Renaissance Heroes: From Saint to Sinner in British ... · However, prowess can also prove negative, as Redcrosse’s pride leads him to seek greater challenges, which causes strife

Renaissance Heroes: From Saint to Sinner in British Literature

Kayla Darling

Independent Study

April 20, 2016

Advisor, Todd Preston

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The concept of the ‘hero’ has altered throughout the years, constantly changing based on

the attitudes of the time. There is the ‘epic hero,’ a character such as Odysseus or Beowulf, who

populated ancient epic poetry; the Christian hero, who upheld traditional Christian ideals and

who took more inspiration from Christ than from the warriors previously looked to for examples

and guides; the classical anti-hero, designed to have traits opposite to those that were typically

considered ‘heroic’; the everyman, who is an average person thrown into a difficult situation;

and others. Many have tried their hands at creating a definitive definition of the hero. Of them,

Joseph Campbell is one of the more well-known, and in his work The Hero with a Thousand

Faces examines the concept of the hero under two main headings: “The Adventure of the Hero”

and “The Cosmogonic Cycle.” The first section focuses, as the title would suggest, on the hero’s

journey, detailing the various ways in which the hero was actually called to go on his or her

journey, the trials he or she would experience, and then the end of the quest. This journey

typically involved magic of some sort; Campbell even has sections labeled as “Supernatural Aid”

and “The Magic Flight.”

In the second section, while Campbell is making connections between psychology and

the heroic journey, he is also illustrating some of the more common tropes of the heroic in

literature and myth, specifically under “Transformations of the Hero,” which lists the various

things a hero may be: a warrior, a lover, an emperor or tyrant, a redeemer, or a saint. These

aspects often relate to the hero’s journey, and what a hero needs or what he will become as the

journey continues. Throughout these transformations, a common theme that appears is

submission to a higher power, or humility. Campbell refers to one without humility as a tyrant

or ogre, the opposite of the hero, and states, “He is proud, because he thinks of his strength as his

own; thus he is in the clown role” (337). The hero as a powerful fighter is another theme that

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runs throughout the chapters, whether under the specific heading “the hero as warrior” or the

described “hero of action” describing a hero as either an emperor or tyrant (345). This prowess

is even apparent in the hero’s role as a lover, as Campbell states, “The motif of the difficult task

as prerequisite to the bridal bed has spun the hero-deeds of all time and all the world” (344).

Altogether, the three themes that emerge as the most relevant to examining the role of the hero

are warrior prowess, humility, and supernatural aid.

Heroes in English Renaissance literature follow Campbell’s basic model—they exhibit

warrior prowess and humility, and are aided by the supernatural—but these aspects are twisted in

response to the political situations surrounding their creation. In particular, Edmund Spencer’s

The Faerie Queene, William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, and John Milton’s Paradise Lost are

informed by political context. These works span the English Renaissance, as well as the rules of

Elizabeth, James, and Charles. The aspects of warrior prowess, humility, and supernatural aid

directly affect the shape of these literary heroes, falling from the more heroic Redcrosse Knight

to the anti-hero Macbeth to the villainous Satan as the Renaissance progresses, ultimately

mapping the country’s slow loss of stability from Elizabeth to Charles onto the decline of the

heroic character in literature.

Heroes, in most iterations, are considered to be powerful warriors, many spending a

significant amount of their stories winning great renown through feats of strength. According

the Campbell, “the sword edge of the hero-warrior flashes with the energy of the creative

Source” (337). A hero, as a warrior, is a “shining hero going against the dragon” and is an

individual who has enough power to break the status-quo: “With a gesture as simple as the

pressing of a button, he annihilates the impressive configuration” (340-41, 337). However, this

prowess, per se, can be twisted to serve a darker function, such as that of the tyrant: “The hero of

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yesterday becomes the tyrant of tomorrow, unless he crucifies himself today” (353). As such, it

is possible for a hero to degrade, from one who seeks to fight for what is good to one who fights

only for his own gain. This degradation is seen in iconic Renaissance literary characters,

beginning with the Redcrosse Knight, who, while showing some examples of degradation

himself, ultimately manages to remain a hero. Macbeth’s struggle with warrior prowess begins

similarly, though he ultimately falls. Eventually, Satan’s warrior prowess leads him into true

villainy. These literary representations of the perversion of heroic strength ultimately reflect the

concerns of the people regarding its use in England, whether that be in the domination of Ireland,

concern over the power wielded by a new ruler, or in the chaos of civil war.

Tensions were high between England and Ireland while Spencer was writing The Faerie

Queene which had direct impact on forming the Redcrosse Knight’s warrior prowess. While

mostly a positive representation of prowess, The Faerie Queene still shows the ambivalent nature

of warrior prowess. For example, the Irish, after being brought under Henry the VIII’s kingship,

“had, understandably, often resented this change in status and seen crown attempts to regulate

them as part of a much more sinister campaign,” and revolted several times (Hadfield 153-54).

As Hadfield states, “Campaigning in Ireland was invariably a brutal affair which took its toll on

even experienced soldiers used to physical discomfort and harsh conditions” (160). Arthur, Lord

Grey de Wilton, was named Lord Deputy of Ireland, and appointed Spenser as his secretary.

During Spenser’s stay in Dublin, “a pageant of the adopted English saint [St. George] was

performed, the actors processing through the streets, the event culminating in St George slaying

the dragon” (Hadfield 178). This example of English patriotism, shown as an exhibition of

prowess, during a war in Ireland might have encouraged the English soldiers, but also would

have been demeaning to the Irish watching, illustrating both forms of warrior prowess:

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It may be that this pageant, the nature of its performance, and the overt or suppressed

reactions to what Dubliners saw, representing the complicated and problematic

relationship between the different communities of Old English, New English, and Gaelic

Irish in Ireland, had an impact on his decision to write Book I, the story of the Red-Cross

Knight. (178)

According to Hadfield, “We know that Spencer was at work on The Faerie Queene in the first

few years after he came to Ireland” (178). As such, the tensions between the Irish and the

English—specifically do to the desire to maintain power—would have likely influenced the

depiction of conflicted prowess that appears in Redcrosse’s character arc.

The Faerie Queene, in direct relation to the conflict between England and Ireland, shows

warrior prowess in both a positive and negative light, especially in relation to the Redcrosse

Knight. Redcrosse Knight’s introduction in the first book explicitly shows positive prowess

through his gear: “Y clad in mightie armes and silver shielde, / Wherein old dints of deepe

wounds did remaine, / The cruell markes of many a bloudy fielde” (2-4). Although this armor

has actually not been used by this particular knight as of this point, Redcrosse proves himself

very early in the poem by defeating the serpent Errour: “And strooke at her with more than

manly force, / That from her body full of filthie sin / He raft her hatefull head without remorse”

(1.1.213-15). This is an example of positive prowess, as Redcrosse is actively fighting against

evil. The act also resembles what the character St. George performed in the pageant Spenser

saw, Redcrosse slaying the serpent Errour much like the positive aspect of St. George slaying the

evil dragon.

However, prowess can also prove negative, as Redcrosse’s pride leads him to seek

greater challenges, which causes strife in his travels with Una. Redcrosse’s warrior prowess in

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the later parts of the poem leads him to ignoble deeds, but he is spared from becoming a villain.

This could tie in with England’s problematic relationship with Ireland, as while, to the English,

their actions would be considered patriotic, to the Irish—who actively tried to rebel several

times—the actions would be suppressive and costly. Hadfield comments on the cost of some of

the battles against England: “One estimate of casualties in the wars Munster between 1579 and

1583 puts them as high as 50,000, about a third of the Munster population and a tenth of the

whole population of Ireland” (167). This would naturally leave the Irish bitter and unwelcoming

towards English intervention.

More personally, Spencer’s employer, Lord Grey, performed acts of ‘bad prowess’ where

he promised to let prisoners of the rebellion go and didn’t, and yet Spencer “made vigorous

public defenses of his former employer” (Hadfield 168). However, “there is no defense of

Grey’s actions at Smerwick,” specifically in The Faerie Queene, where Grey is sometimes

considered to be a character in a later book (Hadfield 168). Spencer, while defending his

employer, was certainly aware of Grey’s bad prowess, even while he also tried to emphasize his

good prowess.

Redcrosse’s fall and eventual redemption would represent Spencer’s attempt to redeem

both Grey and England for the actions in Ireland. Redcrosse, after being led astray by Duessa,

faces several opponents, such as Sans joy and Orgoglio, who lead him steadily further towards

destroying himself. A notable example is when Redcrosse is brought to the House of Pride and,

after witnessing a parade of the seven deadly sins, is challenged to battle by Sans joy. Redcrosse

is still described as having “flaming corage” and though Redcrosse wins, he is left injured and

forced to heal in that same house: “Home is he brought, and laid in sumptuous bed: / Where

many skillfull leaches him abide, / To salve his hurts, that yet still freshly bled” (1.5.6, 145-47).

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Not only does Redcrosse fare worse fighting for Duessa in the House of Pride, but he also comes

into greater peril when he is nearly imprissoned: “Where in a dungeon deepe huge numbers lay /

Of captive wretched thralls, that waylѐd night and day” (1.5.404-05). This fall culminates with

Redcrosse’s battle against Orgoglio, where he is unable to overcome his opponent: “Yet so

exceeding was the villeins power, / That with the wind it did [Redcrosse] overthrow, / And all

his sences stound, that still he lay full low” (1.7.106-08). Ultimately, Redcrosse is unable to save

himself while under the influence of bad prowess, his salvation from servitude coming in the

form of then-Prince Arthur.

Searching for these opponents could reflect the state of Renaissance England at the time.

The fact that Redcrosse’s prowess in battle leads to his downfall could represent dissatisfaction

with a militant lifestyle, but could also represent misdeeds against the Irish, such as Lord Grey’s

actions. However, Redcrosse is able to show positive prowess later, after repenting in the House

of Holiness and going to defeat the dragon. As stated at the end of the battle, “Then God [Una]

praysd, and thankt her faithfull knight, / That had achiev’d so great a conquest by his might”

(1.11.494-95). His redemption, and the more positive prowess shown in Redcrosse’s fight

against the dragon, shows that England—and individuals such as Lord Grey—can still make up

for bad prowess upon repentance.

Redcrosse Knight’s warrior prowess straddles the line between good and bad, depending

on what he uses it for, and this reflects England’s acts in Ireland. While patriotic, the actions of

various soldiers in England would have caused a great amount of turmoil and discontent among

the Irish. Redcrosse’s eventual defeat of the dragon and return to good prowess reflects the

perceived view that England was able to return to good prowess. However, not all characters

who fell into bad prowess were able to redeem themselves.

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The change of rulers from Elizabeth to James instigates a fall in the reputation of warrior

prowess in British literature. James, a king of Scotland before he became the king of England,

faced uncertainty from the moment he ascended the throne. Jonathon Bate states, “Within

months of [James’s] assumption of the English throne in 1603, a plot to depose him and replace

him with his cousin Arbella was discovered” (323). Macbeth was written at the beginning of

James’s rule, when Shakespeare’s group became officially known as the King’s Men. As Bate

says, “Shakespeare wrote all his later plays in the knowledge that the King’s Men were required

to give more command performances at court than any other theater company” (283). Moreover,

Bate says, “Macbeth is steeped in King James’s preoccupations: the rights of royal succession,

the relationship between England and Scotland…anxiety about gunpowder, treason, and plot”

(325). As such, Shakespeare’s choice to focus on a Scottish hero was done to appeal to James

while referring to anxieties regarding the possible forms of warrior prowess in his rule.

Like the political atmosphere, Macbeth, as a character, illustrates this mix of negative and

positive prowess. Although his abilities earn him great renown, they also cloud his mind and

eventually lead to his descent into villainy. Shakespeare, due to James’s background, would

likely have wanted to exalt the Scottish hero, and this is seen with the Captain, who has only

praises for Macbeth’s heroism in war: “For brave Macbeth—well he deserves that name—

/Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel […] Like valor’s minion carved out his passage /

Till he faced the slave […] Till he unseamed him from the nave to th’ chops, / And fixed his

head upon our battlements” (1.2.16—23). Macbeth’s prowess in war earns him the title of Thane

of Cawdor and seems to suggest greater rewards to come, “All hail, Macbeth, that shalt be king

hereafter!” (1.3.50). This shows how Macbeth’s good prowess in the play’s beginning earns him

rewards, and should he have continued with good prowess, he likely could have received similar

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benefits without falling into villainy. However, he falls to temptation, and ultimately allows

himself to perform acts of bad prowess in order to hurry his ascension.

It can take warrior prowess to overthrow a king, and a powerful warrior may think he

deserves to be king over the current ruler, if he has sufficient evidence in his abilities. Such is

the case in Macbeth, as while the titular character initially fights the desire to overthrow Duncan,

the implication that he would become king still brings up the potential for murder: “My thought,

whose murder yet is but fantastical, / Shakes so my single state of man” (1.3.140-41). Macbeth

may not wish to commit murder, yet the thought has still entered his mind due to the praises

heaped on him because of his prowess. Eventually he gives in to his thoughts and his wife’s

urging, killing Duncan. Shakespeare is obviously portraying a sort of anti-hero that would speak

to James’s fears. Macbeth himself is brave and powerful in warfare, an opponent one would not

likely wish to meet and who poses a threat to the king. Though Macbeth ultimately becomes

king of Scotland, his rule is plagued due to the poor method Macbeth went about obtaining

power. His negative actions—the negative prowess shown in killing Duncan and letting his

belief in his abilities corrupt him—lead to an unstable kingdom and an unstable individual,

shown when Macbeth reacts to seeing Banquo’s ghost, claiming, “I have a strange infirmity”

(3.4.89). The play ends with Macbeth’s death, and shows that attempting to usurp the throne

from the rightful ruler will only end in chaos. This, in turn, could allay James’s fears about his

right to rule—though not of the chance of assassination—as well as possibly discouraging

observers from taking such a path. These actions illustrate the more ambiguous nature of warrior

prowess; while good events may come from it, prowess can also be used for such negative acts

as the deposition of a king.

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Positive prowess doesn’t disappear, however, and is shown again by Macduff towards the

end of the play. Macduff is the man to challenge Macbeth and, ultimately, kill him, stating, “My

voice is in my sword” (5.7.6). Macduff does everything in the name of his country, and when

Malcolm tests his virtue he says, “I would not be the villain that thou think’st / For the whole

space that’s in the tyrant’s grasp” (4.3.36-37). Macduff does not take the throne after killing

Macbeth, instead handing it over to Malcolm. This act shows positive warrior prowess, and sets

an example for how one should go about receiving and handling power, likely both for the new

monarch and for those who may wish to usurp him.

Macbeth’s failure in regards to warrior prowess leads him to villainy in killing Duncan,

and shows a deterioration in the value of prowess as compared to the Redcrosse Knight, just as

the comfort of Elizabeth’s rule in England fell when into uncertainty when James took the

throne. Macbeth ultimately meets a villain’s fate, killed by a character who exhibits the more

positive version of warrior prowess he left behind. This deterioration continues further into the

Renaissance, reflective of the transition of rulers, as the heroes’ warrior prowess causes them to

devolve further into anti-heroes.

When King Charles I took the throne during Milton’s time, an already unstable England

became more so. Charles, while ostensibly king of three places—England, Ireland, and

Scotland—had very little interaction with the latter two kingdoms, and when he did, “he dabbled

in northern politics in ways which alarmed his subjects with uncertainties about his intentions”

(Campbell and Corns 131). Milton was rather outspoken against Charles, writing works about

“the deposition and trial of tyrants,” which is likely due to “return[ing] to a London in which the

political future was bewilderingly uncertain” after the Bishop’s War (196, 133). During this time

Parliament ended up confronting Charles, a confrontation that ultimately dissolved the country

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into a Civil War. While Oliver Cromwell helped Parliament rule England after Charles I’s death,

his rule did not create a stable country. Campbell and Corns state that, “Once Cromwell died,

[Milton] judged the political climate to have changed, and entered spiritedly into the renewed

debate about church government” (306). Discontent flourished around the period Milton wrote

Paradise Lost: “Domestic policy saw hues and cries after several real or imaginary uprisings,

and an associated intensification of the persecution of dissenters” (326). This was likely due to

the fall of the Parliamentary Commonwealth and the Restoration of the monarchy under Charles

II.

If The Faerie Queene and Macbeth show a gradual fall of the value of warrior prowess in

the hero—from good, in the hands of a true hero, to good or bad, depending on the purpose—

then Milton’s Paradise Lost shows the complete fall, illustrating how many problems warrior

prowess can cause. Paradise Lost goes further than Macbeth in terms of warrior prowess’ dark

side, with the main character losing a Heavenly Kingdom rather than an earthly one; Satan’s

rebellion against God not only reflects the chaos of the first English Civil War, where King

Charles I and Parliament fought, but also Milton’s disillusionment after the Commonwealth

failed and Charles II regained the throne.

Much like with Macbeth, Paradise Lost deals with a villainous protagonist who wishes to

overthrow his ruler; unlike Macbeth, the main character does not succeed, and ends up

condemned for his crimes. This could be as much from memories of Charles I’s reign as from

fearing what would happen after Charles II usurped Parliament. Charles II’s reign began with an

iron fist, where, as Campbell and Corns state, “everyone will be pardoned except those whom

[Charles’s] Parliament decides should not be pardoned” (307). Milton was against the new ruler,

and made “attempts to rally support through his publications” in order to help restore the old

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Parliament (309). Milton would likely have been thinking of the former monarch at this time.

Hillier says, in relation to King Charles I, “Milton’s defense of the regicide, Eikonoklastes

(1649), shows itself to be far from indifferent in its ascription of Satanic fraud and force to

Charles I’s methods of attempting to reign and secure power in the turbulent First and Second

Civil Wars” (22). As such, it is easy to see Satan as perhaps not only an unworthy usurper—like

many English may have felt about others who had tried to take the throne at the time—but also

as a potential unworthy ruler. Portraying an epic hero in a negative light, and then specifically

relating him to some of the individuals seen at the time, could influence readers to wish for a

better, more Christ-like hero, both in their literature and in their politics.

While warrior prowess appears in angels on both sides of the battle for Heaven, it is

especially evident in the main character, Satan. Satan’s character serves as a way to deconstruct

the traditional epic hero ideal. In the poem he boasts that he:

To the fierce contentions brought along

Innumerable force of Spirits armed,

That dared dislike His reign, and, me preferring,

His utmost power with adverse power opposed

In dubious battle on the plains of Heaven,

And shook His throne. (1.100-05)

Here Satan comments on the martial powers he raised to combat God, and how they were able to

“[shake] His throne,” a powerful feat against the Creator (1.105). The use of “dubious” (104)

also illustrates this, as it implies the battle was difficult from both sides, and not simply a one-

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sided brawl. Moreover, Satan goes on to boast only a few lines later, “All is not lost—the

unconquerable will, / And study of revenge, immortal hate, / And courage never to submit or

yield: / And what is else not to be overcome?” (1.106-09). Here Satan portrays several traits that

would be associated with the traditional epic hero, such as courage and determination. However,

even while the poem portrays Satan’s warrior prowess and epic-heroic attributes, one must

remember that Satan in traditional Christian lore is a villain, and this is not absent from the

poem. Even in this beginning section, one of the powers he references is “hate,” and he later

goes to destroy Adam and Eve’s peace out of spite (1.107).

Regicide was a subject earlier in Milton’s time, and likely would have been in his mind

after Parliament’s fall. While Milton defended the regicide against Charles I, he was known to

be upset about the fall of the ‘rightful’ leaders, Parliament, and he “[published] in defense of the

republic” (Campbell and Corns 311). As such, it is easy to make connections between Milton’s

Satan and the political situation at the time. Satan’s actions against God were certainly an

attempt at regicide, though most likely Milton viewed Satan as either the first Charles, who he

relates to Satan to defend his regicide, or to the second, who ‘overthrew’ Parliament. Heaven

itself experienced a civil war in Paradise Lost because of this, much like Britain. Satan’s actions

also reflect the rebellions happening in the time period, and his punishment could hardly be

worse than what was issued at the time. The various instances in Paradise Lost dealing with war

and rebellion were a finger on the pulse of the kingdom’s fears. Satan’s ultimate fall, and his

portrayal of warrior prowess in a purely negative light, shows the final fall of the ideal through

Charles II’s rise, and the desire to achieve a more peaceful hero in response to the war-plagued

times.

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Warrior prowess’s degradation is apparent through the Renaissance, literary characters

showing progressively more bad prowess in keeping with the various rulers and events that

appeared during their forming. Redcrosse showed mostly good prowess under the rule of

Elizabeth, Macbeth showed a mix under James’s reign, and Satan showed only bad prowess in

representing the Civil War and the Restoration. This degradation also appeared in other heroic

traits, such as humility, where the humility of the ruling powers and Church directly affected the

representation of humility in literary characters.

Humility is another core trait associated with heroes, and is mentioned by Campbell as

something that prevents a hero from becoming a tyrant: “The tyrant is proud, and therein resides

his doom. He is proud because he thinks of his strength as his own” (337). The essence of

humility is to remember one’s own limits, and that there is always a greater power. The

definition of humility often espoused by the Catholic Church is, “Humility in a higher and ethical

sense is that by which a man has a modest estimate of his own worth, and submits himself to

others” (Knight). Jennifer Clement reiterates this statement specifically in regard to early

England, saying, “the discourse of humility in early modern England can encompass both abject

submission to God and qualified assertions of self-respect and agency,” allowing heroes to both

have confidence and submit themselves to something greater (132). As Campbell states of the

saint-like hero, “The ego is burnt out” (354). Humility is a bar from the pride that would,

eventually, cause the hero to fall into villainy.

As with warrior prowess, the humility of the heroes degrades over time, the further into

the Renaissance the works were written, showing a growing desire for humility in the English

rulers, as well as relating to a core value of the Protestant Reformation. Henry VIII, during his

reign, showed a lack of humility. He wished to divorce his second wife when she did not

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produce a son and, not allowed to do so under Catholicism, converted to Protestantism and

declared himself the head of the Anglican Church, which would be considered a prideful act.

England’s official religion shifted between the two for many years after, only relatively

stabilizing when Elizabeth took the throne. The Protestant Reformation provided significant

desire for a return to humility in both church and state, as in England there were “controversies

over the use or abuse of power by the Catholic Church” through methods such as indulgences

(Black, et al. XL). As such, the now-Protestant England would likely have wished to avoid such

abuses of power, and so return to a more Christian concept of ‘humility,’ in this case referring to

a lowering of oneself, whether that is by submitting to a higher power or giving others credit for

success.

Of these three stories, the only character to truly show humility at any point is the

Redcrosse Knight in The Faerie Queene, though it is not until his repentance that this aspect

shines through, and this is due to Queen Elizabeth’s own humility. Elizabeth often included self-

deprecating language in her speeches, such as in her “Speech to the Soldiers Assembled to Repel

the Spanish Armada,” where she described herself as “[having] but the body of a weak and

feeble woman” (“Queen Elizabeth I Speeches”). In that same speech she lowers herself to the

level of the common soldier by stating that she will “live or die amongst you all; to lay down, for

my God, and for my kingdom, and for my people, my honor and my blood, even the dust”

(“Queen Elizabeth I Speeches”). This humility is reflected in the Redcrosse Knight later in The

Faerie Queene. After being told he would be considered the patron saint of England, Redcrosse

states, “Unworthy wretch (quoth he) of so great grace, / How dare I thinke such glory to

attaine?” (1.10.550-51). This scene, directly after Redcrosse’s penance, shows his growth as a

character, and is a contrast to his pride earlier in the poem, where “his hart did earne / To prove

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his puissance in battell brave” (1.1.24-25). Only after this point is Redcrosse able to defeat the

dragon, and this again reflects the culture’s increased importance on humility.

Humility ultimately proves the key to unlocking Redcrosse’s abilities and eventually

saving Una’s parents from the dragon. However, Redcrosse must learn humility, as he when he

begins his quest he seeks opponents for his own glory, such as with his actions in the House of

Pride. This theme is prominent enough that Redcrosse’s fall before his redemption comes at

Orgoglio, whose name literally means “pride” (Black, et al. 185). Moreover, the individual who

holds the keys to the House of Holinesse is named Humilta, meaning ‘humility,’ who guards the

door “for feare of many foes” (1.10.39). This emphasizes humility’s importance, as not only is it

the only way to enter heaven, but it guards against the dangers of sin such as pride, something

that Redcrosse comes to understand. However, not all Renaissance heroes are able to learn this

virtue, and thus, with increasing uncertainty over the humility of rulers at the time, the literary

heroes’ humility degrades alongside the rulers’.

A lack of humility within Macbeth likely would have resonated with England at the time,

especially since a new monarch had recently come into power. King James, much like Macbeth,

teeters on the line between humility and arrogance. James’s reign was marked from the start by

acts to depose him, and “was haunted by fears of conspiracy and treason, and with good reason”

(Bate 323). While James’s thoughts on the situation are not entirely known, it is likely that the

actions would have made him very aware of his own mortality, thus instilling a sense of humility

in him, insofar as that he was mortal and able to be deposed or killed. James himself shows

examples of both a lack of humility and of taking this warning to heart. In his speech “On the

Divine Right of Kings,” James states, “Kings are justly called Gods, for that they exercise a

manner or resemblance of divine power upon earth.” However, in another speech “On

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Kingship,” he states, “the proud and ambitious tyrant does think his kingdom and people are only

ordained for satisfaction of his desires and unreasonable appetites; The righteous and just king

does by the contrary acknowledge himself to be ordained for the procuring of the wealth and

prosperity of his people.” These words show an uncertain balance between humility and pride,

something reflected in Macbeth’s actions.

Macbeth could have been used as a warning to the new monarch about what could

happen to a kingdom should one not give the proper respect to those who put the ruler—and

keep him—in power. Bate highlights how Shakespeare might have been playing to James’s

anxieties, saying, “The sequence in which the Macbeths attempt to frame the grooms of the

chamber for the murder of King Duncan was written by a Shakespeare who was himself a groom

of the chamber” (323). The fact that the theater was difficult to regulate made plays with ideas

such as Macbeth far more accessible, and could be potentially dangerous to the unwary monarch:

“Though there were always virtuous and obedient voices somewhere in the mix, though the

rebels and the king killers always came to a sticky end, and though every script had to be

approved by a government censor, there was no way of preventing audiences from identifying

with the voices of transgression and self-assertion” (322). As such, this would be as much a

reminder to James that he would need to treat his subjects and supporters with respect—in order

not to invoke a situation where he ends up in a similar state as Duncan—but also that he would

need to respect artists such as Shakespeare, who held a certain amount of power over him in the

form of their works. James would need to show humility by lowering himself to the artists that

served under him, and by extension, submitting himself to the people. Moreover, James

certainly struggled with the right to rule, and as Mondi says, “Throughout his speeches, James

emphasized his positive attributes as he attempted to fashion a favorable image of himself. He

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was cognizant of the doubts the English had about his ability as a Scotsman to rule England” (7).

James teeters on the edge of being humble and not being so, through this knowledge of the

citizens’ doubts and through his own attempts to promote himself as being better than the

average individual to allay their fears.

Macbeth, like James, faces the challenge of balancing humility with pride and ambition,

which he ultimately fails by killing Duncan to take the throne, sending his kingdom into chaos.

Macbeth is also very aware of the fact that he initially does not own the titles he receives, and

asks Angus when he calls him the Thane of Cawdor, “Why do you dress me / In borrowed

robes?” (1.3.108-09). Moreover, he is reluctant to kill Duncan, describing the desire as a “horrid

image” and saying “Let not light see my black and deep desires,” though this reluctance does not

change the fact that the desire is there, showing a duality in Macbeth’s thoughts (1.3.146,

1.4.51). However, he also seems excited about the prospect of becoming king, saying, “Two

truths are told, / As happy prologues to the swelling act / Of the imperial theme” (1.3.128-30).

His ambition leads him to contact his more ambitious wife, which in turn leads to the murder of

Duncan. Considering the target of the attack, Macbeth’s actions could be seen as a critique of

the many ambitious individuals who had fought for control over England during the past years,

killing their predecessors in order to take the throne and causing strife. As such, for both

instances—literary and political—it seems the lack of humility only leads to chaos. Macbeth’s

actions lead to a civil war in his kingdom, which ends with his death, and the rejoicing of the

entire kingdom. Conversely, Malcolm humbly recognizes that there is much to do to repair

Scotland, saying, “This [calling home those who have fled], and what needful else / That calls

upon us, by the grace of Grace / We will perform in measure, time, and place” (5.8.72-74).

Notably, at this point Macbeth is considered a tyrant, as Macduff, after his death, describes him

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as a “dead butcher” (5.8.70). Macbeth’s fall into tyranny is cemented, then, by his ambition to

achieve the throne.

As Joseph Campbell notes, it is easy for a character such as Macbeth to lose his way.

Macbeth, as the leader or “father” of his men, should be espousing virtues to live up to. As

Campbell states, “To see him is to perceive the meaning of existence. From his presence boons

go out; his word is the wind of life” (347). For example, while Duncan was still king, he states,

“I have begun to plant thee, and will labor / To make thee full of growing” (1.4.28-29).

However, as Campbell also mentions, “a deterioration may take place in the character of the

representative of the father. […] The emperor becomes the tyrant ogre (Herod-Nimrod), the

usurper from whom the world is now to be saved” (347, 349). In this instance, Campbell is

referring to the hero giving credit to those that helped him obtain his power, thus showing a sort

of humility in ruling. The hero only falls after refusing to do this: “No longer referring the boons

of his reign to their transcendent source, the emperor breaks the stereoptic vision which it is his

role to sustain. […] The upholding idea of the community is lost. Force is all that binds it”

(349). These passages illustrate the danger of acting with a lack of humility; by not giving credit

to whatever force put the hero into a position of power, he is ultimately going to cause the

downfall of his kingdom and lose the trust of his people. As the play progresses, Macbeth’s lack

of humility clearly grows stronger, in his choice not to fear Macduff, and in fact to attack his

castle:

Then live, Macduff; what need I fear of thee?…From this moment

The very firstlings of my heart shall be

The firstlings of my hand. And even now,

To crown my thoughts with acts, be it thought and done:

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The castle of Macduff I will surprise. (4.1.82, 146-50)

This lack of humility leads to his downfall. If he had stopped to look examine the words of the

apparitions conjured by the witches more carefully, he might have realized the dangers

potentially posed to him and taken caution accordingly. Like James, Macbeth struggles to find a

balance between his desire for power and humility. Unlike James, however, Macbeth ultimately

fails, and succumbs to the tyranny that James feared. Macbeth’s and James’s struggles with

humility are patterned by the age in which they existed, and ultimately the struggle falls towards

ambition after James’s reign.

When the Renaissance progressed to Charles I’s reign, a desire for humility appeared in

two forms: a desire for a more humble ruler, and a more humble religion, though in this case

conflict resulted between different branches of Protestantism rather than between Catholics and

Protestants. Charles’s actions in trying to control Ireland and Scotland, and his failure to rule

them correctly, eventually brought him into conflict with Parliament, who eventually deposed

him. Moreover, after this time, the different sects of Protestantism, much like Protestantism and

Catholicism before, continued to argue over the correct ways to worship. Milton took an interest

in the arguments and wrote various works on them. As Campbell and Corns state, “Milton’s

rhetoric is tuned to the arrogance of his intended audience, those founders of the English

republic, ‘our old Patriots, the first Assertours of our religious and civil rights,’” (295). Milton’s

words in Paradise Lost reflect the view that religion and politics should return to a more humble

time.

Satan embodies this lack of humility, though in this case it is on a spiritual plane rather

than a physical one, which relates as much to the struggle between branching aspects of

Christianity as it does to the shifting political leaders. In Christianity, Satan is stated to have

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sought to become like God, and the circumstances are no different here; he even explicitly

refuses to bow to God, despite his loss, stating, “That glory never shall His wrath or might /

Extort from me” (1.110-11). This lack of humility is what led to his downfall, and it also later

leads to the fall of the human race through Adam and Eve, where Satan, as the serpent, tempts

Eve to eat the forbidden fruit by appealing to arrogance: “I, of brute, human; ye, of human, gods”

(9.714). Eve’s choice to eat the fruit, desiring to become like God, is what brings sin into the

human world, and therefore indicates the lack of humility shown by all the characters involved is

what ultimately causes evil. This condemnation of arrogance can stem from an increased interest

in the Christian hero. As Russell Hillier states, “Milton had early sought a poetic character ‘in

whom to lay the pattern of a Christian Heroe.’” As such, one key trait of Christianity, humility,

would likely be exalted, while Satan’s lack would be condemned. Moreover, St. Thomas

Aquinas condemns pride in his work Summa Theologica, saying, “Pride is the most grievous of

sins by its genus, because it exceeds in aversion which is the formal complement of sin” (2485).

Pride is the sin chiefly associated with Satan, due to his attempt to become more like God,

despite his high rank among God’s angels. His pride ultimately results in eternal damnation, and

this could easily be seen as a warning, especially considering that Milton himself lived through

several wars and, as Hadfield notes of one of Milton’s works, “The poem points to a renewed

commitment to the arts of peace,” showing an investment in this idea of relinquishing pride for

humility and stability (156).

Milton’s Satan shows a complete fall from grace through an abundance of pride. Like

King Charles II and other early listeners, Satan was unable to forgo his ambitions for the greater

good, and thus was eventually expelled from his high place in Heaven. Moreover, Satan’s

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refusal to reconcile with God and repent resembles the different Protestant churches’ refusal to

forgo their pride and reconcile with each other.

Humility, much like warrior prowess, saw degradation through the Renaissance. Though

the importance of humility never diminished, the ability for characters to show humility did,

falling from Redcrosse, the most humble, to Macbeth, who had a mix of humility and pride, to

Satan, the embodiment of pride. The ability to show humility directly relates to the humility of

systems in power at the time, with Elizabeth being very humble, James being a mix, and the

Church and later Stuart monarchs seeming prideful. These ruling powers also affected an aspect

of heroic tales that, while having connections to the hero and his quest, was not a trait of the

heroes themselves. Such is the case with the final aspect of heroism, supernatural aid. Much

like warrior prowess and humility, supernatural sees degradation through the Renaissance as the

political situation shifted.

Often a hero, while on his quest, will receive supernatural aid. As Campbell states,

“What such a figure represents is the benign, protecting power of destiny” (71). This power can

either help or harm the hero, and Campbell describes “this supernatural principle of

guardianship” as “protective and dangerous, motherly and fatherly at the same time” (73). The

supernatural can range from something as simple as a fairy godmother, to a demon such as

Marlowe’s Mephistopheles, to God Himself. The requirements for this sort of aid are that the

help given would be something the hero could not do by himself, and which helps him through

the obstacles he faces.

Supernatural aid also degrades through the three heroes, possibly brought on by the

religious fluctuation in England. With the constant change of rulers and, with them, the change

of religion, the Church of England was undoubtedly confused, unable to finally declare itself as

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Catholic or Protestant for many years, mixing up different traditions from both sides of the faith

and within different sects of Protestantism, leading to questions from the citizens about what

version of the religion they should profess to practice. The arguments continued throughout the

Renaissance, as evidenced by Milton expressing religious concerns as much as Spenser, though

they changed in nature. Much like warrior prowess and humility, the methods by which these

writers applied supernatural aid degraded from heavenly aid in The Faerie Quene, to the more

mundane witches of Macbeth, to evil “aid” in Paradise Lost. The nature of supernatural aid in

each of these stories is reflected in the perception of the various rulers.

The earliest text, The Faerie Queene, deals with supernatural aid in the most benign

manner, yet still reflects England’s uncertainty about its own religious certitude. Una appears as

a true form of aid to keep the Redcrosse Knight on the correct path, while Duessa appears as a

form of interference disguised as aid but intent on harming and hindering the Redcrosse Knight.

Duessa is supposedly a representation of the Catholic church, while Una, Redcrosse’s guide, is

supposedly a representation of the Protestant or ‘true’ church. Hadfield notes, “The Faerie

Queene is intensely hostile to the papacy and to the power of Spain, as the [representation] of

Duessa as the Whore of Babylon…demonstrate[s]” (259). This links the poem back to the

Protestant Reformation, as much of the first book revolves around Redcrosse’s struggle over

which of these two women he should follow. Spencer makes it obvious he believes the hero

should follow the Protestant tradition, rather than the Catholic, through the victory of Una, the

representation of the Protestant Church, over Duessa, the representation of the Catholic Church.

The poem itself is in honor of Queen Elizabeth herself, as Spenser refers to her in the forward to

the first book as the “Great Lady of the greatest Isle” (1.0.30). As such, Spenser also could have

been playing to Elizabeth’s Protestant preferences.

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The Faerie Queene deals with supernatural aid specifically in relation to the divine,

connecting it to the English Protestant Reformation. This is likely due to Elizabeth’s opinions on

the Catholic Church, which are rather negative: “Our realm and subjects have been long

wanderers, walking astray whilst they were under the tuition of Romish Pastors…whose

inventions, heresies, and schisms be so numerous, that the flock of Christ have fed on poisonous

shrubs for want of wholesome pastures” ("Response on Religion"). Britain at that time needed

supernatural aid in order to return to the correct path, but struggled due to relations with the

wrong church. Redcrosse and Una embody this concept, with Redcrosse, as England, unable to

fully grasp how to relate to Una, the embodiment of the church. When Redcrosse loses her, he

loses sight of where he’s supposed to go and what he’s supposed to do; only when Una is present

does Redcrosse perform as he should. Archimago is able to convince Redcrosse of Una’s

infidelity, despite the fact that Redcrosse had known Una longer: “Come see, where your false

Lady doth her honour staine. … The eye of reason was with rage yblent, / And would have slaine

them in his furious ire, / But hardly was restreinѐd of that agѐd sire” (1.2.36-45). As Hadfield

states, “The knight and Una, standing for England and its church, do not understand each other

because they do not yet know who they are, how they should behave, and what the future will

provide” (259). This shows both the relative newness of England as a country independent of

outside rulers such as Rome and of the Protestant church in England. Many Protestants at that

time would likely not have known exactly where they stood, and would have needed a sort of

“divine” aid through the Protestant Church. At the poem’s end, however, while Redcrosse

leaves to continue his service to the Faerie Queene, he is still married to Una, which represents

that the religious situation in England would slowly become more stable under Queen Elizabeth.

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The Faerie Queene’s stance on supernatural aid is biased obviously towards the

‘uncorrupted’ Protestant Christianity. The belief that Protestantism is the correct path is

emphasized by Elizabeth’s own Protestant beliefs, and further helped by the fact that

Protestantism is the religion to maintain a hold on England throughout the Renaissance.

However, the more divine aspect of supernatural aid shown in this work falls to a more earthly

aspect with a shift in the kingdom’s preoccupations.

Macbeth takes a more mixed view of supernatural aid, which reflects both England’s

uncertainty about its new Scottish ruler and James’s interest in witchcraft. Bate mentions

“witchcraft” as one of James’s preoccupations, and notes, “the king had published a treatise

explaining how monarchs were God’s regents upon the earth and another arguing for the reality

of witchcraft” (325). Macbeth, like the heroes of old, gains aid from the witches partway

through the play in the form of receiving visions of what is to come. Much like other aspects of

the play, this traditional portrayal of an epic hero is twisted. While ordinarily the aid given

would be to help a hero overcome his trials, in this case the aid is to tempt a villain towards what

could potentially be his downfall. Moreover, another supernatural element appears in the form

of the ghost, but to vex Macbeth rather than to help him. Both of these supernatural instances

show instability, something Lowrance alludes to in regards to the end of the play: “…while the

play ends with an outward show of social harmony, it leaves us with a sense of the fragility,

insufficiency, and ecstatic alienation of individual action in an increasingly abstract and aleatory

political modernity” (267). This uncertainty in the play relates to the uncertainty surrounding

James’s new rule. As Mobit mentions, James had to “[take] extra care to depict himself as an

authoritative paragon who was trustworthy and loyal to both crowns” (7). James’s position

could be seen as fragile, as can Macbeth’s, and this is shown by the latter’s concern with the

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ghost and the witches. As Bate says, “Religion and politics were joined seamlessly together.

The Bible said that rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft: if the monarch was God’s representative

upon earth, then to conspire against him was to make a pact with the instruments of darkness”

(325). Thus, Macbeth’s connection with the supernatural takes a negative political tint. His

kingship, first foretold to him by the witches, had been tainted from the start, as the very nature

of the telling connected it to rebellion. That he goes back to the witches later for aid only further

solidifies Macbeth’s descent into darkness due to the nature of how he obtained the throne.

While the witches he speaks to in this section certainly do not seem virtuous in nature,

Macbeth still owes a great deal to them, both for the initial declaration of his kingship and for the

visions they show him to allay his fears. He still speaks of them with contempt: “Infected be the

air whereon [the witches] ride, / And damned all those that trust them!” (4.1.138-39). Macbeth,

disdaining the supernatural aid that forewarned him, also disdains himself, as he does not look

closely enough at their visions and in his bravado attacks Macduff’s castle.

Paradise Lost returns to a divine concept of supernatural aid, but takes a darker turn by

using a fallen angel as an example of the perversion of divine aid, and in the process shows the

faults of both Protestantism and Catholicism. Disputes between Protestants and Catholics were

common due to perceived corruption and blasphemy, and Milton took a specific interest in the

argument, though he seemed to believe both sides were at fault. As Campbell and Corns state,

“His review of prelatical malpractice from the days of Augustine to the present is a historical

overview drawn from the most part from English historians and demonstrating that the Office

and structure of prelacy are so malign that England suffers, no matter whether the malefactors

are Protestant or Catholic” (139-40). Moreover, in the later periods of the English Renaissance,

the different branches of Protestantism began arguing, as well, creating further dissent.

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In an interesting twist, the main protagonist of Paradise Lost is a supernatural being

himself. The supernatural aid—seen in this case through God—is for the individuals that Satan

wishes to harm. The protagonist provides a form of supernatural interference, but does it not to

aid others, but to harm, as in the case of Satan disguising himself as the serpent to tempt Eve,

eventually bringing about the fall of mankind. The aid seen comes in the form of God’s angels,

such as Raphael, who warns Adam about Satan’s plans. However, Satan’s own supernatural

nature aids him in overcoming Adam and Eve, though ultimately not in defeating God. Satan

needs no supernatural aid, since, as a super natural being, he is able to aid himself, though for

malicious purposes. Eve is led astray by what she perceives to be positive aid by Satan’s trick,

believing his words to be genuine: “in her ears the sound / Yet rung of his persuasive words,

impregned / With reason, to her seeming, and with truth” (9.738-40). Satan disguises his guile as

aid, in turn leading Eve away from the true supernatural aid that would have prevented

mankind’s fall.

Satan’s actions could relate to the prelatical malpractice Milton saw, as Satan, much like

certain churches, was leading God’s sheep astray. Satan, formerly an angel, is cast out of

Heaven, and becomes “th’ infernal Serpent; he it was whose guile…deceived / The mother of

mankind” (1.34-36). Much like Satan leading Eve—and through her, Adam—away from

Raphael’s warning words into sin, certain churches were able to lead Christians away from the

true word of God. With the struggle between the many branches of Christianity—Protestantism

and Catholicism, and the various sects of Protestantism—it could be that Milton was trying to

illustrate the more important issue, that being the basis of the faith. Only a “true” faith would be

able to successfully guide Christians away from sin, acting as a form of supernatural aid in

reality to oppose the demonic interference Satan presents.

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Supernatural aid, much like other aspects of heroism in English Renaissance literature,

shows deterioration in quality. It begins with positive, holy aid in The Faerie Queene, transitions

to more earthly, ambivalent aid with Macbeth, and finally ends with demonic interference and

“aid” in Paradise Lost. Each transition is reflected in the individual preoccupations of the time,

whether it be through religion or through a ruler, and became especially apparent the more

unstable the country seemed. The relative religious stability found in association with

Elizabeth’s crowning became more uncertain in light of James’s preoccupations with witchcraft,

and ended altogether when different sects of Protestantism again began arguing over which

version of Christianity was the correct path during the English Civil War, which in turn caused

trust in supernatural aid to become more uncertain and more likely to create villains, should the

wrong individuals be trusted.

Heroism in Renaissance literature saw drastic changes in regards to the political situation.

The three core elements—warrior prowess, humility, and supernatural aid—all degraded, from

the noble Redcrosse Knight, to the dubious Macbeth, to the villainous Satan. The rulers of these

times had as much influence on these changes as the individual events surrounding the creation

of these literary heroes. England’s relative stability at the beginning of the Renaissance allowed

for relatively stable, good heroes, but as it gradually became more unstable literature’s heroes

unraveled with it. The heroes of the latter Renaissance, such as Macbeth and Satan, show the

faults of the kingdom by their own faults, while the earlier Redcrosse Knight was able to show

virtue because of the less tumultuous time. These literary figures show the gradual

disillusionment of their authors with their time period and the specific events that surrounded the

creation of their works, and trace England’s decline. While the heroes may have fallen,

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however, the works themselves have not, remaining to show a glimpse of their authors’ minds

and of the time period in which they were created.

30

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