) to serve as a link between ADPs etc. and farmers. Certainlythere are some advantages to the ADPs in dealing with farmers as groups rather thanindividuals, particularly in collecting installment payments on pumps and tubewells.However, one of the factors which has made pumps and tubewells attractive to farmers istheir suitability for use by individual farmers rather than requiring group operation.Attempts elsewhere (eg. South Asia, Senegal) to develop 'more efficient' group operatedtubewells or surface sources which required group operation have achieved only limitedsuccess.

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30. It may be advisable not to push the formal aspects of group organizations too faruntil there is a clearer perception by the farmers that individual benefits could result fromgroup action. Holdings are becoming increasingly fragmented and this will change theprofitability of owning pumps and of the irrigation assets. So, more sharing and hiring ofpumps, tubewells and washbores should be encouraged, without disrupting individualownership and control. Also, since many of the aquifers being used are relatively small,there will have to be some action to monitor and manage the available supply, which willalso require collaboration among affected farmers. However, it may take a little moreexperience with dry season cropping for some of these issues to be come more apparent.On the other hand, if in the meantime farmers are pushed into groups for purposes whichdo not reflect their priorities, this may make group efforts harder to achieve in the longrun.

Program Funding

31. The reality of escalating costs in Nigeria raises serious concerns as to thesustainability of the present ADP packages. The findings of the study, especially on thedesirability of a broad approach to agricultural innovation and technologies (eg. includingthe desirability of including some livestock services) also raise some issues as to the effectsof heavy reliance on external funding and its packaging. Given the scarcity of domesticfunds, the approach of focussing external funding on clearly defined, subsectoral packages,eg. the NFDP, runs a risk of reducing the ability of the extension and research systems toadopt a broad approach, and to respond flexibly to new opportunities, in the way that theKano and Sokoto Projects were able to respond to the rapid growth in demand for pumpsand tubewells. There is also the danger, pointed out frequently regarding the externalfunding of research, that the perceived priorities of those providing the finance maydominate the priorities of the ultimate beneficiaries.

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1. Background

A. Historical Context of the Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs)

1.1 By the late 1970s, there were increasing concerns in Nigeria over the apparentstagnation of agricultural production, which was occurring despite the country's agro-ecological potential and diversity, the economic resources available for development fromearnings from the oil sector, and a large human resource base. "Since 1970, agriculturalproduction has stagnated, with annual growth rates (below I percent) less than half thepopulation growth. Domestic food prices have risen, agricultural exports have declinedand imports of food rose fifteenfold between 1970 and 1978. Imports of food represented6.8 percent of gross calorie supply in 1976, and are estimated to rise to 15 percent in1980. If present trends continue, imports will contribute 24 percent of gross supply by1985. Inflation for food commodities has been running at about 25 percent per year-significantly higher than for the economy as a whole .... At the same time, production isoverwhelmingly by smallholders, using traditional, manual technology" (World Bank, 1981;2: and 1982; 1).

1.2 The Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) tried a number of agricultural andrural development schemes to increase agricultural productivity, as well as improve thestandard of living for rural people. Among these strategies, focussed primarily uponsmallholders, were Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), and the National Accelerated FoodProduction Program (NAFPP). Such schemes were generally poorly coordinated, lackingthe institutional capacity to deliver extension and input supply services to small-scalefarmers spread nationwide, many residing in remote, inaccessible villages.

1.3 Against this general framework of poor performance, three main sets of constraintsto agricultural development were identified:

a) the generation and diffusion of information on improved technology:

b) the supply of productive inputs: and

c) feeder road links from farm to market.

1.4 More specifically, it was recognized that:

"Agricultural research has been inadequate, in some parts of the country non-existent, and has often failed to address farmers' most pressing problems. Linksbetween research and the extension services (divided between States and LocalDevelopment Councils) have been weak, short of trained manpower and oftenlacking in vigorous direction and coordination" (World Bank, 1981).

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1.5 Drawing on experience in East Africa, particularly in Malawi, the Bank proposed afocussed approach within defined areas, with the aim of tackling the constraints notedabove. This was tested in three specific areas in agro-ecologically favorable regions of thenorth, one of which (Gusau), was in Sokoto State. The approach focused on simpleimproved packages for some of the major food crops such as maize, sorghum and millet,combined with improvements in the extension services, input supply system, rural roadnetwork and village water supply. Semi-autonomous organizations (referred to as Projectmanagement Units - PMUs) were created to manage these operations.

B. Summary of ADP Performance

1.6 Based on the apparent success of this first effort, FGN and the Bank movedquickly to replicate this approach on a larger scale. Several state wide projects wereinitiated, including in Kano and Sokoto States. The most systematic review of theseprojects was undertaken in 1992-1993, when a 'cluster audit' was undertaken of five ADPprojects and a related support project, all approved between 1979 and 1982.

1.7 All of these projects got off to a slow start, initially due to delays in recruitment ofstaff, both Nigerian and expatriate, and later because of FGN budget constraints, as oilrevenues fell in the mid-eighties. Overall, the available statistics show that there was littleincrease in total agricultural production in each of the five ADPs examined and thatproduction was far below appraisal expectations. Some rainfed crops in specific states didshow a rising trend for yields, while others showed downward trend lines. None of theprojects achieved its quantitative and qualitative objectives.

1.8 The technology development and transfer components developed only slowly. Thesupport from research to extension was less than envisaged. Early concentration on solecropping limited the applicability of many of the trial results, as the vast majority ofsmallholders used mixed/relay cropping systems as a risk avoidance strategy, and were alsoconservative in their use of cash inputs.

1.9 The purely technical, and largely sole crop production focus of the initial projectsalso helps explain the absence of sound farming systems analysis as well as the lack ofresearch on incipient pest and disease problems associated with both the traditionalmixed/relay and fadama cropping systems. It took some time also to implement the T & Vextension system and, even where it was introduced, staff suffered from inadequatemobility. The process of developing recommendations remained relatively 'top-down' innature, as opposed to responding to farmers socio-economic conditions and attitudes toinvestment. The generally poor performance of the rainfed crops is consistent with thedifficulties referred to earlier concerning technology development, transfer and serviceprograms of the ADPs.

1.10 The most successful element of the program was the support provided to 'fadamadevelopment' in the northern projects, that is the use of river valley areas havingaccessible water supplies in the dry season, either from surface or shallow ground watersources (see Box 1.1). The ADPs sold small pumps and drilled shallow tubewells atsubsidized prices, which were primarily used to increase production of vegetables andother cash crops in the dry season. Although the area under fadama cultivation in the

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northern projects is small in relation to rainfed crops, its economic importance wasincreased because of the high value crops (dominated by tomato, onions and garlic) and itsproduction intensity, which created additional employment.

1.11 The Kano and Bauchi projects, both in the north, were judged satisfactory by theaudit. A major element in this judgement was the increased production from the fadamadevelopment activities. The remaining projects, including Sokoto, were consideredunsatisfactory.

1.12 The audit concluded that "there were major shortcomings in the ADP design:

- unjustified, overly optimistic production targets in the agriculturaldevelopment programs;

- unproven or inappropriate technology assumptions, and a disregard for thefarmers' perspective in projecting technology adoption;

- little regard to the socio-organizational aspects of rural development; and- overemphasis on physical implementation rather than on establishment of

sustainable development and service mechanisms."

1.13 "These weaknesses in ADP design and planning are likely to have been partlycaused by the haste in initiating new projects after the first generation of northern enclaveprojects were coming to an end. A model was imposed which simply continued andexpanded the earlier ADP model. Insufficient consideration was given to the implicationsof the large increase ii scale of such a capital, management and service intensive system,often to be implemented in a less favorable production environment than existed in thesmaller enclaves."

C. The Significance of These Results

1.14 The apparently positive results of the fadama development components of theKano, Sokoto and Bauchi projects stood out, not only in the context of the A1DP programin Nigeria, but also in the context of agricultural projects financed by the Bank in theWest African region as a whole. A review of the Project Completion Reports (PCRs) forBank/IDA financed agricultural projects in Western Africa, completed up to 1994,indicated that just over 25 percent of them had components designed to supportdevelopment of fadama type land. These areas have been seen as having a significant rolein intensifying agriculture since, because of water availability, some of the standardconcerns about short fallow periods do not apply.

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Box 1.1: What is 'Fadama'

"Fadama" is a Hausa word that has become commonly used to refer toseasonally damp or flooded land in small depressions with moisture or wateravailable through flooding, ground water pumping or surface lifting' or otherwisesimply inland valleys" (Babura, 1993: 24).

Scoones (1992: 3) gives a more detailed functional analysis of theagricultural importance of what he refers to as "valleybottomland wetlands":

- "Areas that act as drainage pathways or sinks for the surrounding drylandcatchments;

- Areas with higher levels of soil moisture than the surrounding toplandduring the dry season and in droughts;

- Depositional areas where organic matter and soil nutrients accumulate,making the soil heavier and richer than the surrounding topland;

- Areas with higher per area grassland or crop productivity, although notnecessarily higher returns to labour than topland areas;

- Areas that are generally small in relation to overall available area, buthave the potential for extended seasonal use and provide the opportunityfor diverse usage;

- Areas that are often key components in sustaining rural livelihoods, bothin agricultural and pastoral systems, as complements to topland, drylanduse".

The characteristics of 'fadama' areas and the environmental and otherproblems which have been raised by their increasing use are discussed in greaterdetail in Annex 1.

1.15 The review of PCRs indicated that, in most of the projects the 'fadamadevelopment' element was relatively small, and frequently the data recorded on theachievements of the effort were very limited (see Annex 2). Overall, data in the PCRsindicated that 29 percent of the efforts might be considered successful (achieved 80percent or more of their physical targets by closing), 24 percent were partially successful(50-79 percent), and 47 percent were unsuccessful (less than 50 percent of targetsachieved). However, these figures may overstate the results of these activities. There isanecdotal evidence, for example, that a significant proportion of the areas developed in

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several of these projects have been largely abandoned after the completion of the project,and the reduction of the support to the users which they had enjoyed during the projectperiod.

1.16 In fact, the fadama development efforts of the Northern Nigerian ADPs are thesingle most successful effort to support intensification of agriculture in valley bottom areasin West Africa. This success has been followed up with the National FadamaDevelopment Project (NFDP) approved in 1993, which is currently under implementation.It was, therefore, felt to be useful to examine in more detail the performance of two ofthe ADPs, focussing in particular on the fadama development components, bothspecifically as an aid to the ongoing project, but also to assess the results of the ADPactivities in this field as a guide to future efforts to support the development of this keyagricultural resource in the region.

D. The Context of the Analysis

1.17 In assessing the impact of these projects, one should review the situation in whichthey were implemented. That is, whether they fitted into the changes which were alreadyoccurring within the society and economy, and whether they helped move them morequickly in a desirable direction.

1.18 During the 1970s and 1980s, Nigeria was profoundly affected by the 'oil boom andbust'. The initial combination of increased output and high prices lead to anunprecedented flow of funds into the country, primarily to the Federal Government.Much of these funds were poorly used, but this flow was significant for the ADPs. Theywere launched on the back of the high real oil prices of the 1980s, and faced tighteninglocal fund availabilities as the real price of oil fell through the 1980s.

1. 19 Less directly, major public investment programs in trunk highways and irrigationwere also initiated in the late 1970s. The trunk highway improvements increased theaccess of the northern states to the markets of the main urban centers of the south.Irrigation schemes were, in some areas, an impetus to the changes in fadama usesupported by the projects, as dam construction and diversion of water reduced downstreamfloods and in other ways impacted the hydrology of the floodplains, to the detriment ofsome of the downstream cropping, which used traditional water management systems.

1.20 With population growing rapidly (about 3 percent per year), the oil boom alsoresulted in substantial rural-urban population movement and increased 'non-farm' demandfor food and other local agricultural products. At the same time a 'strong' Naira turnedthe terms of trade against domestic agricultural producers vis-a-vis imported goods.

1.21 In this context, with increased populations attempting to use land for agriculturaland related purposes, and with growing domestic demand for food the primary objectivesfor the agricultural sector and for the projects were to increase agricultural production ina sustainable manner, i.e. to promote change which would assist in the evolution of moreintensive, sustainable farming systems. The primary issue for the present evaluation is,therefore, an assessment of the impact of the projects on this broad process of change inthe sector and region.

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1.22 Much has been written on how production systems evolve in response toincreasing population pressure on a limited land base. Increases in population require,and stimulate, increased food production. This is achieved either by extensification (i.e.,by increasing the area 'farmed' [that is, cultivated on more than an occasional, randombasis]), or by 'intensification' (i.e., increasing the intensity with which a particular land iscultivated). When land is relatively abundant, increased production is most commonlyachieved by extensification, extending existing systems to more land with minimalmodifications.

1.23 As this becomes more difficult (e.g., the new areas have poor soils or receive morelittle rainfall) changes are made to existing production systems to achieve someintensification (e.g., fallow periods are reduced). The greater cultivation requirements ofmore intensified cropping may also lead to the adoption of animal, or even mechanical,traction.

1.24 Cropping on the 'fadama' lands has elements of both extensification andintensification. In part it is a process of bringing land into a cropping system which wasnot used for this purpose before. When additional inputs are used (e.g.,to manage waterso as to allow continuous cropping or even double cropping), there is intensification. Oneelement of the controversy over the use of these lands relates to the effect of increasedcropping on the agroecosystem as a whole (see Annex 1). Several authors have pointedout that they have traditionally been used by pastoralists for grazing purposes in the dryseason, and have been described by some as 'key resources' in the management of semi-arid and savannah regions of sub-Saharan Africa (Scoones, 1991). Increased cultivation ofthese areas robs the pastoralists of the use of grazing at the most difficult time of the year.As a result, conflicts have arisen, sometimes escalating into violence, between pastoralistsand cultivators. Other concerns have been raised over the impact on river flow of the useof water in these areas for irrigation and related purposes, and on those ecosystems whichdepend upon it. For example, the Hadejia wetlands in north-east Nigeria, whichtraditionally have been used for fishing and are a 'winter' home for migratory birds fromEurope, have been an object of particular concern. In consequence, some have claimedthat the benefits obtained by non-crop users, especially in dry season grazing bypastoralists, and in fishing, hunting, and related wildlife values, are greater than thecropping benefits obtained. This issue, however, is beyond the scope of the present,limited study.

1.25 As intensification proceeds, indigenous resource tenure systems evolve in responseto changing factor scarcities. Communal land tenure is common when land is abundant,especially where shifting forms of use are practiced. As intensification proceeds,individuals have to apply greater resources to maintaining the productivity of the land andbecome more concerned to ensure rights to its continued use. Individual rights becomemore important, in order to allow the individual to modify his pattern of use to meet hisneeds and opportunities rather than community norms, e.g., if he decides to growvegetables for his brother in the city to retail rather than continue traditional subsistenceproduction.

1.26 The ADPs have been implemented as this process of the initiation ofintensification in Nigeria was seen as entering a critical phase. Fallow periods were

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declining and available evidence suggested that yields etc. were not increasing enough tocompensate (para. 1.1). In the more arid north of the country, intensification wouldrequire more effective use of the limited water resources. Since this process was a centralpart of the Kano and Sokoto Projects, the major focus of this study was, therefore, on theeconomic, agricultural, social and environmental impacts of the technologies promoted bythe ADPs to improve the land and water management of the fadama areas. Particularly,given the significance of the results obtained in this area, consideration was given to thepotential lessons of this experience for the ADP related program in Nigeria (including thefollow-on National Fadama Development Project (NFDP), currently underimplementation) and also for the development of fadama type areas elsewhere in WestAfrica.

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2. The Kano and Sokoto ADPs

A. Content and Results

1. Objectives and Major Elements of the Projects

2.1 The primary objectives of both the Kano and Sokoto ADPs,1 as described in theirappraisal reports, were basically the same; that is, to increase agricultural production andimprove farm incomes, and to strengthen state institutions in the agricultural sector,particularly the Ministries for Agriculture and Natural Resources (MANR) and RuralDevelopment and Cooperatives (MRDC) in Sokoto State and Rural and CommunityDevelopment (MRCD) in Kano State. Kano State ADP was projected to benefit 430,000farm families cultivating an average 2.8 ha. Sokoto State ADP would similarly assist482,000 farm families, but with a larger average farm size of 4.0 ha.

2.2 To achieve these primary objectives, each project was proposed to include fourbasic components:

a) Farm and Crop Development, designed to increase crop production throughintroduction of improved farm practices with more effective research and extensiondelivery systems, better farm input supply, enhance farm management capability,and so on;

b) Infrastructural Development, or Civil Works as it was designated in Kano State,including the construction of feeder roads and provision of maintenance,improvement of rural water supplies, improvement of rural markets and ruralstorage facilities, and so on;

c) Institutional Support, to develop management, technical and administrativecapability for project staff, improve commercial supply of inputs to farmers, as wellas strengthen farmers cooperatives; and

d) Technical Assistance, through the recruitment of suitable staff and consultantservices when necessary.

1. Tere have been svcral changes in state boundaries in Nigeria over the past two decades. In 1991 both Kano and SokotoStates were subdivided-Kano into Kano and Jigaws States and Sokoto into Sokoto and Kebbi. In this report Kano State is usedto refer to Kano State a it existed prior to this division (i.e. during almost the entire life of the Kano Agricultural DevelopmentProject (KNADP) and Sokoto also refers to the undivided state, unles specific reference is mnade.

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2. The Kano Project (KNADP)

2.3 At appraisal, project costs (including contingencies) were estimated at US$482million, and the Bank loan of US$142 million was to finance 30 percent of project cost(net of taxes). At completion, 97 percent of the loan (or US$137 million) had beendisbursed by the Bank. In the event, the Bank financed 51 percent of the totalexpenditures of about US$270 million. Project implementation was in general marked bydelays, caused mainly by insufficient counterpart funding (aggravated by a declining valueof the Naira), and a change in the political regime in the early days of the project.

2.4 The project surpassed its targets in the development of fadama lands (about 60,000ha potentially irrigated compared to a target of 40,000 ha), and in the supply of potablewater in rural areas (3,000 wells compared to a target of 2,000). However, roadconstruction only reached about 60 percent of appraisal targets. Also, the developmentof the agricultural input supply system did not meet expectations. Sales of improved seedsand agro-chemicals reached only 35 percent and 6 percent of the targets respectively, andfertilizer distribution averaged 82,000 tons per year, compared to a target of 230,500 tonsper year.

2.5 Project data indicated that only maize and rice production exceeded the growthrates expected at appraisal. Yields of sorghum and millet increased by 34 and 29 percentrespectively, but the area cropped fell sharply, indicating reduced profitability, andproduction was 50 percent below appraisal targets. Groundnut production also declined.The bright spot was the fadama program, under which about 45,000 small pumps weresold, and 5,900 tubewells drilled.

2.6 At appraisal the ERR to the project was estimated at 36 percent. No estimate wasmade for the PCR as it was considered that available data was insufficient for the purpose.

3. 7he Sokoto Project (SADP)

2.7 This project was very similar to that in Kano. At appraisal project costs wereestimated at US$498 million. The bank loan of US$147 million was to finance 30 percentof total costs. In the event, project expenditure over eight years, was about US$259million, of which the loan covered 57 percent. As with Kano, implementation washandicapped by lack of counterpart funds.

2.8 The results were also similar to those in Kano. The project surpassed its targets inthe fadama program (about 40,000 ha potentially irrigated, compared to 25,000 haestimated at appraisal), construction of roads (2,300 km instead of 1,700 km), and invillage water supplies (3,500 wells compared with a target of 1,200). A total of 19,000small pumps were sold, 4,100 tubewells drilled, and 32 small dams constructed, none ofwhich had been planned at appraisal).

2.9 Hard data on the production performance of this project was very poor. The PCRconfined itself to noting that "except for the sharp decline in rainfed crops (mainlysorghum and millet) due to the droughts in 1983 and 1987, the overall impact of theproject on agricultural production was significant, although short of SAR expectations. By

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project end, SADP had completed the establishment of its extension service, and startedto implement systematically the agricultural research program ..... Monitoring andevaluation, however, was the weakest part of its management. Data available isinsufficient to carry out a meaningful assessment of project impact on the financial returnsof the producers." No ERR was estimated for the same reason.

4. 7he Audit Estimate of Rate of Return

2.10 The general conclusions of the cluster audit have been noted (paras. 1.13-1.16). Inattempting to assess benefits it came to the conclusion that "the analysis of the economicimpacts of the projects is constrained by the following factors: (a) a lack of reliablestatistical data at the macro, sectoral and project levels; (b) substantial changes in thegeneral economic environment during the period 1980-1992 (changes in the internal andexternal value of the Naira, the employment situation, relative prices and foreign tradepolicies); and (c) significant annual variations in agricultural production due to weatherconditions. "

2.11 After reviewing available data, the audit did attempt an economic analysis of theagricultural impact in two of the ADPs, Bauchi and Kano, where it decided that there wasadequate data to allow for a tentative estimate to be made of the agricultural productionbenefits of the two projects. The available data was used to obtain an estimate of thetrend of crop areas and yields for the decade 1982-1991. "Based on these trends, thecorresponding trends of the net production values were calculated (using 1989 prices).The results were used to divide the total average annual change in the net productionvalue for each crop into that due to changes in crop areas and in yields. Subjectiveestimates were then made of the extent to which these net production values associatedwith trend area and yield changes were induced by the project and by exogenous factors."

2.12 On the basis of these estimates, the ERRs of the projects were estimated as 18percent in Bauchi State and 38 percent for Kano. The audit cautioned that theseestimates should be considered as 'indications' rather than rigorous results. A significantshare of these benefits in both states resulted from the fadama activities. Netting thesebenefits out in the same way, the audit obtained estimates for the returns to the rainfedcomponents of about 10 percent for Bauchi and 16 percent for Kano.

B. The Impact Evaluation

1. Objectives of the Impact Evaluation of Kano and Sokoto ADPs

2.13 Because of the current difficulties of undertaking field surveys in Nigeria (seebelow), and the wide range of activities included in the ADPs, it was felt that an impactevaluation seeking to assess the impact of the ADPs as a whole was not feasible. It was,therefore, decided to focus on a more limited aspect of the projects. Given the relativelygood performance of the fadama components and the significance of these lands in theagricultural intensification process, it was decided to focus particularly on them, while alsoinvestigating the farmers' views of the ADPs as a whole, and of their interaction withthem.

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2.14 The specific focus of the studies was, therefore, on the economic, agricultural,social and environmental impacts of the technologies promoted by the ADPs to improvethe land and water management of the fadama areas. Particularly, given the significanceof the results obtained in this area, consideration was given to the potential lessons of thisexperience for the ADP-related program in Nigeria (including the follow-on NationalFadama Development Project (NFDP)) and also for the development of fadama typeareas elsewhere in West Africa.

2. Approach

2.15 Based on the study objective and the various factors and actors identified asimportant to understanding the impact of the ADPs upon fadama development in Kanoand Sokoto States, a multi-method approach was adopted, combining the use of bothquantitative and qualitative, as well as primary and secondary, data. The field surveymethods used in the study are summarized in Table 2.1 and described in Annex 3.

Table 2.1: Summary of Field Survey Methods used in Study and Objectives of EachMethod

Method Sample Objective

Key Informants Officials from ADP and Provide legitimation for study;Leaders from rural compare official and localcommunities perspectives on impact of fadama(N = 36) development.

Survey 1. Fadama Farmers Identify general perspective of ruralStratified by: residents as well as analyzeArea/State (N=250) differences related to demographic

characteristic.

2. Selected Fulani Study impact of increased dry seasonPastoralists (N= 16) farming on livestock rearing and

conflicts between farmers and herdersfrom the Fulani perspective.

Focus Group a) Groups: Male Determine the normative opinion ofDiscussions Farmers groups/gender; Highlight differences

b) Groups: Female of impact by gender, if any.Farmers

2.16 As noted (para. 2.10), significant data problems have dogged attempts todetermine the production impact of the ADPs and other projects. Analysis has shownthat the economic rate of return to investments, pumps and tubewells in Northern Nigeriais sufficient to justify them (para. 3.48) and that their use is financially attractive tofarmers under 'normal' conditions (para. 3.49). This study did not attempt to reassess

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these conclusions, but rather to investigate in greater detail the changes in agriculturalpractices and production made by farmers following introduction of pumps, tubewells andwashbores. It assessed the importance of the ADPs in fostering these and relatedtechnologies and to make the changes possible. A major focus of the study was onbroader social and welfare impacts of these changes, as perceived by the beneficiaryfarmers and related groups (sometimes the same people) eg. community leaders, womenand pastoralists.

2.17 The field survey was hampered by several unusual circumstances which conspiredto delay its completion and analysis. These included ongoing political instability, whichculminated in strikes, especially in the oil industry, which in turn caused a fuel crisis andmade fuel supplies erratic in quantity and quality. Universities were closed for much ofthe period, but opened or closed at short notice, disrupting work programs of the seniorresearchers and field enumerators. Random and frequent power cuts and breakdowns intelecommunications also hampered the management of the field work, as well as dataanalysis and report preparation. Also, unusually heavy rainfall in Northern Nigeriaresulted in extensive flooding in late 1994, and a few areas which were initially selectedcould not be visited at the time planned, and some had to be left out altogether due toinaccessibility. Nevertheless, the team was able to visit and gather data from a wide rangeof areas, covering an adequate cross-section of the population.

C. The ADP Programs

1. Institutional Strengthening

2.18 Both Sokoto and Kano ADPs formed a unit for fadama development afterrealizing their great potential for increasing agricultural production. In Sokoto ADP, thisunit was first established in 1984. In Kano State, the Land Use Planning Departmentincluded fadama and rural water components prior to 1986. The department was able toidentify and survey about 36,500 ha. of fadama sites. The operation of the departmentwas in close consultation with the Chief Agricultural Officer (CAO). With the lateremployment of an irrigation engineer, a separate unit was formed under the CAO to workvery closely with the Land Use Planning Department (APMEU, 1991). The unit formedfor fadama development, therefore, had close connections with three departments:Engineering, Agricultural Services and Land Use Planning, resulting in some confusion forthe implementation staff. The limited staff were placed in the three zones that had agreater fadama potential. Most of these staff, however, were more involved in tubewelldrilling or irrigation agronomy, than extension.

2.19 Sokoto State MANR established a Farm Training Centre about 13 years ago atBunza to further train extension agents for the ADP. After 2 years, the school waschanged to the Fadama Training Centre (FTC) to specifically train EAs to meet thechallenges of the government ban on wheat importation and consequent directive toproduce wheat locally. The FTC has been training 20 EAs each year. The 9 monthcourse involves seven topics in the syllabus: agronomy, irrigation, survey and landdevelopment, mathematics, mechanization, horticulture and agricultural extension.Although over 200 EAs drawn from several northern states have been trained in this

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specialized course for fadama development, no ADP staff that were interviewed in thisstudy had participated in the program.

2.20 Some of the ADP staff that were interviewed stated that they received additionalin-service training at later periods. In later sections of this report, contact betweenfarmers and extension staff and the evaluation of ADP performance by both farmers andstaff are presented.

2.21 From most indications, other institutions were not improved through the ADPprogram, except that some of their field assignments were taken over by the ADP fieldstaff. In general, the working relationship between the ADPs and other organizationssuch as the state ministries, including MANR and the RBDAs have not been asharmonious as would have been hoped to promote their mutual benefit.

2. ADP Fadama "Packages"

2.22 The northern states of Nigeria are located in the Sudanian and Sahelian ecologicalzones with mainly dry savannah vegetation and a mean annual rainfall of between 400 and1,000 mm, concentrated in four to five months (May to September). Evaporation andevapotranspiration in these zones are high. As a result, these states are prone tomoderate to strong drought risks. Vagaries of weather, particularly the timing of rainfall,limit the profitability of rainfed crops inputs. Consequently, supplementary water is notonly essential for crop production in the dry season, but can also reduce crop risks in thewet season.

2.23 The first group of enclave ADPs began to address the issue of soil moisture.Initially, in line with their focus on traditional staple crops, programs focused on uplandconservation by controlling surface runoff during the rainy season and providing measuresfor improving the total infiltration and augmenting the soil storage capacity. Theseprograms of maximizing retention of rainfall for crops did not achieve the best results inincreased crop production. As the State ADPs got underway, technical experts working inthese projects, who were familiar with successful developments in low-cost, simpletechnologies for exploiting shallow groundwater developed in fadama type areas in SouthAsia, made greater efforts to apply this technology. (Techniques of small-scale irrigationin fadamas are outlined in Annex 4).

2.24 The projects introduced low cost tubewell drilling and irrigation by pumps into thetraditional fadama farming areas with very encouraging results. Initially farmers wereoffered 3" diesel pumps and hand pumps at subsidized prices through farmer's supplycompanies (KASCO, FASCO), but these efforts did not achieve the expected results.ADP staff reported that the farmers did not like the hand pumps because they were tootedious to operate. The diesel pumps were heavy and too large to be of interest to anindividual farmer. There is also evidence that after sale back-up was poor (see below).Although there is no direct data from the study on this point, the implication from otherdata collected is that, particularly in the early stages of the adoption of the technology,benefits were uncertain, and farmers were reluctant to make a group commitment to it.

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2.25 Subsequently, small portable petrol driven pumps were introduced, which could beowned and operated by individual farmers. These proved very popular and were the basisof the rapid expansion of the use of fadama land in the dry season. The pumps largelyreplaced indigenous water lifting techniques, particularly the shadouf, in areas where theproject was active. The use of the pumps was still largely restricted to conveying waterfrom the river channel or other water source. At a distance of more than 100 metersfrom the source, farmers had difficulty with irrigation.

2.26 The sale of the pumps by the ADP ran into some controversy, however, when itwas discovered that many of the pumps were not purchased or utilized by farmers, butrather by middle-men who later resold them. In the Eastern Zone of Sokoto, a probe wasconducted into the sale and distribution of irrigation pumps (SARDA, 1986). In 1985, 583water pumps of 2" and 3" diameter were sold. The project price of N350-N400 was veryattractive compared to the market price of N1,200 for the 3" pump. The result was franticbuying by farmers and non-farmers alike, and only 58 percent were later found to beactually in use by the fadama farmers who had purchased them. It was discovered that 24percent were resold and 16 percent of the pumps could not be traced.2

2.27 A re-appraisal of the irrigation pump scheme in Sokoto indicated that the farmerswere not adequately taught about the proper use of the pumps. It was found that 32percent of the farmers were not fully informed of the operational details to use theirpumps, while 45 percent got no explanation at all. Most of the farmers were not told ofthe capabilities, or optimal use, of the pumps (SARDA, 1986).

2.28 Initially, the success rate of good yielding tubewells (sustained dry season yield ofat least 20 g.p.m.) was less than 50 percent. This was primarily due to inadequateunderstanding and definition of the shallow aquifers in the fadamas. It was, therefore,necessary to undertake detailed hydro-geological surveys to define aquifer characteristics,including boundaries, more accurately, to improve tubewell success rates. Such surveyshave recently been completed in the states of Bauchi, Jigawa and Kano (1987), Sokoto,Kebbi and Plateau (1988) and Katsina (1990). Similar surveys are in progress for otherstates.

2.29 In order to demonstrate the technology to the skeptical farmers, the earlytubewells were drilled by the ADP at no expense to the farmers. In an evaluation of thetubewells in the Central Zone of SADP, it was found that over 40 percent of thesuccessful wells were not in use a year after they had been drilled. The reviewersconcluded that "usage was very low mainly because of poor response and lack of interestfrom farmers" (SARDA, 1989: 8). Presumably the low success rate was itself a majorfactor. Later, as drilling performance improved and farmer experience accumulated,farmers in Sokoto State began to request the ADP to drill wells.

2.30 A tubewell kits manufacturing workshop was established at Gusau, Sokoto State,to promote simplification and local fabrication of tubewell drilling technology. The

2. Some pumps are used for non-agricultural purposes on a full-time or pail-time basis. Most obviously for general watersupply, but also in other general uses for the engines. Data was not sought on these non-agricultural uses in this study.

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tubewell drilling kits and technology were made available to many states, includingKaduna, Benue, Borno and Niger, and also to other countries (Ghana and NigerRepublic). The ADP had 4 mechanical rigs and 9 bailer teams for in-house drilling allover the state. Tubewell drilling by contract was successfully introduced, generatinginterest in commercial tubewell drilling by private entrepreneurs (SADP, n.d.).

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3. Agricultural and Economic Impact of Fadama Development

3.1 This chapter, based largely on the data collected in the field survey, reviews theoverall agricultural, and closely related, changes which have occurred during the life of theprojects primarily as a result of the development of fadama land. These changes includethe expansion of dry season farming, changes in farming practices, problems related to thenew technology, the related changes to farming systems, and related activities, such asmarketing.

A. Expansion in Dry Season Fadama Farming

1. Increasing Proportion of Fadama Farmers Practicing Dry Season Cultivation

3.2 Indigenous irrigation on fadama lands has a long history in Northern Nigeria. Theinterviews with 21 community leaders indicated that, in 75 percent of the villages surveyed,there has been dry season farming on fadama land for more than 20 years, and in 30percent for 50 years or more (Table 3.1).

3.3 The simplest indigenous irrigation method is the bucket-lift system, or "shadour.According to oral history from rural community leaders, the shadouf method was broughtfrom the Sudan over a century ago by trans-Saharan traders. While such devices are lowcost and depend mostly on farmer labor for construction and operation, their irrigationpotential is limited to small plots. Water lifting by such devices is laborious and the areawhich can be irrigated is limited to about 0.1 ha per shadouf.

3.4 However, while the practice is not new, the proportion of farmers practicing dryseason farming on fadama lands before 1974 (20 years ago) was generally quite small. Thelocal leaders interviewed were asked to estimate how many farmers cultivated their fadamaland in the dry season before 1974 compared to 10 years ago and the present time. InSokoto State, several leaders stated that only about 5-10 percent of the rural householdswere cultivating their fadama lands in the dry season 20 or more years ago, although allthe villages sampled had some in use at that time. Now nearly all farmers are involved.However, in Kano, although fewer villages were cultivating these lands 20 years ago,community leaders indicated that, in those villages, a larger share of farmers wereinvolved.

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Table 3.1: History or Dry Season Farming on Fadama Land in Kano and Sokoto Statsfrom a Sample of Rural Community Leaders

How long since dry season Statesfarming started in this Kano Sokotocommunity

N (%) N (%)

Not yet started 1 (8.3) - (-)10 years or less 1 (8.3) - (-)> 10- 20 years 3 (25.0) - (-)>20- <50years 4 (33.4) 5 (55.6)50 years or more 3 (25.0) 3 (33.3)

No response - (-) I (11.1)

Total 12 (100.0) 9 (100.0)a. In a few of these cases, leaders maintained that dry season farniiing had been practiced for over 100 years, although theycould not be very specific.Source: Field Survey, Interviews with conununity leaders: 1994.

3.5 For the present study, the field survey was concentrated in villages which haveaccess to fadama land. However, a few (less than 5 percent) of the farmers intervieweddid not operate or own any fadama land. Almost all of those interviewed indicated thatthey owned and operated both upland and fadama land (see Table 3.2). Most farmers hadseveral plots (the median was 4 upland plots and 3 fadama plots) which were scattered,and obtaining reliable estimates of the area cropped was very difficult. Thus, areasreported from the survey should be taken as illustrative rather than definitive (see Annex3 Note).

2. Increasing Dependence upon Fadama Areas

3.6 Rural people combine more than one income-generating activity to ensureeconomic and food security. As Table 3.3 shows, dry season farming is only one of severalsuch activities but, as the table also indicates, it is of great importance in the communitiessurveyed. While over half the farmers interviewed indicated that wet season farming wastheir most important income generating activity, fully a third reported that dry-seasonfarming was most important. This was particularly the case in Sokoto, where theproportions were equal at 44 percent. The proportions were reversed with respect totheir judgement on their second most important income source. Thus, almost 90 percentindicated that dry season farming was their first or second most important income source.Several respondents also indicated that dry season farming reduces the risk for farmerswho may experience a poor harvest from their wet season farming as they will then haveincome from the second crop to buy the food that they were not able to produce.

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Table 3.2: Access to Land for Sampled Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Land OwnershipBoth upland and fadamna 114 (90) 125 (96)Only upland 8 (7) 1 (1)Only fadama 4 (3) 4 (3)

Source of LandRented all 2 (1) 1 (1)Inherited all 86 (68) 91 (70)Rent and inherited 29 (23) 28 (21)Other 8 (7) 9 (7)No response I (1) I (1)

Location of PlotsAll in one area 11 (9) 10 (8)Upland together,

fadama scattered 3 (2) 3 (2)Fadama together,

upland scattered 25 (20) 16 (12)All plots scattered 87 (69) 101 (78)

Source: Interviews with fadafn famners, Field Study, 1994.

Table 3.3: Rural Income-Generating Activities in Fadama Areas of Kano andSokoto States as Ranked by Farmers

Activity Number Responding PercentageIst 2nd 3rd Ist 2nd 3rd

Wet season farming 142 85 23 55 33 9Dry season farming 88 131 12 34 51 5Livestock 3 14 138 1 5 54Trading 7 14 32 3 5 12Hired labor - - 3 - -I

Fish I 1 12 ! ! 5Grain milling 1 - 2 I

Others 14 8 16 5 3 6No response 3 18 - 1 7

Total 256 256 256a. Less than one-half percent.Soure: Interviews with Fadanm Farmers, Field Study, 1994.

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3.7 The fact that, about 15 years ago, only about 25 percent of farmers were engagedin dry season farming (see Table 3.4) at all is an indication of the extent of the changewhich has occurred over the past decade and a half.

3.8 Data on the actual production of fadama areas is scanty. Production data forKano State through the 1980s indicate no real trend in area cropped or in yields for therainfed upland crops (see Annex 5, Table A5.6). In fact, the data are most notable inillustrating the sharp changes in year to year production reflecting the relatively low andvariable rainfall in the state. However, during the same period there was a steady increasein fadama cultivation, reflecting the fact that the total value of production from fadamaland is likely to be 10 to 20 times as great as for rainfed cropping on upland, with greaterreliability.

3.9 For many of these farmers, dry season farming is still relatively new. Formerincome earning activities in the dry season, that required seasonal migration, such asfishing or working as hired laborers, have now been curtailed in favor of growing a secondcrop on fadama lands. Even if a farmer does not have fadama land of his own, greateropportunities now exist to get jobs as a hired laborer in his own village or to rent a plot offadama land nearby.

3.10 Natural events in Northern Nigeria, particularly in the last one to two decades,have given more motivation to farmers to practice fadama cultivation in the dry season.ADP staff interviewed indicated that, in their judgement, the recent natural events ofgreatest significance to farmers have been the droughts of 1973, 1983-84 and 1987-88;insect infestations of aphids attacking cash crops (1983-84) and locust invasions (1984-85),as well as bird damage that posed a serious threat to the wheat crop of 1987-88.

B. Dry Season Fadama Farming Practices

3.11 Though dry season farming with indigenous techniques has had a long history inthe fadama areas under consideration, the proportion of farmers practicing dry seasoncultivation at the community level has been shown to have greatly increased. In addition,most of the farmers practicing dry season farming more than 10 years ago had beenlimited to using unreliable residual moisture or the shadouf on very small areas of fadamaland.

3.12 Table 3.4 shows not only the distribution of sampled farmers on the type of dryseason farming they practice, but also the length of time they have been engaged in thisactivity and the technology presently used, as well as the changes experienced in the last10-15 years. Of the farmers interviewed, almost a third drew water from both surface andground water sources. Almost a quarter drew from surface sources only, and the balance,45 percent, from ground water only. About two-thirds of those using surface water, drewit with a motorized pump, as did more than three quarters of those using ground water.The pumps have clearly had a revolutionary effect on dry season operations. The recentintroduction of the wash-bore is also having a significant impact where its use is feasible.It is widely used in Kano, (44 percent of those farmers sampled who are using groundwater) compared to only 3 percent in Sokoto. Conversely, 50 percent of this group inSokoto use tubewells, compared to only a quarter in Kano.

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Table 3.4: Dry Season Fadama Farming Practices in Kano and Sokoto Stati

7ype of dry season fadama farming Total Responding % of 7hoseUsing Swrace orGround Water

No. %

Use of surface water + =- shadouf 27 11 21- manual or treadle pump 1 - I- motorized pump 84 33 66- shadouf and pump 5 2 4- other (irrigation, etc.) 11 4 6- don't use surface water 128 50

Use of underground water + =- well and shadouf 39 15 22- well and treadle pump 1 - I- well and motorized pump 29 11 16- washbore 38 15 21- tubewell 70 27 40- don't use underground water 79 31

Use both surface & underground water: 72 28

Use of residual water: 9 4

How long have you been practicingdry season farming?-less than 5 years 25 10- 5-10 years 70 29- 10-20 years 88 37- over 20 years 55 23- no response 18 -

Use of shadouf:- used and still using 69 29- used, but now replaced by pump 86 37- never used shadouf 7 34- no response 22 -

Use of manual or treadle pump:- yes, I have one 14 6- don't have, want one 59 25- don't have, don't want 83 35- have never heard of it 78 33- no response 23 -

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Compare present with 1980:Area of land:- greater area now 115 55- no change in area farmed 74 35- less area now than 1980 22 10- no response 45 -

Technology used:- shadouf before and now 48 23- shadouf before, pump now 96 45- pump before, pump now 5 2- pump before, no longer 1 -

- nothing before, pump now 52 25- only use residual moisture 10 5- no response 44 -

Source: Interviews with fadara farmers, Field Study, 1994.

3.13 In a few of the surveyed areas of the former Sokoto State, such as Mai-dahini andJaurin Rogo, farmers are still largely limited to the use of a shadouf with water from openwells or a surface source only. These localities are generally handicapped by limitedaccess and ADP attention has been extended to them only recently. This indicates that inless advantaged areas spread of the fadama development innovations without ADPintervention may be limited. Several farmers in the area still do not practice dry seasonfarming, except through the use of residual moisture, even though they own fadama land.On the other hand, in other areas where the technologies have taken hold, farmers havemodified it further to meet their circumstances. For exammple, once farmers combine anumber of strategies, such as observed in Argungu where some farmers use surface waterby shadouf and motorized pump, as well as underground water with open wells andshadouf, or tubewells and pumps. Others, in areas where tubewells have been drilled,have been able to fabricate some equipment to drill further wells for themselves.

3.14 The type of dry season farming practiced in a community shows some uniformityamong respondents, even though a few farmers will show a higher level of adoption orgreater area of cultivation. For example, in Sabiya Village, Aliero District of SokotoState, most farmers practice dry season farming using both surface water (with motorizedpumps) and underground water from local wells drawn by both shadouf and motorizedpumps. In most cases, they use oxen for cultivating their upland plots, but use neitheroxen nor tractors for fadama cultivation, relying upon family and hired labor.

3.15 As the data also show, among the sampled fadama farmers, the use of shadouf,manual pumps and residual moisture have been largely replaced by motorized pumps.This trend meant that many farmers, particularly with large areas of land, cultivate more oftheir fadama land in the dry season than before. Olofin (1991) maintains that 82 percentof fadama holdings in Kano State before 1980 were between 0.2 ha. and 1.0 ha. with noneabove 4.0 ha. While the PCR for Kano State agrees that field sizes range from 0.4 to 1.0ha., the report maintains that overall farm sizes range from 1.6 to 4.3 ha, but are variablewith larger holdings in more remote areas (APMEU, 1991).

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C. Ownership and Management of Pumps and Tubewells

1. Individual vs. Group Ownership and Management

3.16 Formal irrigation schemes enable farmers to practice dry season cultivation, butindividual farmers have no control over the amount and flow of water from the source.Farmers having plots near the source often suffer from water logging, while those far awaymay not get enough water for their plants to survive. One of the major advantages of thefadama development efforts with tubewell or washbores and pumps through the ADP isthat fadama farming is more decentralized, economical, efficient in water management andunder the direct control of the farmer.

3.17 Data summarized in Table 3.5 indicate that ownership of these assets is now reallywidespread. Sixty percent of the farmers interviewed indicated that they owned at leastone pump, and almost a quarter have two or more. Not all of these are operational.Twenty percent of those who responded indicated that their pump was not nowfunctioning (data collected did not indicate whether this is just because of temporary lackof spare parts, or the pump is permanently out of action). One third of the farmersreported that they now have at least one tubewell (half of these have two or more), andeighteen percent have at least one washbore.

3.18 Hiring pumps out was reported occasionally by the sampled farmers and, in factseveral farmers who own pumps stated that they may allow other farmers to use theirpumps without charge. One respondent stated that he pays N20 (twenty naira)/hour to aneighbor who owns a pump. A significant proportion of the farmers-but a minority ofthose surveyed-either hired, or borrowed, a relative's or a neighbor's pump, so that'group use' was practiced, but under the control of the owner. In a number of thesecases, the pump was available to others in the afternoon, or on alternate days, when thepump owner's fields had been irrigated. One woman farmer from Sokoto State said thatshe had bought her own pump from the ADP for N3,000 and she allows other women touse it. For groups of women farmers, or for a family of male farmers, group ownershipand maintenance is likely to be more acceptable, but it is not yet common enough to allowan evaluation of how well this arrangement works. Ten percent of the farmers reportedthat they have two or more washbores and, since the pumps are portable and jetting outthe washbore is inexpensive, this may indicate that some hiring out of equipment isbeginning to develop.

46

Box 3.1: Subsidization of Pumps and Tubewells

Pumps and tubewells were initially supplied at subsidized rates by ADPs, but theextent of this subsidy varied significantly between states and periods. FACU hasrecommended for several years that the ADPs add a markup of 15 percent to the pricepaid by them. Thus, in principle, equipment is now sold at full cost. However, eachstate has set its own prices and there has not been complete consistency in followingthis recommendation. This policy has also been undercut by national policies, eg. onthe exchange rate. This makes the overall level of subsidy for the program almostimpossible to calculate.

For example, in 1994 Plateau ADP imported two types of pumps, 2 inch and 3inch. The landed cost of these pumps were about US$310 and $400 respectively. Atthe then official exchange rate of N22/US$ (which applied to the ADPs), these pricestranslated to N6,800 and 8,800 respectively for the two types of pump. The ADP wasadding a markup of N3,000 and N3,700 to cover costs and was selling the pumps atN9,800 and N 12,500 respectively, which met the FACU requirements.

However, during that period, the estimated parallel exchange rate wasN54.5/US$. At that rate the 'cost' to the ADP should have been about N 17,000 andN22,000 respectively. At the time open market prices in the area for similar pumpswere reported to be about N 18,500-19,000 for 2-inch pumps and N25,000 for 3-inchpumps, i.e.,about 10-12 percent above the landed price at the parallel market rate. Atthese rates the level of subsidy implicit in the prices charged by the ADP was about 50percent.

Since those prices were reported, the exchange rate for commercial transactionshas fallen to N80/US$. Thus, the prices in Naira terms for the two types of pumps willincrease to about N25,000 and N32,000 respectively, paid by the ADP, and the pricescharged by the ADP will have to rise to N30,000 to N38,000 to cover this.

3.19 All of the information obtained by the study indicated that group ownership israre. The focus group discussions indicated a general view that farming is an activitywhich is undertaken as individuals or as families, and control of resources, such as landand capital goods, takes place at this level. This does not mean, however, that individualpumps etc. are used only by their owners, but is does mean that there is a reluctance toenter into situations where rights over an important asset are not clear, or are subject tocontinual negotiation.

47

Table 3.5: Information on Pumps and Tubewells or Washbores from a Sample orFadama Farmers from Kano and Sokoto States

Total

No. offamters %

Number of motorized pumps

None 101 391 97 382 40 163 14 5

4 or more 4 2256 100

Amt. Paid for PumpNothing I<N200 2 1N200-N500 44 21

• N500-N 1,0000 51 24• N 1,000-N5,000 74 35> N5,000-N7,500 15 7• N7,500-N10,000 8 4> N10,000 7 3No response J1R _

212 l00Still Functioning? £

Yes 170 80No 42 20

Able to Purchase New Pump? b

Yes 103 67No 52 33

Number of WB % TW %Washbores/Tubewells

None 211 82 170 671 21 8 44 *172 12 5 21 83 7 3 11 4

4 or more 5 2 10 4a. Numbers are of reponed pumps.b. For farmers that have owned pumps at sonm tims.

Source: Interviews with adam fanners, Field Study, 1994

48

2. Cost of Irrigation Pumps

3.20 The cost of a pump is an important determinant of the ability of a farmer to adoptits use and obtain his/her own, even if convinced of the benefits to be derived. Some ofthe respondents obtained their first pump (and sometimes subsequent pumps) before theadvent of the project from the 'market (which comprises a number of possible sources).One farmer reported that he bought his first pump for NIOO in 1979 from Niger. Even atthe time of the project, a number of farmers purchased pumps from other sources,sometimes because none were available from the project at the desired time, or they hadno contact with the ADP, or because a different model was preferred to the one offeredto farmers by the ADP.

3.21 Table 3.5 gives data provided by selected respondents on the cost of pumps atdifferent years and from different sources. Wide variation exists within a given timeperiod, partly due to the fact that some of the pumps may have been second-hand.Nevertheless, it is clear from farmer comments that the price from the ADP wasconsistently lower than market prices. One farmer, for example, stated that he purchasedtwo pumps in 1987, one in the market for N600 and one at the ADP for N400. Althoughit is not known if the two were of the same type, both pumps were still said to befunctioning at the time of the study. As reported elsewhere in this report, this disparityled to speculative buying of pumps by traders, who later sold the pumps to the farmers athigher prices.

3.22 The strategy of subsidizing the cost of inputs, adopted by the ADP in the earlyyears of implementation, often did not have the desired impact and led to farmersexpecting reduced prices from the government-a strategy which has not been sustainable.Farmers are now required to pay the full cost of pumps and tubewells, and are now payingmore attention to maintenance than in earlier years. Given the rapid increase in the costof pumps (in Naira terms) over the past few years, the majority of farmers reported thatthey now feel unable to purchase another pump at current market prices. This wasperhaps not surprising under the conditions of late 1994 when the Naira was falling invalue, prices of imported goods were rising, and the outlook for produce prices was veryuncertain.

3. Problems and Benefits from the use of Improved Technology

3.23 Technical problems. Table 3.4 showed that twice as many farmers currently usetubewells compared to washbores. At the time of project implementation, the technologyfor washboring did not allow a washbore to be 'jetted' to the depth (and through the typeof geological formation) that is now possible. At that time, engineering consultantsrecommended that, while washbores were feasible in many areas of Kano State withsandier soils and a higher water table, the conditions in many fadama areas in Sokotowould require drilling a tubewell. In the earlier years Sokoto ADP was also less interestedin the washbore technology and did little to promote it.

3.24 Presendy, due to the improved technology, the ADPs are encouraging washborejetting wherever possible, reportedly to depths as great as seven meters. Under thepresent economic conditions, use of the less expensive technology where possible removes

49

a major problem for the farmer. The simpler technology also allows the farmer to easilymove his pump from one location to another if necessary, without requiring drillingequipment to be brought in again.

3.25 Just over 20 percent of the farmers who had washbores, reported problems withthem. The most common was that they filled up with sand and had to be rejetted. Sincethe technique works better in the lighter soils, and since farmers have become moreskilled at jetting out the bores, this does not seem to be a serious problem. Two farmersreported that they could no longer obtain adequate water from the depth reachable bytheir washbore, a problem which appeared to be linked to the construction of an upstreamdam and subsequent lowering of the down stream water table.

3.26 Problems with tubewells were cited by about 13 percent of farmers owning them.The most common was that the wells did not provide adequate water to meet the farmer'sirrigation needs. In most cases this is probably due to the wells being sited in lowpotential areas. Three farmers reported that their tubewells had been damaged by floods,and were unusable, and two (one in each state) that they had been damaged by Fulanipastoralists. In one case the Fulani filled the tubewell with cornstalks, while in the other,they broke off the top.

3.27 Maintenance and repair of pumps has become easier in more recent times as localmechanics in many fadama areas have learned to do basic servicing and repairs.Discussions with one farmer/mechanic in Sabiya village, Sokoto State, showed a goodawareness of the types of pumps and the common problems associated with each. Hemaintained that Honda, Robin and Yamaha brands of pumps are easier to repair and theirparts are more readily available.

3.28 Production benefits. It is apparent that obtaining a tubewell or washbore andpump has led to the cultivation of a greater area of land and consequently, increasedproduction and income. Most farmers who stated that they now had better food securityand increased yield attributed this condition to increased dry season farming. Table 3.6shows some of the changes made during the project period by farmers in the CentralZone of Sokoto State, who had been cultivating fadama land using traditional methodsand who then purchased a pump.

3.29 The farmers were classified by group according to area of fadama land cultivatedbefore purchase of a pump. This shows that in all groups, that area cultivated increasedafter pump purchase. The increase, both in area cultivated and in gross income fromfadama crops, was greatest among the medium-sized group. Since about half the farmersnow cultivating fadama did not do so before the start of the project, and a large majorityof the rest now actually making use of pumps are in the small-medium groups (asclassified in this table), the increase in production is clearly large.

50

Table 3.6: Impact of Securing Motorized Pump upon Agricultural Production byDifferent Categories of Fadama Farmers in the Central Zone of Sokoto State

Type of Agricultural Impact Category of Farmers

Small Medium Large Overall

Fadama area cultivated in dry season (Area in ha)

Before the pump 0.6 0.8 4.6 2.0After the pump 0.9 1.5 5.5 2.6% change 50 88 20 32

Labor use infadama cultivation (Mandays/farm)

Before the pumpHired 480 600 805 628Family 200 300 345 282Total 680 900 1150 910

After the pumpHired 600 730 985 772Family 320 300 405 342Total 920 1030 1390 1114

% ChangeHired 25 22 22 23Family 60 - 17 21Total 35 14 21 22

Gross income from fadama crops (N/respondent/pump)

Before the pump 776 1061 2072 1303After the pump 1227 2150 3618 2332Increment 451 1089 1546 1029% change 58 103 75 79

Source: SARDA (no date). Fadanm Developmnent in Centml Zone, Cummi: A Review and Evaluation wilh SpecialReference to Water Pump Distribution, Gumni (combined data from pp. 22,24,26). [Note averages are not weighted.1

D. Changes in Farming Systems

3.30 The integration of wet season cultivation on upland and fadama lands, and dryseason farming on fadama land, with livestock production requires an intricate balance ofclimatic and agronomic factors as well as social and family responsibilities. Toaccommodate these requirements, fadama farmers have been required to adjust theiragricultural activities. Hard data on these changes is, however, scanty. Analysis byFACU/APMEU has concentrated on individual crop enterprises and ADP M&E unitshave done little survey work to obtain data on typical household operations.

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1. Cropping Pattern

3.31 The most common wet season crops are sorghum, millet and maize on uplandareas. For the majority of farmers, these crops are grown mostly for householdconsumption with the excess sold, usually in the local market. Groundnuts are grown insome areas-for local processing and for sale. Cotton is produced for sale in a fewlocalities, also. Beans are grown during the early dry season both for sale and for localconsumption, as well as for use as browse for livestock. Rice is grown in fadama areasduring the wet season mostly for sale.

3.32 Dry season crops grown in fadamas include wheat, tomato, onions, various types ofpeppers (with 'tattasai" (sweet red pepper) being the most popular), garlic, eggplant, andother non-indigenous produce such as cucumbers, lettuce, and carrots. Maize is grownduring the dry season in fadama areas near the towns and urban centers, so that it can besold as 'green cobs" to meet the demand for fresh, boiled corn.

3.33 Tomato has become the major crop, reportedly accounting for more than 70percent of the dry season vegetables in Kano State (Kumar and Gaya, 1994). Severalfadarna farmers, however, stated that they prefer to grow 'tattasai', because it is easier totransport with less spoilage than tomatoes, due to its lower water content. 'Tattasai'plants are also more resistant to flood damage, and the return to labor is also good. Theproblem of marketing and transporting most of the dry season produce in its unprocessedform not only reduces profit for producers, but also causes a lot of wastage.

3.34 In Sokoto State, ADP staff stated that they had encouraged farmers to diversifywith Irish potatoes and a few other crops, but the farmers continued to concentrate ononions and garlic. For farmers that can afford to store or buy these crops at harvest timefor about N400/bag, they can make a great profit by later selling for as much asN3,000fbag for garlic and N2,500/bag for onions during off-season.

3.35 The farming system is more market oriented than it used to be, and this shift isdirectly related to increased dry season farming in the fadama areas. Farmers were askedto indicate their most important crops today and ten years ago. Farmers' responses can begrouped into four (see Table 3.7):

(a) wet season crops on the upland (millet, sorghum, beans etc) thatare predominantly for household consumption, with some excess sold, usually in the localmarket or at times of necessary expenditure;

(b) dry season crops grown on the fadama (tomatoes, peppers, onionsetc.) that are almost totally for sale;

(c) wet season crops grown in the fadama (predominantly rice) that aremostly for sale; and

(d) other cash crops which may be grown in fadama, and which mayreceive irrigation water (eg. cotton, sugar cane, wheat).

52

Table 3.7: Farmers' Most Important Crops: 10 Years ago and Today: Kano and SokotoStates

Crops 10 Years Ago Today

Number % Number %

Staple Crops (sorghum, 136 60 81 35millet, beans)

Dry Season Crops (onion, 43 19 108 48pepper, tomato, garlic,etc.)

Rice 26 12 33 15

Other Cash Crops (wheat, 21 9 4 2cotton, sugar cane)

Total 226 226Smme: Interviews with fadana famiris, Field Study 1994.

3.36 The results indicate a clear shift towards market oriented production and, inparticular, towards crops in group (b). Sixty percent of the farmers indicated that tenyears ago their most important crop was a staple, whereas now only 35 percent considerthat to be the case. Given that 10 percent had indicated that their most important incomesource was a non-farm activity, and that a share of the sample was elderly, this means thatalmost all the others will have given a cash crop as their most important now. The biggrowth in cash crops has been in the vegetables, where the number of farmers citing themas most important rose from below 20 percent to almost 50 percent. At the same time,there was some reduction in the importance of other cash crops (group (d)) which fell to2 percent from 9 percent.

2. Adoption of Innovations

3.37 The use of inputs, including improved seeds, fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides andstorage chemicals, as well as tractors or ox-drawn traction, is now widespread. The fadamafarmers interviewed were asked when they first used the major purchased inputs. Of theinputs listed, all have been used by at least half of the farmers, except herbicides, whereonly ten percent have used them (see Annex 5, Table A5. 1). The responses indicate verylimited use of these inputs before 1980, with only fertilizer being widely used at that time.Figure 3.1 shows the cumulative use of the inputs since 1980, and indicates that the rapidspread of their use parallels the life of the ADPs.

3.38 Economic considerations have played a major part in explaining farmers' adoptivebehavior. Interviews with the different types of respondents surveyed indicated thatfarmers are more willingto purchase inputs for crops grown on the fadama lands that they

53

will be able to sell and make their profit from, than for wet season crops grown on uplandthat are more likely for household consumption. However, in some cases, farmers statedthat they had been using fertilizer for more than 20 years, but with the current prices andlimited availability, they have decreased or stopped its use altogether. One respondentfrom Tangwale village stated that improved onion seeds cost N20/packet five years ago,but now a packet costs N220. The farmer has now begun to produce his own seeds.

3. Lvestock Production and Ox-Drawn Traction

3.39 From the data on rural income-generating activities of fadama farmers (Table 3.2),it is apparent that livestock production is an important activity for rural dwellers in thisregion of Nigeria. Six percent of the farmers interviewed gave it as their first or secondoccupation, and for 57 percent it was their third. Table 3.8 gives information on livestockkeeping in Kano State at the time of the project. While over 90 percent of householdskept livestock of some sort, these were predominantly small ruminants and poultry. Onlyabout one-third of households had cattle, but these averaged seven animals each, andincluded oxen for traction purposes. Farmers who own work bulls not only have theadvantage of available traction, but can also hire them out to other farmers. One farmerin Sokoto State stated that he owns two pairs of work bulls and rents them out for N600-N 1,000/day.

3.40 From discussions with community leaders, as well as the farmers themselves, othertypes of livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats or chickens are not only important foreconomic security, but also from the point of view of social status. Almost half of thefarmers surveyed in this study indicated that their first source of cash to meet significantneeds is the sale of some livestock or stored crops (Table 3.9).

54

Table 3.8: Kano State: Proportion or Households Keeping Livestock and Mean Nunberof Animals/Household/Zone

Zones in Kano State

Zone I Zone 11 Zone !!! Zone IV

% households keeping livestock 93 95 92 83

% households keeping cattle 22 39 29 41(mean # of cattle/household) (8) (7) (7) (6)

% households keeping sheep 75 81 73 78(mean # of sheep/household) (7) (8) (6) (7)

% households keeping goats 86 88 82 81(mean # of goats/household) (8) (8) (7) (8)

% households keeping poultry 73 71 68 63(mean # of fowls/household) (18) (14) (14) (12)

% households keeping donkeys 36 39 38 25Source: KNARDA (1986). Report on the 1984 Large Scale Reconnaissance Survey, Kano.

Table 3.9: Sources of Funds for Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto State

Most likely source offunds: N %

Friends/relatives 97 38Sell livestock/stored crops 123 48Bank 14 5Other (including adashe

or money lenders 14 5No response 8 3

256Source: interviews with fadama famiers, Field Study, 1994, Table A5.2.

55

Figure 3.1: Use of Inputs by FadamaFarmers in Kano and Sokoto States

10

X 8 0 -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

4 0 - -- -X - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

ag 2 0 -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1980 1985 1990 1994

|+ improved seeds fertilizer -- storage chemicals

56

3.41 Perhaps surprisingly the survey also indicated an increase in the numbers oflivestock kept over the past 10 years, despite the difficult economic times and therelatively dry weather and greater difficulty in obtaining feed. Two-thirds of the farmersresponding indicated that they now kept more livestock than before, 19 percent said therehad been no change, and only 15 percent said they now have fewer than before. (SeeTable 3.10).

3.42 This finding is in accord with the results of a recent study carried in five Saheliancountries (with the principal work carried out in Nigeria), which used low level aerialreconnaissance and ground studies (Bourn and Wint, 1994). This showed a highlysignificant relationship between livestock numbers and the intensity of land use, andsuggested that cultivation and human habitation are the best predictors of livestockdistribution. Thus, far from displacing livestock, increased cultivation is accompanied byincreases in livesstock numbers, although there may be a relative change in numbersbetween species.

3.43 Regarding the type of traction used, some farmers stated that tractors were notgood for upland plots because the soils are too light and tractors dig too deeply into thesoil. On the other hand, many respondents maintained that fadama soils are heavy andrequire tractors for effective cultivation. In several surveyed areas, however, farmerscomplained that tractors were not available or the cost, even to hire work bulls, isprohibitive, so that they had to rely upon family and hired labor.

4. Use of Hired Labor

3.44 Dry season farming requires substantial labor input. Hired laborers are commonlyused, particularly by larger scale farmers. More than 80 percent of farmers interviewedreported using hired labor in the dry season and 90 percent in the wet season (Table3. 11). Overwhelmingly local labor (from the same or a nearby community) is used. Thosereporting that labor is easier to obtain than it was 10 years ago outnumber those reportinggreater difficulty by two to one. This is slightly at odds with responses that it is becomingmore difficult to obtain labor, and that out-migration for work is less than it used to be.However, this suggests that the situation reflects a reduction in employment opportunitiesin other regions in the depressed conditions of the past few years and, in that context, theopportunities offered by the expansion of dry season cropping have been of particularvalue.

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Table 3.10: Livestock Production and Ox-Drawn Traction for a Sample of FadamaFarners in Kano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Compare level of livestockproduction with 10 yrs. ago:

More now than 10 yrs. ago 78 (62) 69 (53)The same as 10 yrs. ago 23 (18) 19 (15)Less now than I0 yrs. ago 18 (14) 17 (13)No response 7 (6) 25 (19)

Traction for field cultivation:On upland fields:

Oxen 96 (76) 59 (45)Tractor 8 (6) 29 (23)Both oxen and tractor 10 (8) 12 (9)Neither oxen or tractor 12 (10) 30 (23)

On fadama fields:Oxen 56 (45) 15 (12)Tractor 28 (22) 61 (47)Both oxen and tractor 4 (3) 8 (6)Neither oxen or tractor 30 (24) 35 (27)No response 8 (6) 11 (8)

Source: Interviews with fadanu ranners, Field Sludy, 1994.

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Table 3.11: Use of Hired Laborers by Sampled Fadama Farmers from Kano and SokotoStates

Wet Season Dry Season

Kano Sokoto Kano Sokoto

N N N N

Hire laborers:Yes 110 123 107 109No 16 7 19 21

Compare availability ofhired laborers now and 10years ago:

Easier to get now 60 74 63 70About the same 15 7 13 2More difficult now 35 42 31 37No response 16 7 19 21

Where do hired laborerscome from?

Within same community 69 70 57 66Nearby community 32 49 36 37Different LGA 6 4 7 6Outside the State 1 - 4 -

No response/No labor 18 7 22 21

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Hire laborers to draw water forirrigated crops?

Yes 59 (47) 48 (37)No 67 (53) 82 (63)

Source: Inwrvi.ws with r dana farenrs, Field Survey, 1994.

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3.45 For rural people not possessing their own fadama land, casual paid labor providesa way to also benefit from increased dry season farming. As the use of tractor isbecoming less feasible, the reliance upon ox-drawn traction and manual laborers becomeseven greater. A number of respondents noted that it is becoming more difficult to getsufficient hired laborers as more alternatives for income generation and more demand fortheir labor is currently available.

3.46 Use of family labor is largely restricted to male adults. Older women do assist inplanting, weeding and harvesting, but few children engage on farm labor. In most cases,female children are not involved at all.

5. Economic Benefits of Cropping

3.47 Financial and economic analysis has consistently shown that the profitability ofirrigated production for the farmer. A substantial analysis was carried out in 1991 for theappraisal of the NFDP. This showed that, at the then prevailing labor rate of 20 Nairaper day, and prevailing prices, the financial return to a farmer cultivating 0.5 ha with acombination of grains and vegetables was in excess of 90 percent and for grain productiononly was 37 percent for a shallow tubewell and over 60 percent for the cheaper washbores(World Bank, 1992). Given the level of subsidy of several of the inputs, the ERRs werelower. For grain production only the return was -1 percent for a farm of 0.5 ha with atubewell, but 14 percent for a washbore. If 1.0 ha could be cropped, the return to thetubewell increased to 20 percent. Thus, returns are subject to wide variation and sensitiveto yields and water use efficiency as well as prices.

3.48 In practice, and especially where much of the labor used is provided by the family,and it is their main source of income earning, and where the investment is relatively lowrelative to the cash flow generated, farmers are interested in the return per man day oflabor. In all cases studied in 1991, the computed net return per manday of labor exceededthe then market wage of 20 Naira per day by a wide margin. Among individualcommodities, these returns are highest for vegetables, (84 Naira). For rice they were 52Naira in the dry season and 43 Naira in the wet season. In contrast, the returns to laborfor the production of rainfed crops, especially the traditional crop mixtures produced inNorthern Nigeria, are frequently less than the market wage rate. This situation indicatesthe attractiveness of even small areas of dry season cropping for a family under conditionsof reduced off-farm opportunities.

3.49 More recent analysis indicates a similar picture (see Annex 5, Tables 7-10). Basedon 1994 data for Kaduna and Katsina States financial returns per day of labor wereestimated to range from 45 Naira for tomatoes to 85 Naira for peppers and onions(compared to a wage rate of about N40), and a mixture of these would yield a return ofabout N13,500 per hectare. Assuming that a tubewell and 2 hp pump could irrigate I haof such crops, the economic rate of return was estimated at 26 percent (Annex 5, Table10).

3.50 The sharp shifts in value of the Naira and the proneness of some perishable crops(e.g. tomatoes) to gluts and low prices, mean that actual returns to farmers fluctuatewidely. The present survey was carried out in late 1994 when the official exchange rate of

60

the Naira was 22 to the dollar and the parallel market rate about 55. Pump prices wererising and expected to go further. Gasoline was scarce and often expensive because ofproblems in the oil industry. The outlook for product prices was uncertain. It is perhapsnot surprising in those circumstances that one-third of the farmers interviewed said thatthey could not now "afford" to buy a new pump at market prices. However, one of theadvantages of the pump technology is its flexibility. Given the entrepreneurial nature ofmany Nigerian farmers it is reasonable to expect that they will find new ways to utilize theability to deliver water, e.g. supplemental water for grains, so as to continue to obtain areturn on their prior investment.

E. Village Level Impacts

3.51 ADPs have been involved with infrastructural development through therehabilitation of feeder roads, improving water supply for rural communities throughboreholes, and providing farm service centers to facilitate input supply to farmers. Theimportance of improving the road network is seen in the data in Table 3.12 on main roadtypes/LGA in the Western Zone (Bunza) of SARDA.

3.52 While the primary objective for most cases of constructing rural feeder roads hasbeen to facilitate marketing in areas already producing, an interesting case study wasdiscovered in Gummi area of the former Sokoto State. The ADP constructed a ruralfeeder road to a rural area about 20 kms from Gummi. The area contains a lake, 10 kmlong, 1-2 km wide, with villages located around it. The ADP staff recognized the fadamapotential for dry season production and organized 15 farmers into the Tsibiri FadamnaGroup Farmers Cooperative. That year a pilot irrigation scheme initiated the cultivationof wheat, rice and maize. After the first year, over 200 farmers enrolled themselves toform new cooperatives (SARDA, n.d.). In this case, the development of the road led tothe identification of a new area for fadama utilization.

Table 3.12: Sokoto State: Main Road Types/LGA in the Western Zone (1987)

Type of Road (%) of LGA)

LGA Good Bad Good Bad FootTar Tar Laterite Laterite Path

Argungu 2.4 - 14.4 60.3 23.0Bagudo 0.8 3.5 13.8 44.1 25.0B/Keddi 16.8 - 25.7 34.7 22.8Bunza 2.8 0.9 11.0 50.1 30.9Jega 22.9 - 31.7 43.7 1.7Yauri 11.1 2.7 2.9 21.9 60.5

Mean 9.3 1.1 15.6 43.2 27.7Source: SARDA (1988). Village Listing Exercise Report, April, 1987: Western Zone, Bunza.

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3.53 Interviews with the community leaders indicated that most of the villages do nothave their own market, but have to go to other villages or towns and cities to market theirproduce. In most cases, securing transportation to get the goods to other markets did notappear to be a serious constraint.

3.54 The local leaders also stated that farmers commonly market their produceindividually, although a sizable proportion do market some of their crops as a group bychartering a vehicle to carry the crops to the urban markets, especially dry seasonperishables. This was found to be somewhat more common in the surveyed areas in KanoState than in Sokoto State, as Tables 3.13 and 3.14 show.

Table 3.13: Marketing Activities or Sampled Fadama Farmers in Sokoto and KanoStates: A Comparison or Marketing Wet Season and Dry Season Products

Most Important Market a No. of Fadama Farmers

Wet Season Crops Dry Season Crops

Kano Sokoto Kano Sokoto

N (% N (% N (% N (%

Farmgate 10 (8) 21 (16) 29 (23) 34 (26)Local market 86 (68) 74 (57) 60 (48) 50 (38)

Taken to urban market:a) as individuals 23 (18) 17 (13) 20 (16) 26 (20)b) as a group I (1) 3 (2) 9 (7) 5 (4)

No response 6 (5) 15 (12) 7 (6) 15 (12)

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Have marketing problems?Yes 66 (52) 50 (38)No 58 (46) 78 (60)No response 2 (2) 2 (2)

Marketing improvements inlast 5 years?Yes 87 (69) 88 (68)No 32 (25) 28 (21)No response 7 (6) 14 (11)

a. Farmers may market in more than one manner, but findings report the type of market respondents considered to bemost important.Source: Interviews with fadama farmers, Field Survey, 1994.

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Table 3.14: Access to Markets from a Sample of Rural Community Leaders in FadamaAreas of Kano and Sokoto States

Marketing Characteristic Kano Sokoto

Local market in village?Yes, every day 1Yes, periodically 1 2No 7 7

Market as a group?Yes, at times 4 3No, not at all 5 6

Difficult to get transport to market?No, very easy 4 7Difficult, but possible 2 1Transportation is a big problem 3 1

Source: Field Study, Interview with Cominunity Leaders, 1994.

3.55 Much of the crop produced during the wet season is for household consumptionand less perishable in nature, so there is greater concern and emphasis with moreproblems upon marketing of dry season crops that are mostly for sale and moreperishable.

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4. Impact of ADP Programs on Fadama Development

4.1 The overall objective of this evaluation is to assess the impact of the ADPs,specifically their programs related to fadama development. The previous chapter hasindicated the extent of the changes in agricultural practices which have accompanied theadoption of pump and tubewell technology to support the cultivation of fadama lands.Now, dry season cultivation of fadama is almost as important as rainy season uplandcropping as an income-earning activity in the two states. This chapter assesses the extentto which the changes which have occurred resulted from the ADP programs and, inparticular, reports the farmers' response to these programs.

A. Farmer Response to the ADP Fadama Development Program

1. Initial Reaction to Recommendations

4.2 It is difficult to generalize about the farmers' initial reactions to differentinnovations introduced to increase productivity on fadama lands because some of the areaswere pilot projects and others were later demonstrations. The farmers' reactions seem tobe related to the time of introduction. Earlier introduction of innovations met with moreresistance than later ones when farmers had heard of the advantages. Few farmers totallyrejected the new techniques, however.

4.3 The majority could be classified as demonstrating "limited acceptance", as shown bythe responses of ADP staff, shown in Table 4.1, who were asked to classify their generalimpression of the reaction of the farmers they worked with in the early years of theproject to different inputs. This illustrates the much more enthusiastic response of thefarmers to pumps and tubewells/washbores in Kano than in Sokoto, and also that farmersaccepted readily some technologies, such as herbicides, that they have not widely used.

4.4 On the other hand some innovations that were originally rejected or viewed withindifference have later become accepted and utilized. For example, the treadle pump isnow more attractive since, over the past decade changes have been made in the designand it is now less strenuous to use. In addition, motorized pumps and their spare partshave become relatively more expensive, and fuel is scarce and costly. Many farmers nowwant a treadle pump as a stand-by substitute in case their other pumps are faulty or fuelis not available.

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Table 4.1: Farmers' Initial Reaction to ADP Fadama "Package": Findings fromInterviews with ADP Staff'

Innovation State Farmers' Reaction

1 2 3 4*

Improved Seeds Kano 5 2 - -Sokoto 1 3 4 -

New Crops Kano 6 1 - -

Sokoto 2 3 2 1

Herbicides Kano 2 2 1 2Sokoto 1 5 2 -

Pesticides Kano 4 3 - -

Sokoto 1 4 - -

Washbore/Tubewell Kano 5 2 - -

Sokoto 1 1 2 3

Manual (treadle) Kano + - 2 - 5(Pump) Sokoto 1 2 2 3

Motorized Pump Kano 5 2 - -

Sokoto 3 2 2 2a. 'Me number of reapondents varies from one innovation to another.b. I - Enthusiastic acceptance; 2 - Umited acceptance; 3 - Indifference; 4 - Rejection.+ In Kano State, a manual pump requiring hand movement to operate was introduced in 19 82-generally rejected due totedium: in 1993, the treadle pump, operated by leg motion, was introduced in Sokoto State.Source: Interviews with ADP Staff, Field Study, 1994.

2. Extent and Evaluation of Extension Contact

4.5 One of the major achievements of the ADPs nationwide has been that they haveenabled many more farmers to gain access to extension services and information previouslynot available to them. There was a wide range of responses on the frequency of theextension workers visits. Just over forty percent said the agent visited every two weeks ormore, about twenty percent reported less frequent visits, and third did not indicate anycontact. Some farmers maintained that VEAs visit them more often during dry seasonwhen they can concentrate more attention on fadama areas, instead of spreading theirattention to all areas during the rainy season. Being a contact farmer, however, does notensure greater attention since some VEAs reside in the local commnunity and interact withfarmers on a daily basis despite whether they are contact farmers or not.

4.6 The credibility of the messages has also increased from the farmers' responsesregarding the sources of information they consider to more trustworthy and accessible,

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even if not the most frequently used. The results also point out the importance of themass media, particularly radio programs, in disseminating information to farmers (SeeFigure 4.1 and Table A5.3). Many of the local radio programs that contain agriculturalmessages are sponsored and developed by the ADPs. Even though the source of theinformation is the mass media, the initiative is still often from the ADP, therefore. TheADP should make greater use of this medium given the fact that it is most accessible forfarmers, and also given the declining ability of the ADPs to field extensive field services.However, it is also noteworthy that sixty percent of the farmers said that the ADP agentwas the most trustworthy source of information and just under 40 percent said that he wasthe most accessible source. Even allowing for some wish on the part of the surveyrespondents to be positive, this does indicate that the extension agents are being asignificant force in technology dissemination.

3. Sources of Innovations

4.7 The role of the ADP in helping the farmer to learn about and obtain agriculturalinputs and technology, including pumps, tubewells and washbores is illustrated in Figures4.2 and Table 4.2. For the farmers the ADP was clearly the main channel through whichthey had become aware of a number of non-traditional technologies. About 70 percent ofthe farmers who have used herbicides or pesticides indicated that they first learned aboutthem from the ADP agent, and the proportion for improved seeds was even higher atalmost 80 percent. These responses are consistent with the earlier response on date ofadoption. In the early stages of the projects, frequent visits by the agents were necessarynot only to introduce and demonstrate new technologies, but also to establish rapport.Such frequent visits may be less important now.

4.8 Similarly, almost 60 percent of the farmers interviewed said that they bought theirfirst pumps from the ADP. The rest were purchased from the "market". However, sincealmost all the pumps were purchased since 1983, when the ADPs started their operationand, because quite a number of pumps were in fact sold to traders rather than farmers(para. 2.27), it is clear that almost all the pumps reported were obtained directly, orindirectly, through the ADPs.

4.9 Extent of Development. The Kano ADP sold a total of 45,000 pumps and drilled5,900 tubewells. Data are not available on the number of washbores now being used inthe state. It is estimated that about 60,000 ha are being irrigated as a result of theseinvestments. In Sokoto the rate of development was somewhat lower. Tle project drilled4,100 tubewells and sold 19,000 pumps and it is estimated that 40,000 has are beingirrigated as a result.

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Figure 4.1: Information Sources and Contact with ADP Stafby Sampled Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

Most Frequent Source of Information(% of farmers responding)

No spo:;)

ADP extension agent (26 )X

Radio (59)

Friends/relatives (12)

Most Accessible Source of Information(% of farners responding)

No response (7)

Radio(41)

ADP extension agent (35)

riendstrelatives (17)

Most Trustworthy Source of Information(% of farmers responding

No response (5)Radio (22)

Fnendsdrelatives (12)

ADP extension agent (61)

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Figure 4.2: Source Through Which Fadama Farmers First Learned

About Agricultural Inputs in Kano and Sokoto States

Improved Seeds(% of fartnerS Tesponding

No reply/ne er .. d (42 ADP rot eot (45

otRadi?o (2) L-Fr',rtdnrltivcs (I5)

Fertilizer(% of farmers responding

No reply/sever used (5)Radio(9)

Other (21 ) ADP ert aget(49)

Fsienarelauivs (16)

Pesticides(% of farners responding)

ADP ext. agent (39)No reply/never used (43)

Oiher(6) Fie,sda/relativea (3)

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Table 4.2: Impact of ADP for Securing Pumps, Tubewells or Washbores from a Sampleof Fadama Farmers from Kano and Sokoto Statesa

Information on Punps Kano Sokoto(N=119) (N=93)

N (%) N (%)

Year of PurchaseBefore 1980 b - - 5 (5)1980-1982 9 (7) 9 (10)1983-1989 c 59 (50) 47 (51)Since 1990 51 (43) 32 (34)

Place of PurchaseADP 68 (57) 37 (40)Market 49 (41) 53 (57)Other 2 (2) 3 (3)

Information on Tubewells/Washbores (N=90) (N= 70)

Year of InstallationBefore 1980 2 (2) 1 (1)1980-1982 8 (9) 3 (4)1983-1989 46 (51) 24 (35)Since 1990 34 (38) 42 (60)

How Secured?From ADP 74 (82) 59 (84)Contractor 11 (12) 11 (16)RBDA. MANR I (1) - (-)Other 4 (5) (-)

a. Each farner was asked to give informiation on 2 pumps and 2 TWs or WBs, if he had, even though some farmers hadmore or less than two, resulting in the total N.b. A few fanners reported they had a pump before 1980, but it had been replaced.c. During the project period.Source: Interviews with fadama farmners, Field Study, 1994.

4.10 Whether development would have occurred on anything like this side if theprojects had not pushed the technologies is difficult to determine. In contrast to the rapiddevelopment in Kano and Sokoto, that in the former Kaduna State (which is locatedbetween Kano and Sokoto) was on a much reduced scale. The Kaduna ADP (Loan 2436-UNI) operated only a minor fadama development program and by the close of the projectin 1994 it is estimated that only some 11,000 ha were being irrigated. On a regional scale,Nigeria is the only country in West Africa where there has been any significantdevelopment of tubewell and washbore irrigation, especially on an individual farmer basis.This strongly suggests that little would have been achieved without the strong initial pushfrom the ADPs.

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4. Relations with the Fulani

4.11 A principal traditional use of the fadama areas has been as grazing areas forlivestock, particularly late in the dry season when other feed sources are scarce. TheFulani have traditionally been nomadic, or semi-nomadic, herders and the principal ownersof livestock, especially cattle. The extension of cultivation in the fadamas has inevitablyled to friction and occasionally outright conflict between cultivators and the Fulani whoclaim traditional, if intermittent, use rights.

4.12 Seventy-five percent of the Fulani interviewed in the survey said that increased dryseason farming had adversely affected them. From the point of view of the herders, theADPs have not taken any action to assist the pastoralists. The general response of thesemi nomadic Fulani that could be interviewed was that no one from the ADP or thegovernment in general had helped them. Thirty percent of those interviewed indicatedthat they had had contact and been advised by ADP staff, but it was clear that the Fulanidid not consider this useful. Individual comments included, "They are not interested in theFulani or our animals" and "The ADP is useless to us". In one reported example, a Fulanirespondent said they were advised to move out of an area in which many wereconcentrated. They were given no substitute area and yet "no one uses the place we weretold to leave". Another stated that he had been advised to take his sick animals to theveterinary clinic, and another that staff recommended that he grow grasses etc. as fodderfor his cattle.

4.13 The difficulty is that while the project staff realize the seriousness of the problem,they do not have a solution. The project's primary mandate focuses upon increasingagricultural productivity with emphasis upon crops. The projects contained no 'livestockcomponent and, therefore, were not in a position to provide any tangible support. Few ofthe ADP staff have significant knowledge of livestock, so there is little they can offer inthe way of advice to build up confidence and relationships (as indicated by the quotesabove). To the ADP, therefore, the "Fulani problem" needs to be solved, as far as theyare concerned, because of its effect upon the farmers' productivity. The specialimplications related to the Fulani and their need for grazing land is considered in the nextchapter of this report.

5. Overall Farmer Perception of ADP Performance

4.14 In aspects directly related to agricultural production, most respondents felt that theADP had been very beneficial to the rural inhabitants. However, there was someevidence of a credibility gap (see Box 4.1). It was difficult for respondents to evaluate theperformance of the Project in specific areas such as provision of inputs or value ofextension information over the period of ten years, however, most of the leaders gave anoverall assessment by comparing the ADP's impact presently with that of the mid-1980s(see Table 4.3).

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Box 4.1: Tensions between Farmers and ADPs

One impression left with those who conducted the imterviews and groupdiscussions for this study was that individual farmers, and even the communityleaders, were not clear as to the goals, objectives and operations of the ADPs.Farmers felt generally uninvolved in decision making and a "take-it-or-leave-it"attitude was often associated with ADP packages. The ADPs have been aware ofthis problem and have been attempting to get greater farmer input into the designof recommendations and applied research through the involvement of farmerrepresentatives into relevant committees.

However, extension programs, recommendations and packages have to bedecided upon at some central level, certainly above the village extension agent andcontact farmer. The subtleties of why particular recommendations are made maywell not be fully transmitted to the village extension agent. Thus, when it comesto his interaction with the farmer there will be situations in which he has to fallback on "that's the way it is" as an explanation, something which is bound to leavethe farmer unsatisfied.

One area in which this has been a particular problem is the procedure forpurchase of pumps and tubewells. ADP extension staff discuss the possibility offarmers purchasing pumps or drilling tubewells through the ADP, several monthsbefore the wells are to be drilled, or the pumps delivered. Since the pumps arebulk purchased by International Competitive Bidding (ICB) procedures, the ADPsneed to obtain some assessment of the likely demand from farmers beforeawarding a contract. Unfortunately, at that stage the price to be charged, or insome cases the make of the pump, is not known with certainty. The Bank ICBprocedures limit the extent to which the bidding procedures can restrict the rangeof bids. Specifications can be drawn up to eliminate types which are unsuited tothe conditions because of capacity etc., or for which there is no local experience.However, the contract may not be won by the supplier of the brand which is mostpopular locally. Also, the dollar price quoted in the winning bid is not knownuntil the contract is awarded and accepted.

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Box 4.1 (continued)

It is not until this point that the ADP can be definitive about the nairaprice and the repayment terms. Thus, the farmer is expected to express aninterest in the program, in the absence of these relevant details. This process hasbeen further handicapped by the rapid decline in the value of the Naira in somerecent periods. Since the pump etc., may not be exactly what the farmer had inmind at the outset, he may see it as being something supplied by Government,rather than something he specifically ordered. As a result, he may be less thanfully committed to repaying the cost, especially if there has been a significantescalation in Naira prices.

The result of this process is that the farmers tend to feel that they arekept in the dark and to assume that their preferences on specifications etc. are nottaken into account. These preferences may have been considered, but the scoringprocedure and the relevent bids may have resulted in the less popular model beingselected. At the same time, the ADP staff are embarrassed by not being able togive straight, definitive answers to farmers, about why prices have gone up, orparticular models were chosen.

4.15 The general conclusion of the village heads was that without the ADP, dry seasonfarming would not have increased at the rate which has been achieved, because of the lackof farmers' groups and the strong family links that limit the potential of farmers todevelop individually.

4.16 On the other hand, Table 4.4 shows that marketing as well as other assistance innon-direct production areas, such as securing or supervising a loan, have not been areaswith which the ADP has helped farmers in the past. According to the cluster audit andfrom data in the internal project PCRs, credit was not initially thought to be a prioritysince, at the time of the SAR, subsidized input supply would remove the major need fbrcredit to facilitate adoption of innovations. However, as the projects ventured intoactivities that required farmers to invest more capital, such as with fadama dry seasonfarming, credit became increasingly important. Available data for Kano and Sokoto ADPsindicate that very few farmers benefitted from any credit assistance as less than 100farmers in Kano State were assisted by the ADP to secure loans for the workbull/tractorpurchase scheme through individual bank application. Sokoto State recorded a bettermark of about 1,000 farmers receiving a loan for the pump-hire scheme.

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Table 4.3: Evaluation of Present ADP Performance compared to 10 Years Ago by aSample of Rural Community Leaders

Evaluation Kano Sokoto

ADP better 10 years ago 3 3No difference 2 1ADP performs better now 6 4

Development in fadama dryseason fanning due to:

Initiative of individuals 2 3Initiative of farmers' group - -ADP 5 4RBDA I 1Other 1

Source: Intcrviews with Community Leaders, Field Study, 1994.

Table 4.4: Types of Assistance Received by Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Secured or supervised the use of loan?Yes 21 (17) 19 (15)No 16 (13) 18 (14)Never had a loan/no response 89 (70) 93 (71)

Helped to market produce:Yes 25 (20) 11 (8)No 96 (76) 109 (84)No response 5 (4) 10 (8)

Source: Interviews with fadama farmers, Field Study, 1994.

4.17 In the area of marketing, farmers who answered that the ADP had assisted themadded that this was mainly in the case of finding a market outlet for their wheat in earlieryears, or in providing marketing information. Having recognized these problems, theADPs are presently in the process of trying to improve services for fadama farmers to getproduce to market, particularly perishable items such as tomatoes and peppers. TheJigawa State ADP has recently proposed to improve transport, storage, grading andstandardization, packaging, as well as bring buyers and sellers together giving themfinancing information (JARDA, 1994).

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B. ADP Self Evaluation

4.18 From the interviews with ADP staff, there was a general consensus that, althoughsome farmers had bought pumps and dug wells or used surface water without ADPencouragement, the spread of dry season farming to the number of farmers now practicingit, and the involvement of small-scale farmers, would not have occurred without outsideintervention, such as was provided by the Projects. The ADP personnel also agreed thatthe impact of the ADP upon the rural population generally, and especially in the case ofimproving the standard of living of fadama farmers, had been very significant and positive,by improving household food security, as well as increasing rural incomes.

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5. Social and Other Impacts of Fadama Development

A. Social Change

1. General Well-being of Members of the Community

5.1 During interviews with local leaders in rural communities in northern Nigeria, theysuggested a series of indicators of well being and social status, which are summarized inTable 5.1. There was a general consensus in the FGDs, and in discussions withcommunity leaders that, over the past decade, there has been a relative shift of householdstowards those characteristics in the right hand column of the table. The vast majority offarmers and leaders agreed that the people in the fadama areas are better-off now than 10years ago. Nine out of eleven leaders in Kano/Jigawa and eight out of nine inSokoto/Kebbi States stated that their people were generally better off now and manyagreed that it was due to dry season farming activities.

5.2 On the other hand, the proportion of the households in their communities thathad improved their standard of living followed the earlier assessment of the proportion offarmers in each area that own fadama land. For example, in Sokoto area, 8 out of 9leaders stated that "nearly all" of their people had an improved level of welfare. In Kanoarea, however, only 2 leaders could state that "nearly all" were better-off, 5 said only one-half of their people had benefitted from efforts in the past 10 years, while 3 leaders statedthat only one-fourth of their people were enjoying a better standard of living. Thus, thedevelopment of fadama land is perceived as having been central to improvement ofagricultural communities in these states.

5.3 The importance of dry season farming as an additional source of income isgenerally accepted by interviewed farmers, community leaders and ADP staff alike. Thecycle of a small area cultivated with low level of technology resulting in little output thatdoes not allow for reinvestment at a level to increase productivity is the dilemma forpoorer fadama farmers, who are in the majority. It is this category of farmers that theproject has been able to assist most.

5.4 Food security. Dry season farming on fadama lands has two advantages whichalleviate problems for farmers in the event of adverse conditions or disasters. First,fadama cultivation in the wet and dry seasons in addition to upland farming in the wetseason allows crop diversification so that if one crop is damaged or destroyed, other cropswill ensure food security. Second, the income realized from dry season cash crops allowsthe farmer to not only improve household economic security and invest resources toincrease productivity, but also provides money to buy food in the event of food cropfailure. In 1994, for example, unusually heavy and prolonged rains flooded out many ofthe crops in the wet season. The fadama farmers who practice dry season cultivation wereless worried than other farmers about their family's welfare, knowing their dry seasoncrops would provide for them until the next rains.

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Table 5.1: Indicators Differentiating Between Agricultural Activities of Better-off andPoorer Rural Households in Fadama Areas of Northern Nigeria

Poorer Households Better-off Households

Limited or no food security, especially Sufficient food always available.July to August.

Use of exchange and family labor for Hired laborers employed and/or use ofagricultural tasks. tractors.

Hoes and other hand tools as well as Oxen owned by the farmer. Dryhired oxen at times. Use of residual season farming utilizing motorizedmoisture or shadouf use for dry season pumps and washbores or tubewells.farming on the fadama.

Sorghum, maize and rice are crops of Potatoes, onions, rice, wheat,major importance with emphasis upon tomatoes, peppers, maize, beans, garlicfood crops for household consumption. and sorghum are all of

importance-both for sale andconsumption, but greater importanceattached to cash earning crops.

Transporting produce by oxen, donkey orheadloading most common means. Motor vehicle common means to

transport goods to market.Area of cultivated land and quantity ofcrops produced quite small. Area of cultivated land quite extensive

with large output.Not likely to be able to improve level oftechnology or increase amount of More likely to have the ability toproduction unless with group activities or improve production as an individual.subsidy.

Less likely to be chosen as a contact More likely to be a local influentialfarmer or otherwise be a mobilizer of and selected as a contact person forother rural residents. development efforts.

Source: Interviews with community leaders/FGDs, Field Study, 1994.

5.5 Despite the increasing costs and lower profits, it must be clearly understood thatunlike many other areas of the country and even non-fadama areas within the same states,fadama farmers are far more secure when it comes to having sufficient food and money tomeet the needs of their families.

5.6 In the focus group discussions with both men and women, the general consensuswas that they now eat better foods, such as yam, rice and meat. Fadama farmers canafford to buy bread and seasonings from the towns. Before, they said, people relied upon

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only millet for household consumption. Table 5.2 clearly shows that fadama farmers, forthe most part, have enough food all year round, and more than they had 10 years ago.

Table 5.2: Perceived Food Security ror Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Have sufficient food?Yes 99 (79) 113 (87)No 24 (19) 16 (12)No response 3 (2) 1 (1)

Compare present amount of foodwith 10 years ago:

More now 95 (76) 91 (70)About the same 8 (6) 10 (8)Less now 15 (12) 25 (19)No response 8 (6) 4 (3)

Source: Interviews with fadama fanmer, Field Study, 1994

5.7 These results indicate that, overall, the households surveyed are clearly better offthan they were a decade ago; food security is better. However, about 15 percent of themreported that they have insufficient food and a similar number that they had less now thanbefore. The two groups responding adversely are not the same and, as can be seen, therewere interstate variations in the response to these questions. To probe this questionfurther the responses to the two questions were compared:

Category Number Percentage

Sufficient food, more food now 166 66Sufficient food, same amount now 14 6Sufficient food, less food now 28 11Insufficient food, more food now 20 8Insufficient food, same amount now 4 2Insufficient food, less food now 16 7Source: Interviews with fadama farmer, Field Study, 1994.

5.8 The overwhelming majority of the respondents are food secure at the householdlevel. It is not clear whether those who reported that they did not have sufficient foodmeant that they literally went hungry, or that they did not produce enough to meet theirneeds. For example, some farmers who complained that they have less food now, gave thereason that they are now older and unable to farm as much as before. Widowed femaleswho are household heads are also finding it more difficult to maintain food security, as

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they no longer have husbands to work with. Others stated that they now have a largerfamily (which is growing) so that, even as the total amount they have produced hasincreased, the family demand has increased more quickly. The impact of the 1994 floodscan not be entirely ruled out since, despite the enumerators explanation, many farmersstill focussed on the fact that in late 1994 they had less food than usual available for theirfamilies. A significant area of the wet season crop, grown for household consumption, wasflooded and damaged or destroyed.

5.9 There was evidence of localized problems, with some villages having a higher thanaverage proportion of respondents stating they have less food now. Some of therespondents who said that they have less food have small areas of fadama land, which theycultivate with the use of traditional methods, such as local wells or shadoufs, or use ofresidual moisture. There was also one village surveyed where construction of a dam hascaused flooding of much of the fadama area.

5.10 Health. In terms of the state of the health of fadama farmers, there were twoopinions. While some community leaders reported that there had been an increase in theincidence and intensity of malaria, other diseases such as guinea worm had, for the mostpart, declined due to better water supplies and medical facilities. The leadersacknowledged that the increased income allowed rural people to spend money on hospitalcare, if necessary. And, even though the incidence of malaria may have increased, mostfamilies were more able to obtain treatment, so that the impact has declined.

5.11 A study on the "Health Hazards of Fadama Farming" found similar results that ingeneral, the farmers felt they and their families were healthier than farmers not cultivatingfadama lands and than they had been before they were farming in the dry season. Furtherinvestigations did, however, reveal that the farmers were more attacked by malaria,schistosomiasis, helminthiasis, onchocerciasis, and so on than other family members notworking in the fadama areas (Sridhar, M.K.C., 1994).

2. Migration

5.12 Dry season migration has a long history in the Sokoto area where oral historyindicates a tradition (pre-colonial) of movement for trading or employment by males.Colonial presence did not create, but rather reshaped and extended migratory patterns(Swindell, 1982). Dry season migration has been such a common social occurrence thatthe Hausa term yan chi-rani became popular to refer to men who migrate to gainemployment during the dry season. The term is variously translated as "men who eat - orwork - the dry season away". In present times, migrants prefer the term bida instead ofchi-rani ("looking for work or wealth").

5.13 From the study, it was seen that much of this dry season migration has slowed to atrickle as dry season farming has opened up new income generating opportunities for ruralinhabitants in Kano and Sokoto States. One of the community leaders stated that fadamadevelopment has stopped much of the annual movement of northern farmers to southernareas such as Kwara State or Jos area during the dry season as they can now farm all year.He remarked that this trend has become increasingly more pronounced during the last 20years. One respondent from Sokoto State explained how he used to be away from the

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village for 5-6 months a year, from 1976 to 1990, for trading as far as Ibadan, and Beim.It was when he saw the benefits of dry season farming that he stopped this seasonalmigration. The few farmers that do still migrate travel for trading and some for furtherKoranic education. Many who had migrated before had gone for fishing or hired labor, asnoted above. In several cases, leaders noted that people from neighboring areas that donot have fadama resources come to their communities for work as hired laborers or torent land, if possible. This in-migration from other areas had been particularly noticeablein the last 7-8 years.

Table 5.3: Migrant Status and Migration Pattern for Fadama Farmers In Kano andSokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N fX)

Were you born here?Yes 115 (91) 124 (95)No 11 (9) 6 (5)

Live here all year long?Yes 113 (89) 105 (81)No 13 (13) 25 (19)

Did you ever migrate before?Yes 47 (37) 72 (55)No 79 (63) 58 (45)

Source: Interviews with fadanu farmem, Field Study, 1994.

B. Gender Issues in Fadama Development

1. Gender Roles in Agricultural Production In Northern Nigeria

5.14 A common misconception concerning rural women in Northern Nigeria is that theyare all in purdah (kulle), and, therefore, economically and agriculturally inactive. Womenin purdah do not, technically, 'work to earn a living (since Islam states that the husband isexpected to provide food, shelter and support), but 'many poor families are, nonetheless,sustained by the economic activities of wives in seclusion" (Callaway, 1987: 68) (see Box5.1). The women in purdah, however, do not actually work on the farm land, particularlyduring their years of childrearing.

5.15 Although the majority of the population in the studied states are Muslim Hausa, asignificant proportion are non-Muslim Hausa, or Maguzwa. Jackson (1985) estimatedthat about 5 percent of the Hausa in Kano State are not Muslim. Other ethnic groupshave also been found to be common in a few of the studied areas, as well as the Fulani,many of whom are semi- or fully settled. In Chiyeko village of Jigawa State, for example,ethnic diversity is evidenced by widely different gender relationships. Muslim Hausa and

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Fulani women own land, but do not work on the land themselves. Non-Muslim Hausa, aswell as Kanuri women, do not own land, but farm extensively. Indeed, as Barkow (1972)reported, non-Muslim Hausa men acknowledge that "Our women feed us."

Box 5.1: Seclusion and Women's Work

Many of the women are only partially secluded, while others are notsecluded at all, even among the Muslim Hausa. Unmarried girls, under 11 or 12years of age, and women who have passed the age of childbearing have little or norestrictions on their movement. The degree of seclusion, even for women underIcull varies somewhat by socio-economic class, as Tarfa (1994) concludes thatwomen from poor or very large families, widowed or divorced women, old womenand children form a major part of the regular labor force.

On the other hand, Longhurst (1982) reported that the main differences inseclusion and consequent work outside the compound appear to be linked to thetype of community of residence. In general, he maintained, urban women aremore secluded than rural, and rural women from larger, nucleated settlements aremore secluded than those from smaller, dispersed settlements.

5.16 While views and practices vary from community to community, and also betweenfamilies, society in most of the villages in the project areas is conservatively Islamic. Thismade it difficult to interview women directly, except for a few non-muslim women andthose not in seclusion. It was feasible to meet with groups of women and four focusgroup discussions were held. However, while these samples were obviously limited and itwas also difficult to obtain any specific data from these interviews, a general consensusemerges, which is reported below.

5.17 In the overwhelming majority of cases, male fadama farmers interviewed statedthat their wives do not work directly on the farm; 94 percent in Kano/Jigawa and 87percent in Sokoto/Kebbi States. It should be noted, however, that since this is theculturally preferred situation, it may be that some respondents replied in the negativebecause of social desirability or because their wives help in a limited way at times of peaklabor demands. This also does not take into consideration the processing of agriculturalproduce.

5.18 Gender roles in agricultural activities, as well as household responsibilities, varygreatly according to ethnic, class and religious differences. However, all northern ruralwomen are engaged in food processing and most rear small livestock, while selling cookedfood and snacks is also a common income earner. Threshing and pounding grains iswomen's work. Non-Muslim women are more involved in day-to-day field activities, notonly for their own crops, but also on their husbands' fields as well. Fulani womengenerally do not engage in crop production, as it denotes a culturally "shameful' situation

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that the man cannot feed his wife (or wives) (Makinwa-Adebusoye and Olawoye, 1991).For Fulani, farming is considered a male activity, and only in desperate situations, womenhelp in weeding and harvesting (Salih, 1992). Women are responsible for processing andmarketing milk products, as well as provision of some household needs from the proceeds.

5.19 Many rural Northern women own both upland and fadama land that they inheritedfrom their fathers, in accordance with Islamic tenets. In the case of a woman in purdah, amale relative may be responsible for the day to day management of the farm, but thewoman owner has the profit or produce from the farm. Women who are not underseclusion, or only partially secluded, engage in production tasks such as planting, weedingand harvesting, as well as processing that is common to all women whether in purdah ornot.

5.20 The proficiency in farming of some women is illustrated by the case of a 60 yearold woman from Sabiya village who was honored as the Sarki Noma (best farmer in thevillage). She has six plots of land, 3 of them in fadama area, which she inherited. Inanother case, a 45 year old divorced woman came "home" to farm. She has both uplandand fadama land some of which she has inherited and others were purchased. She hireswork bulls for her farm, sometimes jointly with other women farmers.

2. Impact of Fadama Development on Rural Women

5.21 Tarfa (1994) maintains that women involved in dry season commercial cropproduction on family plots, not on their own plots, often must take on additional work,but reap no economic benefits. She contends that the economic gains for the man oftentimes do not result in improved household food or economic security.

5.22 Nevertheless, from the findings of the study, while there was no directcontact/assistance given to women under the ADP, rural women have benefittedeconomically from increased dry season farming on fadama lands in a number of otherdirect or indirect ways. Interviews in FGDs with women indicated that they do recognizethat the efforts of the ADP have brought more productivity for their husbands engaged indry season farming, more money in the community, and more demand for fadama landfrom those who have land. For the family as well as for their personal income and theirability to increase their own wealth, the women felt that the change had been positive,even if it had not been directed at them (see Box 5.2). For the men, the impact has beenfelt more directly as they have seen greater opportunities open up for them.

5.23 However, there have been some ways in which women have benefitted moredirectly. For example, some have made additional money by renting their fadama landduring the dry season to other farmers, as was seen in Bunkure, Kano State. Anotherbenefit has been that women traders make more money from their trade now that fadamafarmers have more money to spend.

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Box 5.2: Economic Relationships Within the Household

Among the Northern Muslims of Nigeria, relationships between men andwomen in the household are highly monetized, with the income and spendingpattern of each being kept strictly separate. Land and other significant assets areseen as individual rather than family holdings. The husband is responsible forproviding the basic needs for the family and carries the main burden of field workto achieve this. Earnings from the sale of those items which are surplus to theneeds of the household accrue to him. In the event that he is temporarily unableto do so, his wife (wives) may loan him grain or money. The effect of this type ofarrangement is to maintain the achievement of the basic food requirements of thefamily from the husband's land as a prime objective for the husband unless he is ina line of business where he is very sure of being able to purchase the basic foodneeds.

Women may also have some livestock but these are seldom an incomeearner for them and are kept more as a source of liquid capital and to meetemergencies. One of the major objectives of the women is to build up assets topass along to their children, particularly their daughters, at the time of marriage.For this purpose they often invest in decorative pots, dishes and covered bowlsand plates. These items are important indicators of status, particularly during themarriage ceremony of daughters. Plates and dishes are also a type of savings,appreciating in value and easily sold when cash is urgently needed. Womeninterviewed indicated that they have increased such assets in recent years.

5.24 The experience from the fadama development program is similar to that recordedby Jackson (1985) in the Kano Irrigation Project; that is, different women were affected indifferent ways, non-Muslim women earning wages from casual labor while Muslim womenbenefitted from selling more food and snacks. Jackson, however, concluded that Muslimwomen were better-off from the project, but non-Muslim women were actually worse off.Since Muslim women have some control over land and cash crops, as well as theirindependent income, it is reasonable to assume that the same conclusion can be reachedfor the fadama development program.

5.25 One category of women that are unlikely to have benefitted from the project isthose of female-headed households, particularly those resulting from widowhood. Awomen's group in Argungu showed that women who had to provide for their childrenwithout their husbands were in a precarious condition, particularly those with very youngchildren with no older son to represent the interests of the family. They could not evenbenefit indirectly from the project which, until the last few years, had no means ofintegrating women.

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3. The ADPs and Women Farners

5.26 Until very recently, the ADPs were not focussed upon female farmers, whether inupland or fadama areas, largely because the male extension agents could not contact themand women could not participate in the Fadama Users Associations (FUAs) formed by theADP. Furthermore, one of the constraints of fadama development strategies has beenthat emphasis has been placed upon production and marketing of dry season produce,with little attention to processing and storage technology that could really benefit womenand enhance household food security (Tarfa, 1994). The FGN is now trying to assistwomen in their agricultural activities through the Women in Agriculture (WIA) Units ofthe ADPs. During the project period (1982-1990), very little attention was directed torural women as the WIA units were just getting established. In the initial stages theADPs were constrained by a lack of qualified women extension agents with therecommended minimum qualification of Ordinary National Diploma (OND).

5.27 Rural women have not been able to participate in the Fadama Users Associations(FUAs) formed by the ADPs in the NFDP. Previous attempts to form Fadama UsersCooperative Societies were similarly restricted to males. However, there may be moreinterest among women than men in establishing group operations. For women anycropping they do in fadama areas is likely to be incidental to their main activities. Forexample, growing out of their primary responsibility for maintaining the home andpreparing family meals etc., women frequently prepare foods and snacks for sale outside ofthe household, so as to earn some income for themselves. Not infrequently they havesmall plots of land themselves and may use them to produce some of the requirements fortheir food products. In expanding this activity a number of women have becomeinterested in the possibility of cropping in the dry season. However, their requirementsfor supplementary water are likely to be quite small and not be enough to justify investingin a pump individually. Similarly, they may be interested in producing some staples tomeet possible emergency needs. In both cases the women would fit their crop productionactivities around their principal preoccupations. There have been a number of caseswhere groups of women have got together to obtain a pump for their overall use. Forexample, in one of the villages where a discussion was held with a group of women, agroup of 20 women (all in purdah), under the supervision of a female extension agent, aremanaging a one acre plot of fadama land, to grow wheat in the dry season and rice in therainy season.

C. Land Use Conflict at the Village Level

5.28 The farmer survey asked a number of questions about land holdings and tenure inorder to assess whether the development of pump and tubewell technology had had anyimpact on these arrangements. The responses obtained did not indicate that this hasoccurred. Land holdings both of fadama and upland are fragmented (see Annex 6) andthe survey did not indicate consolidation, although this may be occurring. Nor did itindicate any increase in renting or sale of land. The principal land related problem in thefadama areas is conflict over access between pastoralists and crop producers.

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1. Relationship Between Fulani and Indigenous Cultivators

5.29 The Fulani (Peul) form a major ethnic grouping which has traditionally beenclosely linked to nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism in the Sahel. As its, and other,populations in the region have grown, so have conflicts over land. More land has beenbrought under cultivation and this has impinged on the areas used by the pastoralists. Atthe same time, some of the Fulani have adopted more sedentary systems of livestockproduction, while others have shifted to urban occupations (see Annex 7).

5.30 Competition for use of land in the northern states has traditionally been resolvedquite easily, since fadama land was largely available for pastoralists to graze their cattle inthe dry season when dry season farming was limited to small areas, usually with the use ofshadouf. However, due to the expansion of dry season farming, conflicts between farmersand pastoralists have become common.

5.31 Settlement of Fulani pastoralists has been one strategy to try to reduce the conflictbetween them and cultivators, but it is not an acceptable alternative to most nomadicFulani who believe settlement is not consistent with their socio-cultural heritage and"cannot bring them satisfaction" (Vabi, 1991). Many Fulani believe that long settlementrenders cattle susceptible to disease attack, so that they need to keep on the move inorder to keep cattle healthy and productive (Vabi, 1991).

5.32 The nature of the relationships between Fulani and the indigenous populations is acomplex issue due to changes in land use conditions and variations in settlement patternsof the Fulani. Vabi (1991) analyzed the variety of social interactions between these socialgroups as follows:

[Interaction between cultivators and graziers] "are best understood in terms of acontinuum ranging from mobile to sedentary modes of agricultural productionsystems with a number of intervening points.... determined by fallow durations inthe case of crop cultivation, and the duration of pastoral settlement in the case ofanimal husbandry.... The duration of pastoral settlement is an adaptation to rangeland conditions, water availability, and animal disease challenge, as well as to thenature of the social relationships between the pastoral group and resident farmingcommunities" (Vabi, 1991: 4).

2. Land Use Arrangements

5.33 In many areas, there have been land use agreements between farmers andpastoralists that have been to the benefit of both. Among the farmers interviewed, aboutone-third maintained agreements with the Fulani herders. The most typical arrangementis that farmers allow the herders to bring the livestock into their farms after the cropshave been harvested. While the animals feed on the crop residues, the land is refertilizedthrough their manure. From the opposite side, just over 60 percent of the Fulaniinterviewed said that they do enter into agreements with farmers, but only 40 percent ofthose actually make payments to the farmers for the grazing.

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5.34 It must be recognized that having an agreement with the pastoralists does notnecessarily ensure that there would be no conflict between them and the farmers.Conflicts are common, as shown in Table 5.4, with 40 percent of the fadama farmersinterviewed stating that they have had problems with Fulani herdsmen in the last fiveyears and the majority of the Fulani also reporting conflict. While there are no records, itis generally accepted on all sides that these conflicts have been increasing.

Table 5.4: Relationship between Pastoralists and Cultivators in Kano and Sokoto States

Number of Fadama Farmers

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Any agreement with Fulani?Yes, on upland only 17 (14) 23 (18)Yes, on fadama only 5 (4) 4 (3)Yes, on upland & fadama 16 (13) 19 (14)No 88 (69) 84 (65)

Any problems with herders inlast 5 years?

Yes 48 (38) 58 (45)No 71 (56) 71 (54)No response 7 (6) 1 (1)

Source: Interviews with fadama fanners, Field Study, 1994.

5.35 Some farmers interviewed complained that, at times, Fulani herders would come toask for permission to enter and offer to pay for a field that was not yet harvested. Toagree would be to lose the produce or sell at an unreasonable price. Sometimes, however,the herders would still drive their cattle in at night and try to leave before they would bediscovered. At other times, farmers would enter into an agreement with semi-settledFulani to allow their cattle to graze after harvesting, but another group of Fulani wouldcome earlier and destroy the crops (see Box 5.3).

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Box 5.3: Causes and Consequences of Conflicts

Hadejia (1994) classified the remote and immediate causes of the conflictbetween cultivators and pastoralists in fadama areas as follows:

a) "Remote" causes of conflict:

- Sahelian drought of 1970s;- River control; and- Preferential treatment of crop producers by government officials.

b) "Immediate" causes of conflict:

- Crop damage;- Insufficient grazing areas;- Activities of Yan dabalde (group of armed herders who commit

intentional crop damage and attack farmers who want to stop them;- Bush burning;- Population increase; and- Superstition (farmers claim Fulani have the belief that herd should

damage crops 3 times to survive that year).

These causes can be summarized into two viewpoints: that of thecultivators who maintain that the primary cause of conflict is the intentional anddeliberate crop damage by the herders' animals, and that of the Fulani whoconsider the major problem to be the expansion of the area of cultivation,particularly for dry season cropping, into upland and fadama lands that weretraditionally grazing sites (Hadejia, 1994).

The most common problem found in the survey was that cattle wereallowed onto fields before the crops were harvested and destroyed them. Inaddition, wells and other property are reported to have been damaged. Forexample, a farmer in Taloka Village, Sokoto State, said that some Fulani hadbroken the top of his tubewell in 1994. Similar, more serious incidents werereported near Bunza, in the present Kebbi State, where about 30 tubewells weredestroyed as pastoralists reacted to the perceived loss of more traditional grazinggrounds with increased dry season cropping.

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Box 5.3 (continued)

Determining the source of crop damage is not always easy and may be byanimals other than the ones of the pastoralist who had arranged to use the land. Forexample, one Fulani herder interviewed reported that he had been accused ofallowing his animals to destroy a crop of millet, arrested, and thrown in jail. Hemaintained that that the damage had been caused by another herd. The policeinvestigated and determined that this was so, and charges were dropped. However,in the meantime he had had to sell some sheep in order to raise the bail moneyneeded to get himself released from jail.

The Fulani interviewed stated that their grazing routes had changed in the lastfew years, usually due to more dry season farming. Some official grazing reserves arewithin or near fadama areas which are now more keenly coveted by farmers for dryseason farming. In Bunza, Kebbi State, the pastoralists complained that the farmersare encroaching into the grazing reserves, pushing the Fulani and their cattle fartherinto the bush. One Fulani stated that, as they clear more reserve land for theirlivestock, the farmers again take over the land. He also said that when the formerDistrict Head died, the new traditional leader was less sympathetic to the needs ofthe Fulani, and the herders were denied the use of fadama land around Bunza.

3. The Pastoralists' View of the Cause of Recurrent Conflicts

5.36 In this study, a number of pastoralists were interviewed to try to get a morebalanced picture of the conflict between the two parties. Most of the Fulani respondentsagreed that it is more difficult now than 10 years ago to get water and grazing land fortheir livestock, particularly in the dry season, and a majority of those interviewed reportedthat they had had conflicts with farmers in the past five years (see Tables 5.4 and 5.5).They also complained that they were often accused of destruction caused by others.Generally, most of the conflict is perceived to relate to nomadic Fulani, especially fromNiger Republic, and not from the local, semi-settled pastoralists. However, the semi-settled Fulani interviewed in this study, complained that they often suffer theconsequences of the actions of these nomadic groups because farmers are unable to"catch" the offending herders and their cattle that often come in the night and escapebefore being discovered, and so the local cattle come under suspicion.

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Table 5.5: Arrangements for Dry Season Grazing Made by Fulani and Impact ofIncreased Dry Season Cultivation on Them

Yes No No Response

No. % No. % No. %

Has increased dry seasonfarming affected you? 12 (75) 4 (25) - -

Have you had conflicts withfarmers in the past 5 years? 9 (56) 6 (38) 1 (6)

Do you enter into agreementswith farmers for grazing? 10 (62) 6 (38)

Do you pay farmers to grazeyour animals? 4 (25) 12 (75)

Have you shifted your migrationroutes in the past 10 years? 7 (44) 3 (19) 6 (38)

Have the ADPs or others everadvised you? 5 (31) 10 (63) 1 (6)

Source: Interviews with Fulani Herders, Field Study, 1994.

5.37 The Fulani interviewed also complained that these confrontations injure theirrelationship with other ethnic groups in the area of their permanent or semi-permanentresidence. The Fulani farmers also similarly suffer loss of their crops to these nomadicherds. It should be noted that a significant number of the interviewed fadarna farmers arefully settled Fulani. As Vabi states, "Discriminatory tendencies [between Fulanipastoralists and farmers of other ethnic groups] would have been insignificant if they werenot connected with opportunities for economic survival" (1991: 5).

5.38 The Fulani herds are not insubstantial. Among the Fulani interviewed in thisstudy, the average herd size consists of about 40-50 cattle, 20-25 sheep and 15-20 goats,and 70 percent said that they had increased over the past decade (Table 5.6). A similarnumber also said that their herds are healthier than they used to be, so that, if theproblems of obtaining grazing had any adverse impact on animal condition, the herdershave been able to offset it in various ways.

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Table 5.6: Changes in Number and Health of Cattle and Access to Grazing and Water

Cattle Numbers More Now About the Less Now NoSame Response

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Present numbers of cattle comparedto 10 years ago 10 (69) 2 (13) 3 (19) 1 (6)

Easier Now About the Harder NoSame Now Response

Access to Water and Grazing No. % No. % No. % No. %

Water - in the dry season 4 (25) 1 (6) 11 (69) - -

- in the wet season 4 (25) 5 (31) 7 (44) - -

Grazing - in the dry season 4 (25) - - 12 (75) - -

- in the wet season 2 (13) 2 (13) 12 (75) - -

Health of Cattle Healthier Now About the Less NoSame Healthy Response

Now

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Health compared to 10 years ago 11 (69) 1 (6) 3 (19) 1 (6)Source: Interviews with Fulani Herders, Field Study, 1994.

5.39 However, an additional problem has arisen for some Fulani with respect to themanagement of the Gudali breed of cattle, common in the Sokoto area. These are animproved breed which have traditionally been maintained in fadaina areas in the dryseason. They do less well when shifted to the poorer feed found in upland grazing,especially in the dry season. Increased use of fadama for cropping has, however, had thiseffect and some of the herders interviewed complained of the difficulties of maintainingtheir milk production and indicated that they may have to switch to less productive breedsif they cannot get access to better quality feeds.

5.40 There was also unanimity that the ADPs were seen as having done nothing for theFulani, including that the projects have not helped them find grazing land. There is ageneral feeling that, in most cases, the viewpoint of the cultivators is treated with moreofficial seriousness than that of the cattle-rearers. The views of the Fulani are seldomsought for, nor taken into consideration to find a lasting solution.

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6. Environmental Impact

A. Cause of Environmental Changes

6. 1 Specific attention was not paid to the potential environmental impact of projectactivities at the appraisal of the ADPs and no monitoring was undertaken. Environmentalconcerns were addressed at the appraisal of the National Fadama Development Project(NFDP). An Environmental Impact Assessment was prepared in 1991 which addressedthe following issues for the northern tier of states, including Kano and Sokoto:

(a) Water, Soil, and Cropping Patterns;

(b) Wildlife;

(c) Fish and Fisheries;

(d) Social Conflict (as discussed in Chapter 5); and

(e) Public Health

Monitoring activities are now being undertaken by the ADPs in connection with theimplementation of the NFDP.

6.2 The major concern in understanding the impact of the fadama developmentstrategies upon the environment is how to isolate the specific cause to the effect. Unlikeformal irrigation schemes with large dams that resulted in resettlement of people andsubmerging, thereby destroying, fadama lands, traditional fishing pools and economic trees,it is difficult to tie informal dry season farming in fadama areas to ecological changes. Theimpact of a few thousand tubewells and washbores scattered all over the state is relativelyinsignificant, except in areas of low water table recharge capability or places with aconcentration of wells and pumps. Nevertheless, any intervention has an impact and canbe a potential threat to the environment, unless monitored from early stages of theproject.

6.3 In addition it may be difficult to distinguish the impact of projects from the effectof more general climatic and related change. For example, the annual flood inundation inthe Hadejia Basin, (largely in Kano State) has been reported to have been about 3,300km2 in 1950, 2,400 km2 in 1969, 2,000 km2 in 1974, 1,200 km2 in 1986, and 700 km2 in 1987(Adams and Hollis, 1988). This decline reflects both the general decline of rainfall in theSahelian region since the 1960s as well as the effects of dam construction and the filling ofreservoirs within the catchment, starting in the mid 1970s. Declines of this type in severalcatchments have been a significant factor in encouraging farmers to adopt irrigation usingpumps and wells to offset its effect.

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6.4 Given these difficulties, the monitoring results to date do not indicate any markeddeterioration of environmental conditions in the project areas. Generally, ADP staffbelieve that there have not yet been any significant detrimental effects from fadamadevelopment upon the environment, but they recognize the potential for problems such aschemical overload, leaching, and salination.

6.5 In order to obtain an indication of the perception of environmental conditions andchange, the farmers and community leaders interviewed for this study were asked whether,in their judgement, there had been any change in a number of environmental indicatorsover the past decade. This indicated a divergence of views (see Table 6.1 for a summaryof responses of community leaders). The results, though do perhaps suggest a greaterperception of negative impacts in Kano State than in Sokoto.

Table 6.1: Environmental Impact of Fadama Development According to SampledCommunity Leaders in Kano and Sokoto States

7ype of Environmental Impact Kano Sokoto

Number of Leaders

Lowering of floodYes 7 1No 4 7

Wells dried?Yes, many 3Yes, few 3 1No 5 7

Fewer fish/wildlife than 10 yrs. agoYes 5 2No 5 4

a. Not all of the leaders responded that there had been a change in the fish or wildlife population in areas where suchspecies are not commnon.Source: Interviews of ruml community leaders, Field Staff, 1994.

B. Water, Soil and Cropping Patterns

6.6 Water. The most obvious difference in the responses between the two states wasin the question of the changes in the level of the annual flood inundation. Seven of theeleven Community leaders interviewed in Kano said that the level had fallen, while onlyone of the eight interviewed in Sokoto State did so. Similarly, six of the leaders reportedthat wells had dried up, whereas, again only one in Sokoto did so. These observations mayreflect the widespread and long term decline in the inundation in the Hadejia Basin notedin para. 6.3, which long preceded the expansion of pump and tubewell use.

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6.7 Soil. Some soil salinity has been observed in isolated patches in areas subject toirrigation in the two states (FACU, 1991), although none was reported in the villagessurveyed for this study. The salinity which has been observed is attributed to locally poorwater management, mainly reflecting poor drainage of the irrigated areas. To improve soilstructure and fertility the community leaders maintained that much of their household andlivestock wastes are taken to the fields for use as organic fertilizer. It is, however, likely,that the plots near the compound receive more attention than those far away.

6.8 Chemical Contamination of Soil and Groundwater. Donli and Buahin (1994)discovered a potentially problematic situation in their study of farmers practicing dryseason farming in Northern Nigeria and the use of agro-chemicals. In using inorganicfertilizer, they found that farmers tended to broadcast and often used more than therecommended amount leading to root damage, scorched leaves and sometimes loss ofdisease resistance. They recognized the possibility of leaching as well as excess chemicalsin the water source.

6.9 Similarly, to control insects on their crops, farmers bought chemicals from shopsselling agricultural inputs, based on the advice of shopkeepers or their associates. In manycases, no labels or instructions were found on the containers, raising concerns as to thetype of insecticides (if indeed they were insecticides) being purchased. Since there wereno instructions on usage, one is also concerned that farmers would use the products safely(Donli and Buahin, 1994). The recent increases in prices of fertilizers and chemicals,resulting from removal of subsidies and the decline in value of the Naira, may reduce theextent of the problem as they will provide a strong incentive to farmers to avoid wastageand to only use the amounts of the iniputs required to achieve their objective.

6.10 Cropping Patterns. In conducting the interviews, it was found that crop rotation isnot a concept with which the farmers are familiar in the abstract. In the upland areas,intercropping is commonly practiced in wet season cropping patterns in Sokoto State.Many farmers maintained that plots are allocated to particular crops, eg. rice fields areonly for rice. Any changes in crops reflect changes in output prices rather than rotationalconsiderations as so far any adverse effects have been limited. For farmers that do rotatecrops, the practice is more common with dry season than wet season crops.

6.11 However, increased crop pests and diseases were acknowledged by 74 percent ofthe interviewed fadama farmers in Kano/Jigawa States and 75 percent in Sokoto/KebbiStates. The crops most affected were grains, including wheat and millet, cowpeas andtomatoes. Part of this problem may reflect the continued presence of host plants andcould be contained through crop rotation. Crop variety and the quality of seeds alsoaffects the performance of the crop and the level of resistance to attack. Similarly, seedsreserved from the previous growing season may have reduced resistance. Input supply isan important function of the ADP.

C. Wildlife

6.12 Data from the interviews indicated no consensus on whether there had been areduction in fish and wildlife over the past decade. Some thought there had been, othersdid not. For example, in Bunkure, Kano State, farmers stated that indeed there were

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more fish and wildlife than before. The Environmental Impact Assessment reported that"in most of the sites visited wildlife were found to be almost extinct. There is nopossibility of small scale irrigation development with TW and WB having an impact onfadama wildlife. Where there is irrigation development and increase in farming activities,there is the likelihood of corresponding increase in the population of pests (rats, snakesand quelea birds)." (FACU 1991). This situation presumably was a factor in the range ofviews expressed by the community leaders. The EIA did recognize the importance of theHadejia Wetlands, downstream from Kano State, but did not believe that the anticipateddevelopment of tubewells and washbores would have any significant impact on this area.

D. Fish and Fisheries

6.13 The EIA noted that the majority of fishermen were in fact farmers who dependedon fishing only as a supplementary source of food and income. Thus, there were noreports of conflict between farmers and fishermen. The overall decline in annual flood onsome catchments has clearly had an effect on the composition and level of the fishpopulation, but the community leaders surveyed for this study were evenly split in theirresponses on whether there had been a reduction in numbers in the past decade. In someareas, however, there were reports that some people who used to rely on an income fromfishing now have to rely on other income-generating activities.

6.14 While heavy or inappropriate use of fertilizers and chemicals can cause leachingand lead to pollution of water bodies and, therefore, adversely impact fish populations, thelevels of use in the two states are relatively low and the EIA found no evidence of suchadverse effects in the region (FACU, 1991).

E. Public Health

6.15 The EIA reported that virtually everybody in the areas suffered from malaria. Thedevelopment of small scale irrigation is likely to lead to an increase rather than a decreasein mosquito breeding grounds. Yellow fever and schistosomiasis were also widely found,mostly among children in farming households. Snail vectors are common where irrigationwas carried out by direct pumping from ponds or streams (FACU, 1991). Interviews withcommunity leaders indicated that there had been no decrease in these diseases during theproject period. However, they did report that the increased income farmers were nowreceiving enabled them to more easily afford treatment when necessary, which hadreduced the adverse impacts of the diseases (para 5.33).

F. Overall Impact

6.16 The study was only able to obtain limited information on the environmentalaspects of fadama development. However, the available data indicates that, at the presentlevel of development, small-scale development and irrigation of these areas will have avery limited environmental impact.

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7. Conclusions

A. The Projects

7.1 Kano and Sokoto States are located in a dry sub-humid region, with agriculturegenerally based on shifting cultivation and mixed/relay cropping, typical of Sub-SaharanAfrica. In addition to improving local infrastructure, the projects initially focussedprimarily on introduction of 'packages' for traditional rainfed subsistence crops. Theseusually included (a) improved seed, (b) use of fertilizer and agro-chemicals, and (c)improved husbandry in sole cropping systems. Results were disappointing, and were amajor reason for the unsatisfactory ratings of several of the ADPs in the cluster audit.The principal reasons were supply problems with seeds and fertilizer, and an inability tocome up with technologies which were suited to the farmers' mixed/relay cropping systems.

7.2 However, the data obtained by this study indicates that the extension servicesupported under the Kano and Sokoto projects did make farmers aware of alternativetechnologies. The resources made available under the projects for extension led to amuch lower agent-to-farmer ratio than before and, for the first time, ensured that manyfarmers were periodically visited with timely and relevant extension messages. There is nodoubt that the ADPs have greatly facilitated farmers' access to agricultural information.The results of this study also indicate that the VEAs have won the confidence of thefarmers, since a majority of the farmers interviewed stated that they considered the ADPsto be the most trustworthy source of information. Almost all of those farmersinterviewed, who are now using several new technologies, began their use during theproject period and indicated that they learned of it from the ADP. In that sense, theextension effort was successful. Clearly, the shortcoming was that some of thetechnologies were not well adapted to meet the farmers' priorities.

7.3 Nevertheless, there are still areas, particularly in remote locations, that areneglected as VEAs tend to concentrate their attention in easily accessible or nearbycommunities. Whether a farmer was a contact farmer or not was not always a determinerof the frequency of the VEAs visits. Because of this, not all farmers were given the samemessages on a regular basis, despite the directive that all contact farmers should be visitedfortnightly.

B. The Fadama Components

7.4 The fadama components, however, managed to avoid the characteristic limitations.This was partly fortuitous, but also reflected an effective response by the ADPs to anopportunity. There was an initial pressure for an effort to assist those fadama areas whichhad been adversely affected by dam construction. There appear to have been four majoraspects to the success of this program; (a) the existence of a substantial market forproducts which became feasible using the technology; (b) initial incentives for adoption,including the reduction in risk of crop failure; (c) suitability of the technologies for use by

96

the individual farmer; and (d) improvements made in the technologies by the ADPs toenhance their attractiveness to farmers.

7.5 (a) Demand. On the demand side the introduction of pumps and tubewellsenabled farmers to respond to the increasing demand for crops such as tomatoes, onions,peppers, and garlic. During the later 1980s, FGN also encouraged production of wheatthrough high guaranteed prices and this provided an alternative dry season crop forfarmers. This policy has been subsequently terminated, and wheat is now a minor crop.

7.6 It has been claimed that the growth of the vegetable market was somewhatfortuitous in that, when the importation of fertilizer by the northern ADPs was built up inthe mid-eighties, it was shipped to the north by road. This resulted in a considerableunused truck capacity on the return trips to Lagos. Some enterprising growers and traderstook advantage of this and started to ship back tomatoes etc. Volume expanded to thepoint where it attracted additional transport capacity. As noted, the major FGNinvestments in trunk highways supported this development, and project improvement ofrural roads by the ADPs further improved access to some fadama areas.

7.7 (b) Incentives. Only half of the ADP staff interviewed characterized the initialfarmer response to motor pumps as 'enthusiastic' as discussed in Chapter 4. Particularly inSokoto, response to tubewells was mixed; there only one in seven of the respondentsconsidered it to have been enthusiastic. During the demonstration phase wells weredrilled in areas the ADPs considered promising, and made available to farmers. However,because of poor data on ground conditions, several wells were dry or had poor yields.One survey indicated that one year after drilling about 40 percent of the wells in one zonein Sokoto were still unused, even though there had been initial expressions of interest byfarmers.

7.8 Over time, as the economic benefits became more apparent (aided by the highlysubsidized availability of tubewells and pumps), the technologies did take off. Thesebenefits included both the increased security of food production and the ability to producevegetables, etc. for sale in the dry season. However, in many respects the final success ofthe technology was as much out of the hands of the projects, as with any of the othertechnologies promoted by them. In fact, perhaps more so, as without the development ofthe market, the technologies would have remained not more than a "good idea."

7.9 (c) Suitability. Some initial effort was made to promote group ownership, but datafrom the survey indicated that very few pumps and wells are owned in this way. In fact, inretrospect, one advantage of the tubewell, pump and washbore technologies was that theywere suitable for ownership and use by an individual farmer. In particular, the flexibilityof the washbore technology makes it ideally suited to use by a single farmer wherephysical conditions permit it. As a result, each farmer was committed to the proper useand care of the equipment that belonged to him and from which he could directly benefitif it were properly handled.

7.10 While farmers have demonstrated willingness to share the use of their pumps andwells with others, they reserved the right to determine when and how they would be used,and to reap the benefits or otherwise of their decisions. The frequent misuse of common

97

property, which is often considered everyone's opportunity and no one's responsibility,was, therefore, avoided with the decentralized adoption pattern. Each farmer's potentialand his ability to reap benefits were then based upon his efforts and, for most of them,not dependent upon close collaboration with his neighbor.

7.11 (d) Adaptation. Initially, the projects promoted both manual pump for low-lift useand diesel pumps (envisaged as suitable for group use). However, it became apparent thatneither of these technologies was particularly attractive. One demanded too much heavylabor, the other was inflexible. Farmers were more interested in small gasoline enginesand the projects quickly switched to these. Similarly, the ADPs introduced the washboretechnology after the tubewell, and have sought to improve it as its attractiveness tofarmers has become apparent. Thus, there has been a 'bottom-up' evolution of thetechnology. At the same time the initial introduction of the technology and its adaptationdrew heavily on experience with tubewells, etc. in other parts of the world andrepresented effective use of TA-related skills.

C. A Parallel Case

7.12 In a recent article on the role of technology in agricultural intensification, Smithet. al. (1994) discuss the development of maize production in Northern Nigeria. Theyconclude that "contrary to conventional wisdom, 'quantum leap' technologies have a vitalrole to play in West Africa, if targeted carefully at areas where the right conditions exist."They also "caution that, while technological breakthroughs are crucial, they need to besituated within a technology strategy that seeks to achieve both productivity andsustainability of the agroecosystem as a whole."

7.13 The impact of the fadama development components may be seen in this samecontext. Smith et. al. review the adoption of hybrid maize in the late 1970s and early1980s, in the slightly more humid zone just to the south of Kano and Sokoto states. Inthe mid-1970s maize was a minor crop mainly grown as in backyards for own consumption.At that time the major food crops in this region were sorghum and millet, and groundnutsand cotton were the predominant cash crops. However, by the end of the 1980s maize hadbecome a major cash and food crop in much of the region.

7.14 Rapid adoption of maize appears to have begun in the late 1970s, when severalexogenous factors came into play:

(a) an improved variety, TZB, which was well adapted to the region, becameavailable;

(b) the initial enclave ADPs began in this region. They promoted TZB amongother packages, which included fertilizers, and which clearly demonstrated the benefits ofthe variety;

(c) fertilizer was highly subsidized, and availability improved, partly as a resultof the ADPs; and

98

(d) the highway construction program, funded by the increased oil revenues,significantly reduced transport costs to the main markets in the south.

7.15 Not surprisingly, these factors closely parallel those discussed above in connectionwith the fadama program. However, one fact which should be noted is that in the case ofmaize, while it was actively promoted by the ADPs, these projects were only operative inthree small enclaves, yet improved maize spread rapidly throughout the region. Thisillustrates yet again that, "when a technology meets farmers' needs, its dissemination ispossible with minimal extension." (Smith et. al. p 547).

7.16 In the fadama case, the support from the ADP, and the fact that by the 1980s theprograms were operating state wide, may have been more important in ensuringwidespread adoption of the pumps etc., than it was for maize. This report has shown howthe evidence suggests that the majority of the farmers purchasing pumps, in the early yearsin particular, obtained those imported by the projects. In addition, since this technologyrequires a significant up-front investment in equipment, in contrast to the production ofmaize, subsidized equipment (or access to cheap credit) is likely to be more significant ininducing farmers to take the plunge. Also, since most of the vegetables etc produced withthe pump technology are more perishable than grains, and lacked traditional marketingchannels, the level of uncertainty facing the early adopters was high. In addition, thesupport of ADPs in improving local tubewell technology, and subsequently in introducingthe washbore technology, was essential.

D. Lessons and Implications

1. Technology and Extension

7.17 Both the maize and fadama examples indicate that introduction of a technologythat appears better than existing ones, does not assure its adoption. Both were, in Smithet. al's terminology, 'quantum leap technologies'. However, exogenous factors, especiallythose related to the conditions which are critical in providing an incentive to produce, areinvariably outside the control, or major influence, of the project, or of those involved intechnology development.

7.18 Smith, et. al. imply the need for focus in technology development efforts.Technologies "need to be carefully targeted to areas where the preconditions forintensification exist" (p. 553). However, as we have seen, there is a considerable elementof chance in whether a particular technology will be attractive to farmers, especially underconditions of great economic uncertainty and change such as is typical of SSA. Therefore,too great an emphasis on targeting may not be desirable. This appears to have a numberof implications for extension related operations such as the ADPs:

(a) there is a need to approach issues of technologies from a broad perspectiveas it is difficult to assess where success is likely to arise 5 - 10 years in advance;

(b) particular emphasis might be placed on areas of innovation which showpotential for products with a high income elasticity of demand, or which create

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opportunities to produce such items since (assuming growth) demand for them will expandrapidly; and

(c) there is a need for flexibility in the organization and an ability to follow upon success, and to modify technologies to increase their suitability for those interested,when promising conditions are met, as has been the case in the fadama program studiedhere.

7.19 At the same time, given the reality of escalating costs in Nigeria and the increasingpressure on the national budget, the existing ADP structure with the T & V extensionsystem may not be economically sustainable with the costs of frequent village visits by alarge number of VEAs. In the early stages of the projects, frequent visits by the agentswere necessary not only to introduce and demonstrate new technologies, but also establishrapport. Such frequent visits may be less important now since the farmers are morefamiliar with the notion of change and new technologies than they were two decades ago.The farmers surveyed for this study indicated that they looked to a variety of sources forinformation on agricultural problems, including the mass media, although they viewed theADP extension agent as the most trustworthy. The ADPs have, in fact, responded to thisby sponsoring and supporting radio programs.

7.20 These conclusions may imply that:

(a) there may be scope for expanding the use of radio and other mass mediaoutlets, while reducing somewhat the frequency of extension agent contact at the farmlevel. Quality may be more important than quantity now for agent/farmer interaction.

(b) on the other hand there may be a need to increase the focus at the levelabove the field worker, the subject matter specialist. This is the point at whichmodifications to the 'messages' have to be formulated, and this level is important indetermining the ability to develop flexible responses, as in the fadama program.

2. Livestock and Intensification

7.21 The key issues in the project regions are the continued intensification ofagriculture, and the maintenance of the resource base. Both the maize and fadamatechnologies had significant impact in facilitating further intensification. To some degreethe fadama technologies which have been the subject of this report were more powerful inthat they opened up a whole range of possibilities for the farmers, which they have beengradually building upon. Intensification here means a movement away from the fallowbased systems towards continuous cultivation systems. The keys to this are methods tomaintain soil nutrient status and improve soil structure. An important element is theability to recycle organic matter, a process in which increased use of livestock has usuallybeen an important factor.

7.22 Farmers in Kano and Sokoto have displayed an interest in livestock. The largemajority of those interviewed indicated that they had increased their numbers of animalsover the past decade. The majority of farmers surveyed in this study indicated that theyused oxen for cultivation of uplands. The Fulani had also increased their herds. A recent

100

study investigated livestock numbers over several regions of West Africa, (including mostof Nigeria) using data generated by low level aerial reconnaissance and complementaryground studies (Bourn and Wint, 1994). This indicated a significant relationship betweenlivestock biomass and the intensity of land use. That is, that increased cultivation isaccompanied by greater livestock numbers, rather than displacing them.3 The 1990National Livestock Survey of Nigeria also demonstrated that livestock populations werefar more numerous and more widely distributed than was generally recognized, and alsoreported widespread use of animal traction and of fattening of livestock by smallholders.

7.23 However, despite the fact that almost all farmers raise livestock and their potentialimportance in intensifying agriculture, the Kano and Sokoto ADPs did not includecomponents related to livestock. This appears to have been an important omission inthree further ways:

(a) relations between the Fulani and other groups are the major social issueresulting from greater use of fadama land for crop production. The presence ofcomponents directed towards livestock might have helped the projects improve theircontacts with the Fulani, and, perhaps act as one channel for reducing the level of frictionwhich has arisen. As it is, the Fulani do not see the ADPs as having any benefits for them(see Chapter 5) and in fact, see the structure and focus of the ADPs as just one moreindication that Government etc. consider their problems to be of little consequence.

(b) under most conditions, in low-income societies such as Nigeria, there is ahigh income elasticity of demand for livestock products, so that they represent an area ofmarket opportunity as the economy grows; and

(c) animal traction is still attractive as a means of increasing productivity perman hour, even if yields are not increasing.

7.24 At present, with veterinary services (the area of greatest interest to the Fulani)being provided by a different service, there is no one part of the bureaucracy that canform a bridge between the major groups involved. A small pilot operation has beeninitiated by the ongoing Bank-supported Livestock Project, which is channeling support toFulani through the ADP structure. The results of this study strongly support this initiativewhich, if expanded, would imply bringing expertise on livestock management into theADPs, and force livestock and crop specialists to work more closely together. This wouldalso have the advantage of facilitating the development of 'packages' etc. in support of thedevelopment of mixed farming systems (eg. development of fodder crops and use ofresidues).

3. There may, however, clearly be a change in livestock husbandry methods and a displacement of those, such as the nomadicFulani, using extensive methods.

101

3. Women

7.25 The survey indicated general satisfaction among the women in improvements overthe past decade, and did not indicate any evidence of discontent over adverseconsequences of the changes which have occurred. However, the technologies which havebeen introduced over this period were developed without the internal needs of thehouseholds in the project areas in mind. That the results appear to have been relativelybenign so far does not guarantee that this will continue. Given the nature of the socialsetting, the creation of the Women in Agriculture (WIA) program under the ADPs wasdesirable, and has helped to reach women with information and technology for enhancingtheir productivity. While some evidence exists that workloads may have increased, womenrecognized that the benefits obtained justified the effort.

7.26 It is important to recognize that, in Northern Nigeria, despite good intentions,rural women cannot be fully integrated into development strategies if this demands equalparticipation and interaction with men. Through their group activities, however, ruralnorthern women can obtain opportunities that would otherwise not be available to them.ADP staff in general, and not only WIA staff, must be sensitive to the gender activities inthe rural areas, recognizing that rural women do own land and manage farms, andtherefore, should not be left out of agricultural development efforts. Strategies toeffectively incorporate their unique potentials and constraints need to be innovative andflexible.

4. The Role of ADPs in Fadama Development

7.27 The activities of ADPs have supported the rapid spread of the use of pump andtubewell technology through much of Northern Nigeria. The presence of thousands ofpumps has further provided an opportunity for the creation of employment opportunitiesin pump maintenance. ADPs have also contracted locally for well drilling and this is beingfurther promoted under the ongoing NFDP. Pumps imported under NFDP financing arebeing sold on to farmers at essentially full cost. In the longer term there is no reason whythe importation of pumps, etc. should not be entirely in the private sector, and this is anobjective which underlies the ongoing NFDP. However, in the short term, difficulties ofaccess to foreign exchange limit the ability of the private sector to import directly, andimportation by ADPs can ensure an adequate flow of equipment to allow continuedinvestment by farmers.

7.28 The findings of the survey made clear that there has been very little jointownership of either pumps and tubewells in the project areas. In fact, the suitability ofthese technologies for individual ownership and use was clearly a factor on the productionside which has stimulated their uptake. Tubewell irrigation has been extensively used inother regions of the world, especially South Asia. Attempts in the last decade to develop'more efficient' group operated wells have achieved only very limited success. Unlesswater is available almost on demand (as from an individual well) conflict soon arises andallocation systems break down. In most of the areas in which this has been attempted,aquifers are large and, therefore, benefits of collaboration are difficult to see. However,since many of the aquifers being used in Northern Nigeria are relatively small, there willhave to be some action to ensure that extraction rates do not become too great and to

102

begin to monitor and manage the available supply. However, this is not yet a problemperceived by farmers, as declining watertables due to heavy pumping was not reported byfarmers or others in the present study.

7.29 The ongoing NFDP is organizing Fadama Users Associations (FUAs) to serve as alink between ADPs, etc. and farmers, which in the long run could provide a vehicle foraddressing these issues. In particular, pumps, etc. are being supplied to farmers on creditthrough the FUAs with the credit being guaranteed by the group. However, there are twoaspects of this effort which may work counter to the objectives of privatizing the provisionof pumps and tubewells. First, given the tendency of farmers to avoid group operations,there will have to be some benefit to the farmers through purchasing equipment, etc.through the FUAs to make it worth their while, eg. easy repayment terms. Second,whereas when a farmer goes to the market to buy a pump he can choose from whatevermakes and models are available, when he purchases from the ADP he has to takewhatever make and model has won the particular contract awarded by that ADP.

7.30 Developing the FUAs, or their equivalents, as viable actors will not be easy. Iffarmers are pushed in to them as a quid pro quo for benefits, eg. cheap credit, they areunlikely to feel strongly committed to them. More indirect ADP efforts, designed tofacilitate individual or group actions, may be most effective. For example, measures toimprove the understanding of the hydrology of the fadama areas, eg. drilling to establishthe structure and extent of aquifers, and follow-up monitoring, as is being undertakenunder the NFDP, will provide a vehicle for showing farmers the nature of the waterresources they are using and the need for joint efforts in management. Similarly,provision of information about crop conditions and likely output, especially local areaswith ample supplies, would assist in creating greater competition in local markets andimprove farmers' returns.

5. Program Funding

7.31 The findings of the study, especially on the desirability of a broad approach toagricultural innovation and technologies (eg. including the desirability of including somelivestock services through ADP channels) also raise some issues as to the effect of relianceon external funding and its packaging. Given the scarcity of funds, the approach offocussing external funding on clearly defined, subsectoral packages (eg. the NFDP), runs arisk of reducing the ability of the extension and service system to be able to adopt a broadapproach, and to reduce the ability of the system to respond flexibly to new opportunities,in the way that the Kano and Sokoto Projects were able to respond to the rapid growth indemand for pumps and tubewells. There is also the danger, pointed out frequently in thecase of external funding of research, that the balance of funding reflects the perceivedpriorities of those providing the finance rather than the priorities of the ultimatebeneficiaries.

103 Annex 1

Fadama Physical Characteristics and Ecology'

A. Description

1. In the northern states, the fadamas are mainly low-lying flood plains composed offluvial deposits and containing extensive exploitable aquifers, but generally, any low-lyingseasonally flooded area is known as a fadama. Major fadamas occur along the flood plainsof the Niger, Sokoto-Rima, Benue and Yobe river systems. They vary in width from a fewhundred meters to as much as 20 km and encompass the land and water resources thatcould be developed for irrigated agriculture. Fadama formation is a geomorphologicalphenomenon that has resulted from the combination of slow river bed accretion andperiods of high rainfall that caused extensive, high velocity flooding and deposition ofsorted materials over the flood plains. These materials vary in thickness from about onemeter to seven or eight meters. Deposition of sediments was accompanied by a rise in thebase levels of the rivers. The shallow aquifers constituted by the sands generally lie belowthe flood levels and are hydraulically connected to river systems. Many are thus subject torecharge during the wet season floods.

2. Ecology. Fadamas are remarkably different from adjacent uplands in terms of theirecology and micro-climate. They are low-lying,flood-prone, slow-draining areas andgenerally possess finer textured and less acid soils. These factors have resulted in fadaznasoils with a markedly different moisture regime from upland soils. As a result, the naturalvegetation cover has been characterized by a composite of thick acacia scrubland, opengrassland and open seasonally or permanently ponded areas with sedges and reeds.Traditional use of fadamas by pastoralists and their herds as well as by settled agriculturistsand fishermen has had a dramatic effect on the ecology. The original scrub has beenreplaced in many places by grasslands. The land adjacent to the numerous villages thatdot the margins of fadamas has been entirely cleared for arable farming and is available topastoralists only after the crops are harvested. The retained moisture in the fadama soilsas well as their relative fertility, due in part to seasonal flooding in the past, supports goodquality fodder well into the dry season, when the uplands resources would have beenlargely exhausted. They thus form an essential element in the pasturing cycle ofpastoralists. Farmers have traditionally worked in river margins of the fadamas, wherethey could raise water with shadoufs to irrigate small parcels of vegetables and rice.

3. Extensive shallow depressional ponds, that are a feature of some fadamas, receiveflood waters in the wet season and retain it well into the dry season. Fish of variousspecies migrate into ponded areas with in-flowing water and find an ample supply of feedin vegetable matter and insects that have colonized the area in dry periods. As a result of

1. This annex draws heavily on material prepared for the appraisl of the National Fadanu Development Pmject, WorldBank, 1992.

Annex 1 104

this migration of fish, many of the settlements in and along the margins of fadamas havecome to depend on fish as an important dietary component. It is also probable that thesewetlands provided, and continue to provide at a reduced level, an important habitat forwaterfowl and other migratory palearctic species. They also pay an important role in therecharge of the shallow groundwater system through infiltration. As ponded water driesout, the inhabitants of the area cultivate the margins to produce rice and vegetables. Thusin many communities along the fadamas people have practiced dual occupations ofagriculture and fishing. Recent changes in river regimes brought about by dams and bycyclic or permanent climatic changes have drastically reduced the area, depth and durationof annual floodings. This has affected communities which depended on these pondedfadamas for fish and cultivable wetlands. It has also reduced the habitat area formigratory birds and other wildlife.

B. Ecological Impact of Fadama Use

4. During the past two decades, the state and federal governments have embarked onan ambitious program of dam construction in Northern Nigeria with the intent of usingreservoirs to support large scale irrigation projects on fadama and adjacent dryland areas.Over thirty dams have been constructed in the three project states with the largest beingBakolori Dam in Sokoto State. Further dam construction is being planned. These damswere not subjected to environmental assessment prior to construction. The ecologicalchanges within these highly productive floodplains are far-reaching, mostly with adverseenvironmental, social and economic effects. For a variety of reasons, irrigationdevelopment did not occur at expected rates and presently, most of the reservoirs areeither not utilized or are under-utilized for irrigation. Except for Bakolori, none of thedams were designed for hydropower generation.

5. Although formal irrigation systems resulting from the dams were established withthe anticipation that they would yield large-scale agricultural increases of economicsignificance, the reality appears to be quite different and disturbing. Dittoh (1991) hasdemonstrated that informal irrigation systems have been found to be more economicallyefficient than formal ones. Barbier et al (1991: 24) agree:

"When compared to the net economic benefits of an upstream water developmentproject such as the Kano River Project Phase I, the economic returns to thefloodplain appear to be much more favorable. This is particularly the case whenthe relative returns to the Project in terms of water input use is compared to thatof the floodplain system. This result should cause some concern, given that theexisting and planned water developments along the Hadejia-Jama'are River system,such as the Kano River Project, are currently and will continue diverting waterfrom the floodplain. The failure to take into account the opportunity cost of thiswater diversion in terms of the forgone benefits of floodplain production may beleading to serious over-estimation of the net economic returns to thesedevelopment projects".

105 Annex I

The problems identified above for the Hadejia Jama'are and Yobe floodplains are similarto those found in the Sokoto-Rima Basin and others. the choices to be made in waterusage involve trade-offs for limited water between competing potential and existing waterusers both upstream and downstream.

6. The dams have significantly altered the floodplain hydrology. Annual floods stilloccur, but at reduced intensity and duration. As a consequence, recession agriculture onthe floodplain has been seriously curtailed, both in respect to area under cultivation andthe market value of crops being planted. The lower river level also may have haddetrimental effects on groundwater levels. At lower river level, lateral groundwatermovement toward the river would cause more rapid flood recession than it would haveoccurred before the rivers were regulated by dams and reservoirs. This prematuredraining of groundwater to the river reduces the amount of residual soil moisture availablefor dry season cropping.

7. For instance, in some places where farmers previously cultivated wet season rice,they are now obliged to cultivate sorghum or millet owing to the reduced flood water andthe consequent loss of residual soil moisture. Recharge of the underlying aquifer stilltakes place, but in a more restricted zone along the river. Since environmental studieswere not conducted prior to dam construction, there are no baseline data on thefloodplain hydrology from which to make an accurate comparison of hydrological, or forthat matter, agricultural changes. However, anecdotal evidence gained from farmerinterviews in the floodplain makes it clear that the changes were not beneficial eithersocially or economically. The impacts on areas below the dams, and their impact oncropping were a significant element in creating interest among farmers in findingalternative means of assuring water supplies for fadamas in the dry season.

107 Annex 2

River Bottomland Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

Background

1. A major theme in agricultural development policy in Sub-saharan Africa has beenthe problems related to population growth, particularly the increasing area underagricultural use. This expansion has resulted in reduction of the period under fallow inthe traditional shifting cultivation systems.

2. Much of the African landscape is unspectacular and relatively flat. This may givean impression of uniformity. This is not so. Parts of the landscape are relatively high, witha tendency for water to drain away from them. Conversely, other parts are lower andreceive water. Thus, in much of SSA, while rainfall is relatively low (especially in relationto evapo-transpiration) significant areas have a water table which is relatively high for allor a significant part of the year. (in Zimbabwe this has been estimated as 15 percent).

3. With low population densities the traditional shifting cultivation systems generallymet subsistence needs. Even with high interyear rainfall variability, storage could prettymuch take care of production variations for staple grains. Wetter areas were not muchused for cropping in these systems. Reasons may include:

- soils are often heavier and more difficult to work;- with tsetse and other disease load, animal traction has not been widely

used;- valley bottoms were often viewed as being unhealthy because of water

related diseases such as bilharzia, onchocerciasis and others related toswamps or stagnant water.

- seasonally flooded areas have often used as significant sources of animalfodder. Traditionally many of these areas have been kept for grazing.

4. As population growth continues and fallow periods shorten, two other changesappear to occur. Off-farm markets for agricultural products increase and, as access tothem improves, interest in cash cropping increases. At the same time farmer interest invalley bottom also increases. The latter areas have several aspects to make themattractive to farmers:

- using them for cropping reduces seasonal cropping risk. Valley areas willhave higher probability of producing a crop in a dry year.

- in an average year a second crop can often be produced during the dryseason from residual moisture (or with a little simple irrigation). This isattractive for production of horticultural crops for home consumption orsale. This also helps even out interseasonal labor requirements.

Annex 2 108

5. External experts, seeing the greater reliability of water supply in these areas and,therefore, likely better conditions for higher yielding varieties, have looked on these areasas having a potential role in intensifying agriculture. In particular, some have seen theseareas as having potential for continuous cropping, where, because of water availability,some of the standard concerns about short fallow periods do not apply. As a result,efforts to increase agricultural production, including Bank funded projects, have oftenincluded elements to encourage the greater use of these areas.

Bank Projects

6. Numbers. A review of data from PCRs for the 300 Bank financed agriculturalprojects completed in SSA to date indicated that 43 of them (about 14 percent) haveincluded components aimed at increasing the intensity of use of bottomlands. A listing ofthe projects, and of the nature of the activities undertaken, is given in Attachment 1.Most of these projects were area development type operations. One noteworthy featureis a sharp distinction between the former Eastern and Western Africa Regions:

Total With PercentAgricultural Bottomland

Projects Component

Total Africa 300 42 14

of which:Western Africa 145 37 31

Eastern Africa 155 5 3

[This grouping of projects with bottomland components does not include straightforwardirrigation projects or components, except 'micro-level' irrigation.]

7. The reasons for this inter-regional difference would have to be investigated butmay include:

areas with greatest population pressure in East Africa are highlands; (egKenya highlands, Rwanda, Burundi), where bottomlands are less common,whereas in the more populated areas of West Africa seasonally flooded orwaterlogged valley bottoms are a much more significant element in thelandscape;there has been an argument that valley bottoms should not be developedbecause of their importance as wildlife habitat and in maintaining regularityof streamflow and water quality downstream, especially as intensity ofupland cultivation increases. This view was most widely held in colonial

109 Annex 2

British territories, especially in E Africa, where it was pushed by settlerrepresentatives and wildlife people. It was put into law in Rhodesia(Zimbabwe) where cultivation in 'dambos' was illegal and grazing restricted.Some restrictions continued after independence.

8. 7ype of Component. There have been a range of operations involving differentdegrees of land and water management. For this study we have not included purelyirrigation projects. We have included components involving small scale irrigation, eg.several small schemes of up to about 20 ha each, and also a small group of projects whichattempted to use flood protection polders. Given these 'outer limits', the projectcomponents included in the study may be divided into three types:

- bottomland development - water control- micro-irrigation/polders- swamp drainage

9. The division of the projects identified was as follows:

Bottomland Development 24Micro-irrigation/polders 6Swamp Development 11Others 2

Total 43

10. Swamp drainage operations have primarily been carried out in the humid regionsof west Africa; i.e., areas with rainfalls above 1,800 to 2,000 mm of annual rainfall inSierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia and Nigeria.

Results

11. In most of the projects the bottomland development components are a relativelysmall share of total project cost, usually less than 25 percent. As a result the cost of thecomponent is often not specified in the PCR. Data on the results vary widely butcommonly there is an indication of the achievement of the physical target, in most casesthe number of hectares to be developed/improved.

12. For a preliminary assessment of the success of these components they have beendivided, to the extent possible, into 5 categories:

Highly successful - > 100% of targetSuccessful - 80% - 99%Partially successful - 50% - 79%Unsuccessful - 20% - 49%Failed/abandoned - <20%

Annex 2 110

13. Table A2.1 shows the numbers and distribution of these outcomes by componenttype. Overall, 29 percent of projects were successful (achieved 80 percent or more oftheir physical targets by closing), 24 percent were partially successful (50-79 percent), and47 percent were unsuccessful. Relatively speaking, the swamp development efforts weremost successful, only 36 percent failures, and the irrigation/polder components the leastsuccessful, 83 percent failure. In the latter group all the three projects based on the useof polders failed.

14. However, these results may overstate the results of the activities. There isanecdotal evidence, for example, that a significant proportion of the swamp areas drainedhave been abandoned after the completion of the project, and that the same may apply tothe other areas.

15. Conversely, one group of projects which were conspicuously successful were threein Northern Nigeria in which the project financed and otherwise assisted in the drilling oftubewells and provision of pumps in valley bottom (fadama) areas. In these cases theinitial targets were substantially exceeded.

111 2Am 2

Table A2.1:Outcome of Component by Type

Outcome Bottomiands Swamps Irrigated TotolPolders

Highly successful 6 3 - 9Successful 2 1 - 3Partially successful 6 3 1 10Unsuccessful 9 4 2 ISFailed/abandoned I - 3 4

Total 24 11 6 41

Percentage Distribution of Outcome by Type

Highly successful 25 27 - 22Successful 8 9 - 7Partially succesful 25 27 16 24Unsuccessful 38 36 33 37Failed/abandoned 4 50 10

Total 100 99 99 100

113 Annex 3

Methodology for the Field Survey

1. Based on the study objective and the various factors and actors identified as important tounderstanding the impact of the ADPs upon fadama development in Kano and Sokoto States, amulti-method approach was adopted, combining the use of both quantitative and qualitative, aswell as primary and secondary, data.

2. Use of secondary data. Significant attention has been given to fadama development inrecent years, as its potential for agricultural production has been recognized. The independentresearch papers etc. which have resulted have been drawn on as background to the field work andincorporated into the analysis.

3. The ADPs have also given some priority to gathering data on production in the fadamaareas and the use of improved technology, such as tubewells and pumps. However, the quality ofthe data is of a variable level of reliability. For example, in most cases, baseline data, specific tothe fadama areas, is missing. It is in recent years, particularly since 1990, with the preparationand implementation of the NFDP, that more attention from the Monitoring and Evaluation(M&E) Units has been focussed upon fadama farmers and their dry season agricultural activities.

4. Nevertheless, a thorough search of existing project documents and information yieldedsignificant information. In some cases, such as the Central Zone of Sokoto ADP (SADP) duringthe period of 1986-88, more studies appear to have been conducted than in other zones.Unfortunately, the uneven and variable coverage means that one cannot make rigorouscomparisons between one area and another from studies conducted during the same time period.

5. Primnary data gathered. The major component of the study consisted of gathering primarydata through interviewing a purposively selected sample of just over 250 fadama farmers, twentykey informants from the ADPs themselves, and twenty community leaders of villages visited, aswell as 16 Fulani pastoralists who were available and willing to be interviewed. To complementthe resulting quantitative data, a limited number of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were alsoheld separately with groups of rural men and women, to identify areas where there may be genderor status differences in responses. The FGDs gave the opportunity to explore certain areas ingreater depth and determine the degree of consensus on important issues. The methods used aresummarized in Table 2.1. Data on the samples drawn are shown in Tables A3.2 and A3.3

6. It was originally intended to undertake a two stage survey. Initially a sample of about 20villages with access to fadama land would be drawn to provide a coverage of the physicalconditions of the two project areas, including villages with extensive and limited adoption of thetechnologies. Data would be sought from village leaders, agricultural extension agents, and focusgroups on; (a) the extent of adoption of pump and tubewell technology; (b) the progress ofadoption and factors related to this experience; (c) the extent of group operation of pumps andwells; (d) the principal changes in the villages over the past decade and a half; and (e) otheractivities in the villages supported or stimulated by the projects. Then, as a second stage, a

Annex 3 114

sample of farmers would be drawn from within a subset of the villages in order to obtain areasonable cross section of the project experience. A sample of about 25 farmers in each of tenvillages was envisaged, and data would be sought on; (a) current cropping pattern and production;(b) changes following the introduction of pumps and tubewells; (c) livestock production and use;(d) use of labor in the household; and (e) the perception of change over the past decade. Theresults of the first stage village would be used to fine-tune the farmer questionnaire.

7. To select the sampled villages from which the respondents were drawn, four criteria wereused:

(a) roughly equal numbers from each of the four new states and the ADP zones withinthe states;

(b) geographical spread, so as to include both areas close to towns and major highways,and less accessible areas, as determined from maps;

(c) representation of areas of both high and low fadama development potential; and

(d) localities with early ADP attention in this program, as well as those without.

The latter two criteria were determined by a combination of secondary information and advicefrom ADP staff.

B. Unfortunately, because of the marked deterioration of country conditions in mid-1994,particularly with increasing uncertainty over the availability and cost of fuel and transport, thisapproach had to be abandoned. In order to reduce transport needs both parts of the survey wereundertaken at the same time, so as to ensure that sub-project areas were fully covered. In theevent, abnormally heavy rains and flooding also hampered travel, and it was fortunate that the twostage approach was not adopted. However, this did mean that there was not an opportunity tonarrow and tighten the farmer survey. Overall, however, with this caveat, the numbers and typesof interviews obtained were approximately as envisaged, and provide an adequate cross section ofthe project areas.

9. Table A3.1 lists the inventory of indicators used for the study and the sources ofinformation, whether secondary or primary data, used to come up with a composite picture of thechanges that resulted from the intervention of the ADP. It should be noted that the overlap ofdata from different sources is intentional as a way of supporting or disputing the conclusionsreached from one group, and gaining additional insights from all of the relevant participants in theprocess of agricultural development.

Limitations of the Study

10. One of the biggest challenges in an impact evaluation is to determine the areas in whichchange has taken place, to what extent the intervention was responsible for the changes that haveoccurred and that these changes would not have happened even if the intervention had not takenplace. The task has been compounded in this study for two reasons: first of all, the lack of a

115 Annex 3

baseline survey at the time of project inception that would focus upon fadama farming; andsecondly, the continuation of ADP activities after the completion date, specifically in the area offadama development, through the NFDP. Certainly, the NFDP itself is a consequence of the1981-82 to 1988-89 project, but it complicates the analysis of the impact of a specific project whenfarmers sometimes have difficulty differentiating between the two programs.

11. The lack of a baseline study necessitates the reliance upon recall by the farmers, whichcan be difficult, given the relatively long period of 10-12 years that has elapsed. The respondentsmay also sometimes give answers which they feel are "sociallydesirable" given the perceivedadvantages of dry season farming, the popularity of the NFDP, and the enthusiasm it hasgenerated. It was often difficult to get accurate information on quantitative variables such as sizeof farm, income and yield. This is not a unique problem to this study as it is common to mostresearch that relies upon a one visit interview for data collection among nonliterate ruralresidents, who do not keep records, and who may be unfamiliar with standard measures.

Annex 3 116

Notes

Geographic Areas

Given the time frame of the project implementation, a constraint has resulted from thepolitical and administrative changes that have occurred in Nigeria since 1981. A number of newstates and Local Government Areas (LGAs) have been created out of existing ones. Thiscomplicates the comparability of data when dealing with land areas that may have been bifurcatedor merged in the last 15 years. The land area designated as Kano State in 1982, became Kanoand Jigawa States in August, 1991, while Sokoto State was also divided into Sokoto and KebbiStates. Even more complicated changes have occurred with the structure of LGAs. For example,in 1982, there were 6 LGAs in the Central Zone of Sokoto State. In 1983, the Federal MilitaryGovernment merged some LGAs nationwide, resulting in 4 LGAs in the Zone: Sakaba/Wasaguwas merged with and became part of Zuru LGA, while Tambuwal became part of Yabo LGA. In1991, with the creation of new states and LGAs, these areas again became separate administrativeunits, but the Zone was then divided with some areas belonging in Kebbi State and othersremaining in Sokoto State. Since the secondary data comes from different times in the projectera, areas with the same name do not always refer to the same geographical entity.

The Difficulties of Obtaining Estimates of Land Area

An attempt was made in the survey to assess the areas of upland and fadama landoperated, but it soon became clear that there was no consistent measure of area in the regionssurveyed, and there were problems in getting exact areas of land from the respondents. As aresult, the data from this study are handled as approximations only. During the data collection,some farmers referred to the use of gLra in giving their size of land (3 gora = about 1 acre), orthe number of ridges (50 ridges = about I acre). In Table 3.2 data from sampled fadama farmersis given in regard to the source of their land and the number of plots of upland, as well as fadamaland, they own. The size of plot may vary, however, as one farmer estimated that his plot wasabout 10 hectares, while another farmer stated that he had nearly 50 plots, all of which totalledabout 20 acres of land.

117 Annex 3

Table A3.1:Inventory of Indicators for Impact Evaluation of Fadama Component of Sokoto andKano ADPsIndicators Source of Data

Primary Secondary1 2 3 4 5 6 7'

Changes in Agricultural PracticesCrops grown: type and amount X X X X XAmount of land cultivated

(Upland and Fadama) X X X XUse of inputs X XUse of water lifting technology X X X X XLivestock ownership X XMarketing of agricultural produce X X X XProportion of farmers practicing

dry season farming X X XSocial/Economic Changes

Household food/economic security X X XDemographic characteristics: ethnic

composition, migratory patterns, etc. X X X XConflicts between farmers/pastoralists X X X X X XUse of hired/family labor X XValue of land X XGroup activities X X X X XInfrastructural development X X X XGender division of responsibilities X X X XTenant farming X X XAlternative income-generation X X XTime for leisure X XSocio-economic stratification X X X

Environmental ChangesConservation practices: land fallow,

crop rotation, etc. X X X X XWatertable level X X X X X XAvailability of fish/wildlife X X XIncidence of crop pests & diseases X X X XSurface water control practices X X X

Institutional ChangesADPs impact & general performance:

Perception of ADP staff X XPerception of farmers X X X

Inter-agency cooperation X XADPs motivating factors: farmer

demand, political pressure, etc. X X Xa. I -Survey of Gfadan faimirs; 2- Community leaden; 3-ADP mufft 4-pautoralista; 5-FGDs; 6=Official project documcnts; and7=Publications.

Annex 3 118

Table A3.2: Sampled Villages, Fadama Farmers, Fulani Pastoralists, Key Informants and FGDsin Kano State

LGA/District Village Farmers Herders Key Informants FGDs

(N) (N) Leaders Staff

Danbatta Shiddar 10 6 1Fauriya 6 1Satame 9 1 1

Wudil Tsibiri 8 1 1 1Cikan Gari 2

Gaya Unguwarbai 7 1Nassarawa 6 1

Bunkure Bunkure 6 1Barkum 7 1 1Hayin Gada 5

Rano Zanbur 5 1Kibiya IBurba I

Ringim Algaina 22 1Birnin Kudu Chiyeko 15 1Jahun Hantsu 22

Total

8 16 126 12 12 7 4

119 Annex 3

Table A3.3:Sampled Villages, Fadama Farmers, Fulani Pastoralists, Key Informants and FGDsin Sokoto State

LGA/District Village Farmers Herders Key Informants FGDs

(N) (N) Leaders Staff

Raha Mai-dahini 9 1 1Bunza Bunza 3 3

Bajifa IKofar Yamma 1

Gusau Jauri-Rogo 11 1Argungu Argungu 15Indire-Gulma Goyoma 12 1Dundaye Tangwale 17 1Aliero Sabiyal 23 1

Marmaro IGoronyo Taloka 20 1Wurno Wurno 7

Gidan Kamba ILugu 9 1Gidan Modi 1 I

Gwadabawa Huchi 1

Total:

10 16 130 4 9 9 4

Annex 3 120

Table A3.4: Kano State: Population and Land Area Statistics by Local Government Area a

(a) (b) (c)Population Land Area Pop.

(n)2 Density

LGA Males Females Total

1. Albasu 55,428 56,080 111,508 445 250.582. Bagwai 48,902 51,922 100,824 401 251.433. Bebeje (+Kiru) 132,637 132,131 264,768 1,629 162.534. Bichi 84,484 87,566 172,050 592 290.635. Bunkure 57,695 61,156 118,851 432 275.126. Dala 271,863 224,534 496,397 68 7,299.967. Dambatta 98,564 106,167 204,731 1,220 167.818. Dawakin-Kudu

(+Warawa) 116,022 121,514 237,536 748 317.569. Dawakin-Tofa 71,958 75,850 147,808 487 303.5110. Gabasawa 72,056 75,321 147,377 663 222.2911. Gaya 112,044 115,388 227,432 1,394 163.1912. Gezawa 72,785 76,407 149,192 337 442.7113. Gwarzo 60,374 62,039 121,413 409 296.8514. Kabo 41,449 44,750 86,199 339 254.2715. Kano 218,363 185,315 403,678 50 8,073.5616. Karaye 115,707 115,535 231,242 1,290 179.2617. Kumbotso 85,174 78,105 163,279 161 1,014.1618. Kura

(+ Madobi) 112,284 115,264 227,548 697 326.4719. Minijibir 62,950 66,956 129,906 422 307.8320. Nassarawa 259,741 204,484 464,225 62 7,487.5021. Rano 75,868 78,464 154,332 954 161.7722. Rimin-Gado

(+Tofa) 58,450 62,889 121,339 425 285.5023. Shanono 40,843 42,429 83,272 715 116.4624. Sumaila 79,886 79,762 159,648 1,110 143.8325. Takai 68,723 68,236 136,959 889 154.0626. Tsanyawa 73,868 80,794 154,662 1,220 126.7727. Tudu-Wada

(+ Doguwa) 114,163 109,457 223,620 2,730 81.9128. Ungogo 81,956 80,631 162,587 190 855.7229. Wudil 114,487 115,170 229,657 798 287.79

Total 2,858,724 2,773,316 5,632,040 20,877 269.77a. There are a total of 34 LGAr in Kano State. (a) Provisional Census Results - 1991. (b) Survey Department, Ministry of Landand Regional Planning, Kano. (c) Number of people/(knm)2 .

121 Annex 3

Table A3.5: Sokoto State Population by Land Area/Population Density by LGA

(a) (b) (C)Population Land Area Pop.

(Ion)2 Density

LGA Males Females Total

1. Anka 135,989 136,363 272,352 8144.55 33.442. Bodinga 55,387 58,080 113,467 301.64 376.173. Bungudu 94,919 99,190 194,109 2161.82 89.794. Dange Shuni 74,664 73,532 148,196 1588.70 93.285. Gada 73,526 79,449 152,975 1206.60 126.786. Goronyo 48,970 55,767 104,737 1336.65 78.367&8.Gunmi

(+Bukuyum)* 163,143 169,644 332,787 8003.77 41.589. Gusau 134,644 125,802 260,446 3468.97 75.0810. Gwada-Bawa 67,510 72,449 139,9591 1. Iliela 64,314 67,673 131,987 *2061.60 131.9112. Isa 85,883 96,800 182,683 2614.30 69.8813. Kaura-Namoda 128,615 133,185 261,800 1628.91 160.7214. Kware 55,599 56,807 112,406 583.19 192.7415. Maradun 63,727 66,809 130,536 2413.20 54.0916. Rabah 42,231 45,741 87,972 1497.68 58.7417. Sabon Birnin 63,647 75,706 139,353 2061.27 67.6118. Silame 29,317 30,967 60,284 512.55 117.6219. Sokoto 141,819 127,706 269,525 60.33 4,467.5120. Talata Mafara 66,934 72,592 139,526 1005.50 138.7621. Tambuwal 71,938 71,900 143,838 1729.36 83.1722. Tangaza 61,348 64,649 125,997 5035.05 25.0223. Tsafe 81,681 82,729 164,410 1005.50 163.5124. Wamakko 63,630 64,024 127,654 651.56 195.9225. Wurno 45,988 49,945 95,933 623.16 153.9426. Yabo 77,457 78,265 155,722 1829.10 85.1427. Zurmi 83,152 90,156 173,308 2232.21 77.6428. Binji 24,345 26,569 50,914 502.50 101.3229. Bakaura 57,734 61,781 119,515 2222.16 53.78

Total 2,158,1111 2,234,280 4,392,391 56481.83 77.77Combined Land are and populahtion dealy fo Gwadbawa and Iiek.

(a) Pmvisional Census Reultb - 1991.(b) Survey Depaent, Minisy of Lands and Survey, Sokolo.(c) Number of people/(km.)

123 Annex 4

Techniques of Small-scale Irrigation in Fadamas'

1. Based on the shallow aquifer surveys and other studies, FACU has estimated thatin the middle and northern zone states about 3.14 million ha are available in the fadanasout of which about 2.06 million ha are potentially irrigable using the three types of small-scale irrigation techniques compared to a potential of 200,000 ha from irrigationschemes.2

2. Crop production in the fadamas has traditionally depended on rainfall in the wetseason and on residual moisture after flood recession in the dry season. In areas witheasily accessible shallow groundwater or surface water, traditional water lifting devices,such as shadouf and calabash, are used to lift water onto the land. While such devices arelow cost and depend mostly on farmer labor for construction and operation, theirirrigation potential is limited to small plots. Water lifting by such devices is laborious andthe irrigated area is limited to about 0.1 ha per shadouf.

Controlled Flooding

3. While irrigation makes the fadamas productive in the dry season, flooding andwater recession have been the basis for a very active agriculture in extensive naturaldepressions and oxbows. Water retained in these locations, sometimes well into the dryseason, has provided habitat for fish, birds and other wildlife. This generally uncontrolledflooding of the fadamas has diminished, largely as a result of the construction of upstreamdam projects. It is possible to rehabilitate the functions of some of the fadamadepressions, however, by improving water inflow channels and providing control structuresto retain water at desired levels. This would also help to rehabilitate fishing activityaffected by the dams (Annex 1).

Lift Irrigation by Direct Pumping

4. For lift irrigation, the farmers place their pumps on the borders of rivers, lakes andshallow-dug wells and irrigate small plots normally within 100 meters of the water source.Small water channels may sometimes be necessary to maintain access to water when its

1. This annex draws heavily on material prepared for the appraisal of the National Fadana Development Project, World,Bank, 1992.

2. FACU. Small-Scale Irrigation Development in Nizeria, 1988.

Annex 4 124

level subsides. In order to avoid major land levelling, small basins (of 1.0 m X 2.0 m orless) are used to contain and manage the water. Water distribution is through crudeunlined field ditches or PVC pipes. Fields are irrigated only in daylight, once or twice aweek, and pumps are usually removed for safekeeping at night. Pumping units areportable, weigh 20 kg to 30 kg, and consist of 2" or 3" self-priming centrifugal pumpsdriven by 3 hp to 5 hp petrol engines. Maximum capacities are from 9 to 15 liters persecond at zero head to 7 and 12 liters per second at total dynamic heads halfway to theirmaximum of 23 m and 26 m, respectively. Fuel consumption for a typical 5-6 hour day ofirrigation is 3-6 liters of gasoline. There has been a tendency in the past for minimalmaintenance of pumps and engines, and this accounts for their reportedly short life spanof three to five years. With proper handling and maintenance, this should be longer.Such a culture is beginning to re-emerge in the society with the substantial devaluation ofthe Naira bringing about a tenfold increase in capital costs in local currency terms.

Pumping from Shallow Aquifer

5. Shallow Tubewells by Washboring. Washbore technology is simple and low-cost(N750/well compared to N4,500/well for drilled tubewells), but its application is limited toareas where aquifers are at depths of less than 7 m and overlain mainly by coarse ormoderately coarse textured materials. The mode of construction is to excavate moreresistant surficial materials, if present, with a soil auger or other hand tools and then topump water through a 50 to 75 mm rigid PVC pipe fitted with a nozzle inserted into theexcavation to jet out deeper granular material. Under favorable conditions, such as in thedry river beds, this jetting process can start from the surface and is very rapid. Theextension of a well to a depth of seven or eight meters can be achieved in less than halfan hour. Once the requisite well depth has been achieved, jetting is continued longenough to flush out all suspended particles. The jetting pipe is then withdrawn and a wellcasing with screen is inserted in its place to the full depth of excavation. This castingconsists of rigid 50 to 75 mm diameter PVC pipe, in which the bottom 1.5 m has beenslotted with 0.5 mm slots and a plug inserted at the end. Coarse sand backfill is placedaround the casing to the top of the aquifer layer and finer materials above that. Thepump intake can then be coupled directly to the casing.

6. Shallow Tubewells by Drilling. Rotary or percussion (bailer) rigs have to be usedwherever washboring is not feasible because of the depth of the aquifer or the resistanceof the overlying materials. The bailer is simple and inexpensive and can be made locallyand steel pipes are used as casing. It can drill up to 15 meters and provides goodstratigraphical information. The major disadvantage of this method is the slow rate ofpenetration. Rotary rigs are used to establish wells to depths of 10 to 16 m throughrelatively hard materials. PVC or galvanized steel casing 100 mm with a slotted screen isinserted into the well during drilling. A 50 mm pump intake tubing is inserted into thecasing. A concrete collar is generally placed at the surface in order to secure the casingand drain spillage away from the well head, thus minimizing the potential for

125 Annex 4

contamination. The major disadvantage of rotary drilling systems is the cost of theequipment ($40,000) and the need for sophisticated maintenance service.

7. Among the three types of small-scale irrigation techniques described above, the liftirrigation has the largest potential (1.03 million ha), shallow tubewells and/or washboreshave the second largest (0.87 million ha) and the controlled flooding has the smallest (0.17million ha).

127 Annex 5

Table A5.1: Use of Inputs by Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

When inputs werefirst used Kano Sokoto Total

No. % No. % No. %

Use of improved seeds:Before 1980 4 (3) 3 (2) 7 (3)1980-1985 42 (33) 15 (12) 57 (22)1986-1990 39 (31) 17 (13) 56 (22)After 1990 14 (11) 18 (14) 32 (12)

Never used/no response 27 (22) 77 .(5) 104 (41)Total 126 130 256

Use of fertilizer:Before 1980 35 (28) 42 (32) 77 (30)1980-1985 56 (44) 54 (42) 110 (43)1986-1990 25 (20) 22 (17) 47 (18)After 1990 5 (4) 5 (2) 10 (4)

Never used/no response . (4) 12 72Total 126 130

Use of herbicides:Before 1980 - - 3 (2) 3 (1)1980-1985 4 (3) 2 (2) 6 (2)1986-1990 7 (6) 2 (2) 9 (4)After 1990 5 (4) 3 (2) 8 (3)

Never used/no response 110 (87) 120 M 2Q (90!Total 126 130 256

Use of pesticides:Before 1980 4 (3) 20 (8) 14 (5)1980-1985 26 (21) 25 (19) 51 (20)1986-1990 30 (24) 26 (20) 56 (22)After 1990 15 (12) 12 (9) 27 (11)

Never used/no response . 1Q 57 (44* 108 12ŽTotal 126 130 256

Use of storage chemicals:Before 1980 5 (4) 9 (7) 14 (5)1980-1985 25 (20) 22 (17) 47 (18)1986-1990 26 (21) 19 (15) 45 (18)After 1990 12 (9) 16 (12) 28 (11)

Never used/no response 58 (46 64 (49) 122 -4IMTotal 126 130 256

Source: Interviews with fadana faffners: Field Survey, 1994.

Annex 5 128

Table A5.2: Sources of Credit for Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Have a bank account?Yes, as an individual 13 (10) 42 (32)Yes, as a member of group 42 (33) 40 (31)No 71 (57) 48 (37)

Ever taken a loan?Yes, as an individual 26 (21) 24 (18)Yes, as a member of group 17 (13) 15 (12)No 83 (66) 91 (70)

If yes, for which purpose?Agriculture 35 (28) 30 (23)Other income-generation - (-) 3 (2)Socials, ceremonies (-) I (1)Other ( ) - )Never taken a loan/No response 92 (72) 96 (74)

Most likely source of capitalFriends/relatives 52 (41) 45 (35)Money lender 3 (2) - (-)Sell livestock/stored crops 54 (43) 69 (53)Adashe or cooperative 2 (2) 3 (2)Bank 7 (5) 7 (6)Other 2 (2) 4 (3)No response 6 (5) 2 (1)

Source: Interviews with fadama farmers, Field Study, 1994.

129 Annex 5

Table A53: Information Sources and Contact with ADP Staff by Sampled Fadama Farmers inKano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

ADP contact farmer:

Yes 81 (64) 52 (40)No 45 (36) 78 (60)

Frequency of ADP agent's visits?

Every week 31 (25) 22 (17)Every 2 weeks 34 (27) 22 (17)Once a month 14 (11) 14 (11)Every 2-3 months 16 (13) 11 (8)Once or twice a year 9 (7) 8 (6)Never/No response 22 (17) 53 (41)

Source of Agricultural Information:

Most Frequent Source of Information:

Radio 71 (56) 79 (61)Friends/relatives 16 (13) 17 (13)ADP extension agent 36 (29) 30 (23)Other extension agent - (-) - (-)Poster/bulletin - (-) - (-)No response 3 (2) 4 (3)

Most Trustworthy Source of Information

Radio 24 (19) 32 (25)Friends/relatives 14 (11) 18 (14)ADP extension agent 80 (63) 76 (58)Other extension agent - (-) - (-)Poster/bulletin 2 (2) - (-)No response 6 (5) 4 (3)

Most Accessible Source of Information

Radio 43 (34) 61 (47)Friends/relatives 21 (17) 24 (18)ADP extension agent 49 (39) 40 (31)Other extension agent - (-)- -Poster/bulletin - (-)- -No response 13 (10) 5 (4)

Source: Interviews with fadarna farines, Field Study, 1994.

Annex 5 130

Table A5.4: Source Through Which Fadama Farmers First Learned About Agricultural Inputsin Kano and Sokoto States

Source of information/agricultural input Kano Sokoto Total

No. % No. % No. %

Improved seeds:ADP ext. agent 83 (66) 32 (25) 115 (45)Friends/relatives 7 (5) 13 (10) 20 (8)Radio I (1) 4 (3) 5 (2)Other (MANR, LGA, etc.) 6 (5) 3 (2) 9 (3)No response/never used 29 -23) 78 (60) 107 (42)Total 126 130 256

Fertilizer:ADP ext. agent 68 (54) 58 (45) 126 (49)Friends/relatives 16 (13) 24 (18) 40 (16)Radio 11 (9) 11 (8) 22 (9)Other 23 (18) 31 (24) 54 (21)No response/never used 8 64 (6�)6 15)Total 126 130 256

Herbicides:ADP ext. agent 13 (10) 7 (16) 20 (8)Friends/relatives 2 (2) 1 (1) 3 (1)RadioOther 1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (1)No response/never used 110 (8 120 (91) 230 (90)Total 126 130 256

Pesticides:ADP ext. agent 62 (49) 39 (30) 101 (39)Friends/relatives 5 (4) 16 (12) 21 (8)Radio 2 (2) 8 (6) 10 (4)Other 4 (3) 10 (8) 14 (6)No response/never used 3 (42) 57 (44) 110 14.Total 126 130 256

Storage chemicals:ADP ext. agent 57 (46) 33 (25) 90 (35)Friends/relatives 3 (2) 14 (11) 17 (7)Radio 3 (2) 6 (5) 9 (3)Other 5 (4) 13 (10) 18 (7)No response/never used .58 - 64 (49) 122 ( )Total 126 130 256

Source: Interviews with fadana fanners: Field Survey, 1994.

131 Annex 5

Table A5.5: Number of Upland and Fadama Plots Operated by Sampled Farmers, by State

Number of Plots Kano Sokoto(% of respondents) (4% of respondents)

7ype Type

Upland Fadama Total Upland Fadama Total

None 1 4 - 2 1 -

1 6 16 1 4 10 12 18 24 5 12 14 23 1 1 16 7 22 20 64 15 14 1 1 16 18 65 21 11 7 18 12 96 8 6 8 6 11 97 6 4 10 6 4 98 5 - 11 5 2 129 2 1 9 2 1 910 5 2 5 2 2 911 - 1 4 1 - 512 1 - 9 2 2 613 - - 3 - 1 214 - - 2 - - 315 1 - 3 - 1 2

More than 15 - 1 5 2 1 10

Mean # of plots 4.6 3.2 7.8 4.5 4.1 8.6Source: Interviews with fadama farmers, rield Study, 1994.

-n

Table AS.6: Kamo State Crop Prodwtion (Yied, Area, Tmanages)

rield 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990kg/lha kg/lha kg/lha kg/lha kg/lha kg/lha kg/lw kg kg/lha

Sorghum 720 434 491 667 680 499 714 750 408

Millet 720 498 541 661 626 371 801 769 528Cowpeas 151 229 259 284 159 147 238 253 151

Groundnuts 462 566 380 359 292 372 375 359 154Maize 1,227 S36 1,265 1,355 1,301 1,047 1,305 1,336 728Rice 1,644 1,181 1,324 1,440 1,571 1,177 2,013 2,169 2,169Fadama (estimated) 10,000 12,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000

Area ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha

Sorghum 1,608,000 1,608,434 1,463,956 1,807,867 1,910,543 2,199,461 1,610,487 1,577,373 1,477,273Millet 8,000,000 3,860,262 3,382,239 3,630,282 6,893,082 4,612,245 5,890,756 4,853,755 5,019,868Cowpeas 571,429 623,675 1,081,579 1,100,279 705,479 634,409 981,333 1,130,919 1,772,727Groundnuts 182,559 444,976 163,636 87,085 121,445 362,942 175,479 186,377 160,714Maize 32,847 38,950 64,955 100,694 110,121 151,232 123,199 130,014 51,176Rice 12,000 8,167 12,000 13,533 18,333 16,400 30,067 35,367 15,667Fadama 600 5,750 9,467 14,867 12,733 25,867 34,400 56,667 56,867Total (Upland Crops) 10,406,834 6,584,463 6,168,365 6,739,740 9,759,004 7,976,688 8,811,321 7,914,305 8,497,424

Total Production T T T T T T T T T

Sorghum 1,157,760 698,060 718,802 1,205,847 1,299,169 1,097,531 1,149,888 1,183,030 602,727Millet 5,760,000 1,922,410 1,829,792 2,399,616 4,315,069 1,711,143 4,718,496 3,732,538 2,605,490Cowpeas 86,286 142,822 280,129 312,479 112,171 93,258 233,557 286,123 267,682Groundnuts 84,342 251,856 62,182 31,263 35,462 135,014 65,805 66,909 24,750Maize 40,303 32,562 82,168 136,441 143,267 158,340 160,775 173,698 37,256Rice 19,728 9,645 15,888 19,488 28,802 19,303 60,524 77,795 33,981

Fadama 6,000 69,000 142,000 223,000 191,000 388,000 516,000 850,000 853,000Total (Upland Crops) 7,148,419 3,057,356 2,988,960 4,105,135 5,933,941 3,214,589 6,389,045 5,520,093 3,616,886

Source: ADP PMU.

133 Annex 5

Table A5.7: Farm Budget for a Representative Farm - at Financial Prices on per Ha. Basis

Crop: Tomato

Particulars Unit Cost/Price Quantity Total Cost

1. Labor (md) 40 200 80002. Seeds (kg) 1500 0.4 6003. Fertilizer (kg) 3 400 12004. Chemical (It) 400 1.5 6005. Container (no) 7 1000 70006. Transport (lumpsum) 500

Total Cost17900

Yield 1.2 22500

Gross Revenue (Naira) 2700

Net Revenue (Naira) 9100(Gross Revenue-Total Cost)

Net Revenue/Manday 45.5Note: md means mandays and includes hired + family labor.

: 1994 prices.Source: APMEU.

Annex 5 134

Table A5.8: Farm Budget for a Representative Farm - at Financial Prices on per Ha. Basis

Crop: Pepper

Particulars Unit Cost/Price Quantity Total Cost

1. Labor (md) 40 190 76002. Seeds (kg) 1800 0.5 9003. Fertilizer (kg) 3 450 13504. Chemical (It) 400 2 8005. Container (no) 7 750 52506. Transport (lump sum) 300

Total Cost 16200

Yield 2.6 12500

Gross Revenue (Naira) 32500

Net Revenue (Naira) 16300(Gross Revenue-Total Cost)

Net Revenue/Manday 85.8Note: md means mandays and includes hired + family labor.

1994 prices.Source: APMEU.

135 Annex 5

Table A5.9: Farm Budget for a Representative Farm - at Financial Prices on per Ha. Basis

Crop: Onion

Particulars Unit Cost/Price Quantity Total Cost

1. Labor (md) 40 195 78002. Seeds (kg) 1700 0.5 8503. Fertilizer (kg) 3 500 15004. Chemical (It) 410 1 4005. Container (no) 7 600 42006. Transport (lumpsum) 300

Total Cost 15050

Yield 1.8 17500

Gross Revenue (Naira) 31500

Net Revenue (Naira) 16450(Gross Revenue-Total Cost)

Net Revenue/Manday 84.4Note: md means mandays and includes hired + family labor.

1994 prices.Source: APMEU.

x

Table A5.10: Economic Analysis of Fadama Crop Using Tubewells (in Nairas)

Area: 40% Tomato, 35% Pepperand 25% Onion

Particulars Yrl Yr2 Yr3 Yr4 Yr5 Yr6 Yr7 Yr8 Yr9

Investment Costs

1. Cost of Drilling 114002. Cost of Pumpset 16100

Total 11400 16100

Cost of Fuel andMaintenance O

1. Fuel of 200 litres/ha. for 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250one season at Naira 11/25/litre

2. Maintenance 0 1000 1000 2000 2000 2000 3000 3000

Total 2250 3250 3250 4250 4250 4250 5250 5250

Grand Total of Costs 11400 18350 3250 3250 4250 4250 4250 5250 5250(Investment+ Maintenance)

Returns Net of Operating costs 2400 4799 14398 14398 14398 14398 14398 14398

Net Returns - Investment-Maintenance Costs -11400 -15950 1549 11148 10148 10148 10148 10148 9148

Internal Rate of Returns (%) 26.4Note: The life span is assumed to be 20 years and net returns declines taxes and duties on import content is excluded - 1994 prices.Source: APMEU.

137 Annex 6

Land Tenure in Fadama Areas

1. Land Holdings

1. The pattern of land allocation and inheritance has led to fragmentation of plots.Nearly all respondents stated that they had several plots of upland and fadama land, mostof which they had inherited, but the plots were nearly all scattered in several areas. Infact the variation in the number of plots operated by the farmers was very wide, as shownin Figure A6. 1. The mean number of plots reported by the farmers interviewed was 7.8 inKano and 8.6 in Sokoto. Generally farmers had about one more upland plot than fadamaplot. That is, farmers had 4 - 5 upland plots and 3 - 4 fadama plots. This plot distributionmakes it difficult for an individual farmer to develop a large area with a technology whichrequires permanent fixtures such as tubewells. One advantage of pumps and washbores isthat the bores are cheap to install and the pumps can be moved fairly readily from onebore to another.

2. Tenancy Arrangements: The Haves and the Have-Nots of Fadama Land and ImprovedDry Season Farming Technology

2. Kolawole (1991) reports that irrigation interventions, both on a large scale fromdams and on an individualized level with the use of tubewells and pumps, have altered theland use pattern of the fadamas along the Hadejia Valley. He maintains that theseinterventions have resulted in a number of conflicts not only between farmers andpastoralists, but also between those farmers who can afford the technology and those whocannot and farmers and fishermen, who claim that fish production levels are reducing inthe fadama areas.

3. This study, on the other hand, found that generally, farmers who do not havefadama land believe that the type of land and the presence or absence of water is beyondtheir control ('from God'), so there should be no conflict between farmers who have landwith fadama potential for dry season farming and those without. However, in cases whereland had to be redistributed as a result of government acquisition or developmentintervention, such as observed with a dam project in Danbatta area of Kano State,resentment by farmers not given fadama land as compensation (while others received suchland) was built up against the recipients as well as against the officials. While inheritancereflects one's lot in life, official intervention which appears to be unfair, is something elseand will be resisted.

Annex 6 138

Figure A6.1: Number of Upland and Fadama Plots Operated by Sampled Farmers,by State

12-

10

0

0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15+

Total Number of Upland and Fadama Plots

°3KanoSokoto

139 Annex 6

4. While land is becoming somewhat more scarce due to increased farming activitiesand increasing population pressure on the land, there is still the opportunity to rent landfor agricultural production, particularly from farmers with large areas of land that theycannot totally utilize. Even though farmers cultivated most of their upland and fadamaland during the wet season, less of the land, in terms of area per farmer, is utilized duringthe dry season.

5. An unusual case was found in Chiyeko village of Birnin Kudu District of JigawaState where the community leader said that most of the dry season farmers come fromoutside the village to rent the fadama land at about N1,000/acre of fadama land for thedry season only. Most of the indigenes, including himself, cultivated the upland andfadama land during the wet season, but were content to benefit from the rent of the landin the dry season. The village head did, however, concede that a few of the people fromthe village are now getting interested in farming their own fadama land in the dry season,having seen the benefits derived by their tenant farmers.

3. Increasing Value of Lond: Land Sales

6. While value of both upland and fadama land was generally acknowledged to beincreasing, few respondents stated that they had sold any of their land.

Table A6.1: Land Sales by Sampled Fadama Farmers in Kano and Sokoto States

Kano Sokoto

N (%) N (%)

Sold Any Land?Yes 10 (8) 3 (2)No 113 (90) 127 (98)No response 3 (2) - (-)

Source: Interviews wiLh fadarna faniers, Field Study, 1994.

Many respondents were actually surprised that we would suggest the possibility they coulddispose of any of their land which was their children's inheritance. This is consistent withDavis (1993) who wrote:

Annex 6 140

"Indigenous peoples do not view land as a 'commodity' which can be bought andsold in impersonal markets ...... They view land as a substance with sacredmeanings, in social relations which define peoples' existence and identity" (Davis,1993: 1).

7. Most of the community leaders stated that very little land had changed hands. Inmost cases, land transactions were with buyers from the same or a nearby community.While they did not prevent outside buyers, but in nearly all cases, land sales were aninternal matter.

141 Annex 7

Socio-Cultural Characteristics of the Fulani People

1. Casual outside observations of the Fulani tend to generalize about their life style,wrongly assuming that they form a socially homogeneous group of people. In reality,there are great social differences between those Fulani who have maintained thetraditional nomadic way of life and those who have fully settled. These differences arerecognized by the Fulani in Northern Nigeria, who divide themselves into three distinctgroups Swindell (1982):

a) Bororo'en or Boro'ien, exhibiting the extreme form of internationalpastoralism;

b) Fulbe na'i, who combine cattle rearing with agriculture at a local level,and who are semi-settled; and

c) Toroob (or Toronkawa), being completely settled urban residents.

2. The Bororo'en, or bush Fulani, depend entirely upon cattle products forconsumption and sale. They are known to travel very long distances on their annualmigratory search for food and water. Oba and Lusigi (1987) refer to two types ofmigration practiced by this category of Fulani:

a) "resource exploitation mobility" - practiced in response to unpredictablepasture and water availability; and

b) "escape mobility" - long distance movements to escape droughtconditions, hostile populations and disease outbreak.

3. The Bororo'en have few, if any, contacts with the local population, except with thesale of their milk products by the women and occasionally sale of livestock. On theirmigratory path, their cattle sometimes accidentally stray, and, at times, are intentionallydriven into farmers' fields, resulting in conflict.

4. The Fulbe na'i have adopted mixed farming in response to changing conditions andto ensure household security. Their farms are usually small and on poorer, less heavilypopulated upland areas. The crop production pattern is largely restricted to growing earlymillet which interferes least with herding activities. The semi-settled Fulani graze theircattle over relatively shorter distances, an average of 117 kms., typically between thefadama and uplands (Swindell, 1982).

5. The Toroob or completely settled, urban, subgroup of Fulani are basically non-pastoralist and non-Fulfulde speaking, having almost totally abandoned their own languagein favor of Hausa language.

Annex 7 142

6. One unique characteristic in the interaction between semi-settled Fulani and theirhost communities is that there is often an informal leader for the Fulani (fully resident inthat locality), who may assist the Fulani by storing their possessions during their period ofmigration. Interestingly, this leader may or may not be a Fulani man, but is someone inwhom the Fulani have confidence. When such a leader can be identified in a community,he can serve as an effective link between the two groups, particularly when there areconflicts. This arrangement has been observed in a number of villages in this and previousfield researches.

143

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Babura, R.S.A. (1993) "Fadama in Nigeria" Bulletin du Reseau Irrigation Afrique de I'Questpp. 24-28.

Balcet, Jean-Claude and Candler, Wilfred. Farm Techology Adoption in Northern Nigeria:Volume I Main Report

Barbier, Edward B.; Adams, William M,; and Kimmage, Kevin (1991) Economic Valuationof Wetland Benefits: The Hadejia-Jama'are Floodplain, Nigeria London:Environmental Economics Centre.

Barkow, J.H. (1972) Hausa Women in Islam Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association, held at Montreal, Canada.

Bourn, David and Wint, William (1994) "Livestock, Land Use and AgriculturalIntensification in Sub-Saharan Africa." Pastoral Development Network, ODI,Network Paper 37a.

Callaway, Barbara J. (1987) Muslim Hausa Women in Nigeria: Tradition and Change NewYork: Syracuse University Press.

Chapman, N.P.; Hazell, J.R.T.; and Wendover, D. (no date). "Tubewells and FadamaDevelopment in Northern Nigeria" Unpublished Paper.

Cline-Cole, R. (1988) "Sowing Seeds of Discord: Induced Wet-Rice Cultivation andFadama Land Use Conflict in the Hadejia Valley, Nigeria" Paper presented to theConference of African Studies Association of the U.K.,held in September.

Davis, Shelton H. (ed.) (1993) Indigenous Views of Land and the EnvironmentWashington, D.C.: World Bank Discussion Paper.

Dederi, W.I. (no date) 7he Sasakawa Global 2000 in Northern Nigeria: Focus on Small-Scale Irrigated Agriculture Kano; KNARDA.

Dittoh, Saa (1991) "Efficiency of Agricultural Production in Smaill and Medium ScaleIrrigation in Nigeria" in Issues in African Rural Development by Doss, C.R. andOlsen, C. (eds.): Arlington, Va.; Winrock International Institute for AgriculturalDevelopment.

144

Donli, P.O. and G.K.A. Buahin (1994) "Problems of Irrigated Agriculture (dry seasonfarming) on the Flood Plains of the Yobe River" in Kolewole et al (eds)Sustainable Use of Fadama in Northern Nigeria Zaria, CSER/IIED.

Hadejia, Isma'ila Abdullahi (1994) "Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Jigawa State" pp.113-119 in Kolawole et al (eds) Strategiesfor the Sustainable Use of Fadama Landsin Northern Nigeria Zaria, CSERJIIED.

Jackson, Cecile (1985) 7he Kano River Irrigation Project West Hartford: Kumarian Press.

Kimmage, K. and Adams, W.N. (1990) "Small Scale Farmer-managed Irrigation inNorthern Nigeria" Geoforum.

Kolawole, A. (1991) "Economics and Management of Fadama in Northern Nigeria" inWetlands in Drylands. The Agroecology of Savanna Systems in Africa by Scoones, 1.(ed.): London; International Institute for Environment and Development.

Kolawole, Are (1993) Agricultural Transformation, Conflicts and Conflict Management inNigeria with Particular Reference to the Bakolori Irrigation Project Paper presentedat the International Conference on the Role of Social Science in ConflictResolution, organized by the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala,Sweden, held at University of Finland, Helsinki, 8-18 January.

Kolawole, Are; Awogbade, M.O. and Voh, J.P. (1993) Sustainable Use of Fadama inNorthern Nigeria Proceedings of the National Policy Workshop, held at Maiduguri,February.

Longhurst, Richard (1982) "Resource Allocation and the Sexual Division of Labor: ACase Study of a Moslem Hausa Village in Northern Nigeria" pp. 95-117 in Womenand Development: 7he Sexual Division of Labor in Rural Societies by LourdesBeneria (ed.) New York: Praeger Publisher.

Makinwa-Adebusoye, P.K. and Olawoye, Janice E. (1991) Gender Issues in the NexusBetween Population Growth, Agricultural Stagnation and Environmental DegradationReport to the World Bank, Washington, D. C.

Oba, G. and Lusigi, W.J. (1987) "An Overview of Drought Strategies and Land-use inAfrican Pastoral Systems" Pastoral Development Network Paper No. 23a. London:ODI.

Olawoye, Janice E. et al (1994) Situation Analysis of Nigeria Women and Girls:Agricultural Production and Rural Productivity Sector Report on WORDOCCoordinated Research Project for UNICEF: Ibadan, Nigeria.

Olofin, E. A. (ed) (1991) Prospects and Problems of Irrigation in the Kano State: Report ofa Ford Foundation Sponsored Research Kano: Bayero University.

Rowland, J.R.J. (ed.) (1993) Dryland Farming in Africa London; Macmillan Press, Ltd.

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Scoones, Ian (1991) Wetlands in Drylands: The Agroecologyof Savanna Systems in Africa,Part 1: Overview-ecological, economic and social issues, London; InternationalInstitute for Environment and Development

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Sridhar, M.K.C. (1994) "Health Hazards of Fadama Farming" pp. 175-177 in Kolawole etal (eds) Strategiesfor the Sustainable Use of Fadama Lands in Northern NigeriaZaria, CSER/IIED.

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Agricultural Projects Monitoring, Evaluation and Planning Unit (APMEPU) (1982),1981/82 FRADYS Survey: A Comparison between the New Area and Gusau ADP:Gusau Zone, Sokoto State ADP, Kaduna.

Agricultural Projects Monitoring, Evaluation and Planning Unit (APMEPU) (1982),Report on the Baseline Survey in Gusau Zone: 1981 Sokoto State A.D.P.,Kaduna.

146

Agricultural Projects Monitoring, Evaluation and Planning Unit (APMEPU) (1983),Report on the Village Listing Exercise, 1982 Bunza Zone: Sokoto State AgriculturalDevelopment Project, Kaduna.

Agricultural Projects Monitoring, Evaluation and Planning Unit (APMEPU) (1983),Report on the Village Listing Exercise: Gunmui Zone: Sokoto AgriculturalDevelopment Project, Kaduna.

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147

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148

Sokoto Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (SARDA) (1990) An Evaluation ofAgricultural Production, Technology Adoption and Cropping Patterns in SokotoState, 1989, Sokoto.

Sokoto Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (SARDA) (1990) Eastern Zone inRetrospect (1982-1989), Gusau.

Wardrop Engineering, Inc. (1988) Sokoto Fadama Shallow Ground Water Supply,Prepared for SARDA.

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World Bank (1993) Performance Audit Report: Nigeria-Bauchi State ADP; Kano StateADP; Sokoto State ADP; ilorin ADP; Oyo North ADP; Agricultural TechnicalAssistance Project, Washington, D.C.

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149

Information from ADP Files:

KNARDA:1. 1983/84 List of Dry Season Farming Sites, Zone I.2. Fadama List, 1986, Zone II.3. List of Concentrated Tubewell and Washbore Fadama Sites, Zone III.4. Fadama Farmers Listing Exercises '93; List of Selected Sites, Zone I.

SARDA:1. Progress of Tubewells in Northern Zone: Sokoto State (1984-92).2. Tubewell Distribution 1984-94: Kebbi State.

Information from FACU:1. Background paper prepared for "Proposed Impact Evaluation" (May, 1994).

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