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sunna, and the results of personal discretion in adju‑
dicating cases.
The critical juncture in this process came in about
the year � (ad ), when the scholars of the local
schools began ascribing their doctrines to earlier jurists
within their respective schools, which was somehow
supposed to guarantee the authenticity of the doc‑
trines. By a process of gradual back projection, these
doctrines came to be ascribed to the associates of Mu‑
hammad, and then, inevitably, to Muhammad himself.
Soon various movements arose in opposition to the
opinions held in these schools. These men, supporting
their views by reference to the “example” of the Proph‑
et, and fabricating isnads to go with them, were called
“Traditionists” because they asserted that the formal
traditions deriving from the Prophet superseded the
“living tradition” of the local schools. Not content to
say, as did the local schools, that their doctrines were
based on the teachings of the Prophet’s associates, or
even that the “living tradition” of the respective local
schools best represented the sunna of the Prophet, the
Traditionists demanded eyewitness accounts. The best
weapon in the hands of the local scholars was to retali‑
ate by doing likewise. “The demand,” as Schacht said,
“produced the supply,” and vast numbers of traditions
came into circulation.
By the second half of the second century, after the
Islamization of the law had been completed, the system
was given its final formulation by the jurist al‑Shafi‘i.
His legal theory was based on the principle laid down
by the Traditionists that nothing overrides the formal
authority of a tradition from the Prophet. He identi‑
fied the Sunna with the content of formal traditions of
the Prophet; the traditions were thus raised to a form
of revelation. The consensus of the scholars of the lo‑
cal schools, which expressed the “living tradition” of
each school, became irrelevant. Al‑Shafi‘i replaced the
local consensus of the scholars with the consensus of
the entire Muslim community, thus emptying it of all
content, since procedurally this was an impossible goal.
Legal reasoning was now limited to a formal process
of strict analogy, with no room for the discretionary
reasoning that had been characteristic of the early
specialists. (The consensus of the scholars, as well
as certain forms of discretionary reasoning, found
their way back into Islamic law, however.) Al‑Shafi‘i
imposed consistency and uniformity, especially com‑
pared with the disparate legal precedents and rules
that existed before; nonetheless, it was, to use Schacht’s
words, a “ruthless innovation.”
Schacht’s conclusions are so firmly grounded in the
closest reading of large numbers of texts, in a masterly
knowledge of Arabic, and in penetrating reasoning,
that they are almost impossible to refute. Nearly all
Western scholars of Islam concede this, although a
few, such as H.A.R. Gibb (�‑��), have shown
hesitation in embracing the full implications by shift‑
ing the focus away from the traditions as a fiction and
toward their significance as documentation for
ninth‑century Muslim values. This is also the tendency
of W. Montgomery Watt (b. �), who implies that
Schacht may have taken the analysis too far. Still others
(Fuat Sezgin, M.M. Azami, and Nabia Abbott) take the
approach that Schacht did not understand the process
of hadith transmission in early Islam. The criticisms
of these and other scholars were undocumented and
tended to be somewhat intuitive. The most developed
challenge to Schacht came from N.J. Coulson, who,
in his History of Islamic Law (�), while stating that
although the broad essentials of Schacht’s findings are
irrefutable, nonetheless suggests that certain fabricated
traditions may have represented the substance of de‑
cisions actually made by the Prophet. This triggered
a fierce reaction by Schacht (in a review in Middle
Eastern Studies, �). Then, in a paper he delivered
at Ravello in �, he spoke of the danger that “the
results achieved by the Islamic scholars, at great effort,
in the present generation, instead of being developed
and made the starting point for new scholarly progress
might, by a kind of intellectual laziness, be gradually
whittled down and deprived of their real significance,
or even be turned inside out by those who themselves
had taken no part in achieving them.” He was aim‑
�
ing these remarks directly at Coulson, but was also
expressing the fear that “what happened in the past to
the work of Goldziher had happened again, recently,
with regard to the conclusions. . . achieved by critical
scholarship.”
Not surprisingly, scholars in the Muslim world
in general are unable to accept Schacht’s discoveries
or face their implications. Some include Schacht in
their bibliographies, yet ignore his ideas entirely and
continue in the classical tradition; others would bar
any Westerner from hadith criticism on the grounds
of insufficient familiarity. A few have attempted to
challenge his ideas directly, but employ such circular
methods as citing the Qur’an or hadiths themselves to
provide documentation. On the whole, the only criti‑
cism voiced thus far has been eclectic and lacking in
systematic or rigorous thought. The understandable
fear among modern Muslim scholars is that the great
edifice of the religious law, and thus Islam itself, will
collapse if it is shown to have been the product of hu‑
man minds. Schacht’s findings can, of course, conceiv‑
ably be put at the service of a liberalizing movement,
but this has not yet been attempted.
Schacht’s selected bibliography
Books and articles, in chronological order
Ed. Das Kitab al‑hijal wa ’l‑makharij des Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn ‘Umar ibn Muhair ash‑Shaibani al‑Khassaf. Han‑nover: Lafaire, �.
Ed. Abu Hatim al‑Qazwini, Das Kitab al‑hiyal fi ’l‑fiqh. Hannover: Lafaire, �.
“Die arabische hiyal‑Literatur. Ein Beitrag zur Erforsc‑hung der islamischen Rechtspraxis,” in Der Islam � (�): ��‑, .
“Eine Schrift von ibn ar‑Rawandi,” in Orientalistische Literatur‑Zeitung (�): cols. ‑�.
Ed. “Aus zwei arabischen Furuq‑Büchern,” in Islamica (�): ‑.
Ed. Das Kitab adhkar al‑huquq war‑ruhun aus dem al‑Gami‘ al‑kabir fish‑shurut des Abu Ga‘far Ahmad ibn Muhammad at‑Tahawi. Heidelberg: Winter, �.
“Von den Bibliotheken in Stambul und Umgegend,” in Zeitschrift für Semitistik (�): ‑.
“Zwei altosmanische Kor’an‑Kommentare,” in Orientalis‑tische Literatur‑Zeitung (�): cols. ‑.
“Aufgaben der islamischen Rechtsforschung,” in Oriental‑istische Literatur‑Zeitung � (�): cols. ‑.
“Aus den orientalischen Bibliotheken von Konstantinopel und Kairo,” in Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akad‑emie der Wissenschaften (Berlin �): �‑.
“Weiteres zu den altosmanischen Korankommentaren,” in Orientalistische Literatur‑Zeitung � (�): cols. �‑�.
“Zur wahhabitischen Literatur,” in Zeitschrift für Semitis‑tik (�): ‑�.
“Aus Kairiner Bibliotheken (II),” in Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin �/�?): �‑.
“Ahmed Pascha Taimur. Ein Nachruf,” in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, n.f., (�): ‑.
Ed. Kitab al‑makharij fi ’l‑hiyal des ash‑Shaibani. Leipzig: Hinrich, �.
Ed. Das Kitab ash‑shuf‘a aus dem al‑Gami‘ al‑kabir fish‑shurut des Abu Ga‘far Ahmad ibn Muhammad at‑Tahawi. Heidelberg: Winter, �.
“Von den Bibliotheken in Stambul und Umgegend,” in Zeitschrift für Semitistik (�): �‑�.
“Aus orientalischen Bibliotheken (III),” in Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin ��/�): �‑.
“Einige Kairiner Handschriften über furusija und fu‑tuwa,” in Der Islam � (��): ‑.
Der Islam: Mit Ausschluss des Qor’ans. Ed. A. Bertholet. Tübingen: Mohr, ��.
“Sari‘a und Qanun im modernen Ägypten: Ein Beitrag zur Frage des islamischen Modernismus,” in Der Islam (�): ‑.
“Zwei neue Quellen zur Kenntnis der Futuwwa,” in Fest‑schrift Georg Jacob zum siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. The‑odor Menzel, pp. ‑. Leipzig: Harrassowitz, �.
Ed. Das Konstantinopler Fragment des Kitab ikhtilaf al‑fuqaha’ des Abu Ga‘far Muhammad ibn Garir at‑Tabari. Leiden: Brill, �.
“Zur Geschichte des islamischen Dogmas,” in Der Islam � (�): ‑�.
“Zur soziologischen Betrachtungsweise des islamischen Gesetzes,” in Oosters Genootschap in Nederland (Sev‑enth Congress, ‑ September ), ed. Th. Böhl et al., pp. �‑. Leiden: Brill, �.
“G. Bergsträsser’s Arbeiten zum islamischen Recht,” in Orientalistische Literatur‑Zeitung (�): cols. ‑.
Ed. G. Bergsträsser’s Grundzüge des islamischen Rechts. Berlin and Leipzig: de Gruyter, �.
“Thalath muhadarat fi ta’rikh al‑fiqh al‑islami,” in Al‑ Mashriq (�).
“Zur sociologischen Betrachtung des islamischen Re‑chts,” in Der Islam (�): ‑.
“Der Briefwechsel zwischen Kaiser und Papst von �/ in arabischer Überlieferung,” in Orientalia, n.s., (�): ‑.
“Über den Hellenismus in Bagdad und Kairo im ��. Jahr‑hundert,” in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländisch‑en Gesellschaft , n.f., � (�): ‑.
“Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje,” in Der Islam (�): �‑.
‹
With Max Meyerhof. “Une controverse médico‑ philosophique au Caire en � de l’hégire (� ap.
J.‑C.) avec un aperçu sur les études grecques dans l’Islam,” in Bulletin de l’Institut d’Egypte � (�): ‑.
___________, eds. and trans. The Medico‑Philosophical Controversy between Ibn Butlan of Baghdad and Ibn Ridwan of Cairo: A Contribution to the History of Greek Learning among the Arabs. Cairo: Egyptian Uni‑versity, �.
___________. Maimonides versus Galen. Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, University of Egypt (May �). Cairo: �.
“Ein archäischer Minaret‑Typ in Ägypten und Anato‑lien,” in Ars Islamica (�): ‑.
“L’évolution moderne du droit musulman en Egypte,” in Mélanges Maspéro, vol. , pp. ‑. vols. Cairo: Im‑primerie de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale, �.
“The Arabic Edition of the British Council Map: Europe and the Middle East,” in Geographical Journal � (�): �‑.
“A Revaluation of Islamic Traditions,” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (�): �‑.
“Foreign Elements in Ancient Islamic Law,” in Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law (�): ‑�.
“Max Meyerhof,” in Osiris (�): ‑.
The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence. Oxford: Clarendon, �.
“Une citation de l’Evangile de St. Jean dans la Sira d’Ibn Ishaq,” in Al‑Andalus � (��): ‑.
“La justice en Nigéria du Nord et le droit musulman,” in Revue algérienne, tunisienne et marocaine de législation et de jurisprudence (��): ‑.
“’Qarran’ = ‘cocu,’ ‘cornard’,” in Al‑Andalus � (��): .
“Adultery as an Impediment to Marriage in Islamic Law and in Canon Law,” in Archives d’histoire du droit ori‑ental, nd ser., � (�): �‑.
“Le droit musulman: solution de quelques problèmes relatifs à ses origines,” in Revue algérienne, tunisi‑enne, et marocaine de législation et de jurisprudence (�): �‑�.
“Notes sur la sociologie du droit musulman,” in Revue africaine (�): ��‑.
“Sur la transmission de la doctrine dans les écoles ju‑ridiques de l’Islam,” in Annales de l’Institut d’études orientales � (�): ‑�.
“Remarques sur la transmission de la pensée grecque aux Arabes,” in Histoire de la médecine (May �): ��‑�.
“Early Doctrines on waqf,” in Mélanges Fuad Köprülü, pp. ‑. Istanbul: Osman Yalçin Matbaasi, �.
Esquisse d’une histoire du droit musulman. Trans. from Eng. by Jeanne and Félix Arin. Paris: Librarie Orien‑tale et Américaine Max Besson, �.
“L’Islam vu d’Angleterre,” in Critique (�): �‑.
“New Sources for the History of Muhammadan Theol‑ogy,” in Studia Islamica � (�): ‑.
“On Musa b. ‘Uqba’s Kitab al‑Maghazi,” in Acta Orienta‑lia � (�): ‑.
“On Shafi‘i’s Life and Personality,” in Studia Orientalia Ioanni Pedersen septuagenario . . . Dicata, ed. Flem‑ming Hvidberg, pp. �‑. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, �.
“Sources nouvelles concernant l’histoire de la théologie musulmane,” in Nouvelle Clio (�): �‑.
“L’Administration de justice musulmane en Afrique oc‑cidentale française et britannique,” in Symposium Intercolonial juin‑ juillet , pp. ‑. Bordeaux: Delmas, �.
“Sur la diffusion des formes d’architecture religieuse mu‑sulmane à travers le Sahara,” in Travaux de l’Institut de recherches sahariennes �� (Algiers �): ��‑.
“The Law,” in Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, ed. G.E. von Grunebaum, pp. ‑. Chicago: Univer‑sity of Chicago Press, �.
“Pre‑Islamic Background and Early Development of Ju‑risprudence: The Schools of Law and Later Develop‑ments of Jurisprudence,” in Law in the Middle East, ed. Majid Khadduri and Herbert J. Liebesny, vol. �, Origin and Development of Islamic Law, pp. ‑. Washing‑ton, D.C.: Middle East Institute, �.
“Bibliothèques et manuscrits abadites,” in Revue africaine � (�): ‑.
“Deux éditions inconnues du Muwatta’,” in Studi orien‑talistici in onore di Giorgio Levi della Vida, vol , pp. ‑. vols. Rome: Istituto per l’riente, �.
“Ibn al‑Nafis et son ‘Theologus Autodidactus’,” in Ho‑menaje a Millás‑Vallicrosa, vol. , pp. ‑. vols. Barcelona: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cien‑tificas, �‑.
“Classicisme, traditionalisme et ankylose dans la loi reli‑gieuse de l’Islam,” in Classicisme et déclin culturel dans l’histoire de l’Islam. Actes du Symposium international d’histoire de la civilisation musulmane (Bordeaux, juin ), ed. R. Brunschvig and G.E. von Grunebaum, pp. ��‑. Paris: Besson Chantemerle, �.
“Droit byzantin et droit musulmane,” in Convegno di sci‑enze morali storiche e filologiche, maggio‑ giugno , pp. �‑. Rome: Accademia nazionale dei Lin‑cei, �.
“Ibn al‑Nafis, Servetus and Colombo,” in Al‑Andalus (�): �‑.
“Islam in Northern Nigeria,” in Studia Islamica (�): �‑.
“Notes Mozabites,” in Al‑Andalus (�): �‑.
“An Unknown Type of Minbar and Its Historical Signifi‑cance,” in Ars Orientalis (�): �‑.
With George H. Bousquet, eds. and trans. Selected Works of C. Snouck Hurgronje. Leiden: Brill, �.
“Islamic Law in Contemporary States,” in American Jour‑nal of Comparative Law (Spring �): �‑.
“The Islamic Background of the Idea of an Arab Nation,” in The Arab Nation, pp. �‑. Washington, D.C.: The Middle East Institute, �.
“Problems of Modern Islamic Legislation,” in Studia Isl‑amica � (�): ‑�.
“The Staircase Minaret,” in First International Congress of Turkish Arts: Communications Presented to the Con‑gress, p. . Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, ��.
“Further Notes on the Staircase Minaret,” in Ars Orienta‑lis (��): �‑�.
“Sur quelques manuscrits de la bibliothèque de la Mos‑quée d’al‑Qarawiyyin à Fès,” in Etudes d’orientalisme dédiées à la mémoire de Lévi‑Provençal, vol. �, pp. �‑. vols. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, �.
“The Encyclopaedia of Islam,” in ACLS Newsletter �: (�): ‑�.
“Problems of Modern Islamic Legislation,” in The Mod‑ern Middle East, ed. Richard H. Nolte, pp. �‑. New York: Atherton Press, �.
“Sociological Aspects of Islamic Law.” Lecture (mimeo‑graphed typescript, pp.]. Berkeley: Center for the Study of Law and Society, University of California at Berkeley. �.
“Sur l’expression ‘Sunna du Prophète’,” in Mélanges d’orientalisme offerts à Henri Massé, pp. �‑. Tehe‑ran: Imprimerie de l’Université, �.
“An Early Murci’ite Treatise: The Kitab al‑‘alim wa ’l‑muta‘allim,” in Oriens � (�): ‑��.
Introduction to Islamic Law. London: Oxford University Press, �.
“Modernism and Traditionalism in a History of Islamic law,” in Middle Eastern Studies � (�): ‑.
“Notes on Islam in East Africa,” in Studia Islamica (�): �‑�.
“Notes on Sarakhsi’s Life and Works,” in . Ölüm Yildönümü Münasebetiyle ... Es‑Serakhsi Armagani. Ankara: Ankara Universitesi Basimevi, �.
“On Abu Mus‘ab and his ‘Mujtasar’; Further on Abu Mus‘ab and his ‘Mujtasar’,” in Al‑Andalus (�): �‑�, .
“The Victims of the Mongols in Baghdad,” in Der Islam : ‑ (�): .
“On Some Manuscripts in the Libraries of Kairouan and Tunis,” in Arabica � (�): ‑.
“The Present State of Studies in Islamic Law,” in Atti del terzo Congresso di studi arabi e islamici, pp. �‑. Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, �.
“On Some Manuscripts in the Libraries of Morocco,” in Hespéris Tamuda (�): ‑.
With Max Meyerhof, eds. and trans. The Theologus Au‑todidactus of Ibn al‑Nafis. Oxford: Clarendon, �.
“The Kitab al‑Tarih of Halifa b. Hayyat,” in Arabica � (�): ‑�.
“Theology and Law in Islam,” in Theology and Law in Islam, ed. Gustave von Grunebaum, pp. ‑. Second Giorgio Levi Della Vida Conference. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, ��.
With C.E. Bosworth. The Legacy of Islam. nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, �.
�
Letters and papers
Schacht’s papers and library are housed in the Schacht
special collection at the International Islamic Univer‑
sity of Kuala Lumpur.
Sources
Coulson, N.J. History of Islamic Law. Edinburgh: Univer‑sity Press, �.