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REMEMBERING & REMEMBERING & FORGETTINGFORGETTING
Models of Memory– Multi-store Model– Working Memory Model– Levels of Processing
+ Simple to understand. - It oversimplifies memory.
Levels ofprocessing
WorkingMemory
+ Evidence from Craik & Tulving (1975) shows that deeper processing gives better recall from LTM.
- What is deep? this could vary with individuals
- Does not explain role of emotion and motivation
+ Evidence from Baddeley & Hitch (1974) shows that we can process more than one task using STM.
+ Helps to explain multi-tasking & learning difficulties
- Does not explain how central executive works
Types of Long Term MemoryLong Term MemoryOur “how to” memory, eg: riding a bicycle we
may not be able to explain it in words or even know that we have this memory. Little research has been done on this.
ProceduralProcedural
The case study of CLIVE WEARING illustrates how these can function independently and how even if only one of these are
damaged the effects can be devastating.
Our “know it” memory, eg: capital of France because it is processed by meaning it is organised in the way it was originally learnt. Most memory research has looked at this.
SemanticSemantic
Our “episodes of life” or autobiographical memory, eg: last holiday, sixteenth birthday.
Includes Flashbulb Memories which are vivid, emotive memories – ( eg 9/11 ).
EpisodicEpisodic
Explaining
Forgetting
• Not really wanting to recall
In which of the three stages of memory could forgetting occur?
ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL
• Time
• Confusing information
• Too much stuff to remember
• Alcohol etc.
Each of these is explained by a different theory your challenge is too work out which applies to which stage, store and type of
Memory.
From introspection suggest some factors that could lead to forgetting ?
• Brain Damage
The simple idea that memories are lost over time is called
TRACE DECAY
First proposed by Hans Ebbinghaus in 1885 based on testing his own memory for non-sense syllables (such as BEJ, ZUX) which had no
associations.
However he also found that it did not take so long to remember these items the second time around. He called this his “SAVINGS”
RE
CA
LL
%
TIME = DAYS
Ebbinghaus found that his memory decayed over time, called the
“FORGETTING CURVE”.
This is NOT an adequate explanation for forgetting in LTM because -• Something must have remained in LTM as it could be re-learnt faster• Older meaningful memories of important events can often be
remembered better than newer but less relevant ones.
Trace Decay in STM?
Instructions:- Read the consonants that appear below then count backwards in three’s from the number given. Write down the letters you recall when asked.
Student Exercise
MemEx1
L Z M , P V Q, X F D
B F Y , G Z J, P D L
K M R , H G Y, J T Z
M Q L , T L Y, F R N
763 STOP! WRITE NOW!
435
917
329
STOP! WRITE NOW!
STOP! WRITE NOW!
STOP! WRITE NOW!
Interference task practice – count back
in three’s from 333.
This shows that the longer the interval before recall the more items that are lost from memory. This is what we would expect because Peterson & Peterson showed that the duration of S.T.M. is between 18 – 30 secs.
Trace Decay OR Trace Decay OR Interference?Interference?
But Peterson & Peterson also found that as the trails when on participants confused earlier trigrams with later
ones, raising the question was this forgetting due to ..
Jenkins & Dallenbach(1924) showed that nonsense syllables learnt in the evening would be remembered better than those learnt in the morning, even though the same amount of time had past.
They concluded that the events of the day had “interfered” with the memory for the nonsense syllables more than when people are sleeping.LTM – INTERFERENCE provides a better explanation than trace decay.
STM – TRACE DECAY & INTERFERENCE can BOTH be used.The memory store that TRACE DECAY applies to best is SENSORY MEMORY.
SPERLING’S (1960) experiment demonstrates this. It also makes sense in terms of our experience of sparklers, traffic lights at night & sound echo.Interference is forgetting due to confusion with previous or later material. It can effect STM or LTM.
PROACTIVEPROACTIVE Where information
learnt earlier interferes with that
learnt later.
INTERFERENCEINTERFERENCERETROACTIVERETROACTIVE
Where information learnt later
interferes with that learnt first.
For example you are learning Spanish this
year, last year you leant French.
Interference theory :-
•explains forgetting in STM & LTM when material is similar
•works better for episodic memory than semantic
•research lacks ecological validity – when do we use non-sense syllables or trigrams in everyday life?
Qu. What is it if John calls his current girlfriend by the name of his ex?
Is the simple idea that new memories will replace old ones
DISPLACEMENT
This theory assumes that a memory store has a limited capacity, so which types of memory will it apply to?
Miller (1956) found that when STM was full up (5 – 9 items) new material would push out the old.
This is NOT an adequate explanation for forgetting in LTM because -• As far as we can tell LTM has an unlimited capacity.• We can recover memories that we thought were forgotten.
NEW INFORMATION INPUT
OTHER INFORMATION
IS LOSTS.T.M.
7+-2 items
Also Sperling (1960) found that SENSORY MEMORY also has a very limited capacity so this theory would also explain forgetting here but-
Which theory best explains the Serial Position Effect?
Primacy Effect
Recency Effect
Both Pro-active & Retro-active Interference
Retro-active Interference
only
Pro-active Interference only
Does not explain why earliest material is remembered better (Primacy Effect) than the material in the middle which came latter.
Explains why material is lost from middle and why less is lost from the end (Recency Effect) but it does not explain the primacy effect.
Offers best explanation, material in middle of curve is subject to both Pro-active & Retro-active interference, but the material at start and end of the list only one of these.
TRACE DECAY?
DISPLACEMENT?
Serial Position Curve
INTERFERENCE?
Can you think of examples from LTM when this may not be the case?
A failure to encode information in LTM could also be caused by some external event which wipes the memory
store in STM, here forgetting is due to the –
Lack of ConsolidationLack of ConsolidationS.T.M. L.T.M.Due to trauma, concussion,
alcohol, drugs, E.C.T. etc.
Yarnell & Lynch (1970) showed that concussed American footballers could recall what happened if asked immediately (STM) but could not recall anything when asked 20 minutes later (LTM).
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) seems to wipe memory of events up to one hour before, suggesting that consolidation takes some time.
This is a good way of explaining some forms of amnesia, but the biological mechanisms of memory are not fully understood so it is difficult to describe exactly how it works.
If information has been encoded and stored successfully in LTM but still cannot be remembered then this could be due to
– Retrieval Retrieval FailureFailure“Tip of the Tongue” is a common experience when we simply need
the right clue (or Cue) to help us recall something.
Also called Cue Dependant Forgetting
The cue usually relates to the conditions of encoding, in semantic memory it often organisational – eg: categories.
State Dependant State Dependant forgettingforgetting
Is when your internal state, mood or condition at the time of encoding information provides a cue to remembering it.
Is when the environmental factors at the time of encoding information provides a cue to remembering it.
Godden & Baddeley (1975) showed that divers who learnt a list of words underwater recalled it better underwater than on land and vice versa.
WORDS WORDS WORKS
MOTIVATED FORGETTING – is the idea that we forget some things (from LTM) because it is not in our best interests to recall them; this could be due to ..RepressionRepression
Freud (1901) suggested that this Ego Defence Mechanism protected the conscious part of the mind (Ego) from the primitive, socially unacceptable drives in the unconscious mind (Id).
Glucksberg & Lloyd (1967) showed that words associated with other words that were accompanied by an mild electric shock were not recalled as well as controls.
Levinger & Clark (1961) showed that words associated with emotionally negative words (eg: cancer, anger) were not recalled as well as those associated with neutral words.
Both are lab experiments and have being criticised on methodological and ethical grounds, they are also subject to alternative explanations.
Williams (1994) interviewed 129 women 17 years after they had been sexually abused as children, 38 % did not mention the abuse. He concluded that they had repressed the memories. Can you provide an alternative explanation.