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THE RELIGIOUS ORDERSOF

ISLAMThe rev. CANON '^ELL, d.d., m.r.a.s.

FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRASAUTHOR OF "the FAITH OF ISlAm," "THE HISTOEICALDEVELOPMENT OF THE QUR'aN," "ESSAYS ON ISLAM,"

'islam: ITS EISE AND PROGRESS"

-k-4-

LONDON "^ V5 ' ^SiMPKiN, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. (LiSiited)4, Stationers' Hall Court, E.C.

MADRAS5. P. C. K. Depository, Vepbry

1908


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FEINTED AT THE 'B. P. C. K. PRESS, VEPEEY, MADRAS

1908


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PREFACE

The main portion of this book formed achapter in my " Essays on Islam," publishedin 1901. I have made many additions to itand have added information more recent thanany I then possessed. I have published it inthis separate form, in order that attentionmay be more directly drawn to an importantmovement in A.frica. Although increased in-terest is being taken in African Missions, Idoubt whether there is yet any adequateconception of the seriousness of the position,or any true realization of the extreme urgencyfor immediate action. I trust this simpleaccount of a little-known movement may bea means of developing still more interest inthe affairs of all Societies engaged in missionwork in Africa.


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THERELIGIOUS ORDERS

OF ISLAM.The two most active elements in Muslim landsin the opposition to social, political, and religiousreforms and to the advance of modern civilizationare the 'Ulama, the men who may be said to formthe lawyers and the clergy of Islam, and thevarious Orders of Darweshes. The 'Ulama speakin the name of the sacred Law, eternal, unchange-able. The Darweshes look upon Islam as a vasttheocracy, in which their spiritual leaders are thetrue guides. It is conceivable that the Ulamamight be brought to see that, if some concessionswould save a Muslim State from ruin or extinc-tion, it might be to their advantage to make them.The Darwesh treats with scorn any attempt atcompromise, and looks upon a Muslim govern-ment, which in the least departs from the lawsand practices of the early Khallfate, as disloyalto the great principle that Islam is a theocracy.


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2 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMIts first rulers were neither kings nor princes :they were preachers, Khah'fas, or vice-regents ofthe Prophet. In the opinion of the Darwesh, asit was then so it should be now. Muslims shouldbe governed by an Imam, who is both a re-ligious and a political leader, M'hose chief busi-ness it is to maintain the laws of Islam intact, toexecute justice according to their standard, toguard the frontiers, and to raise armies for thedefence of the Faith. He should be so manifestlya ruler that the words of the sacred Traditionwould be realized, namely, that " He who dieswithout recognizing the authority of the Imamof the age, is accounted dead and is an infidel."It is the special function of the great EeligiousOrders to keep this principle active and to teachthe people its vast importance. The most reli-gious of the Muslim people see that the civiliza-tion of Europe, now finding its way into Muslimlands, is a very great danger, and they seek tomeet and to counteract it by a large develop-ment of the Eeligious Orders. Throughout theEast these confraternities, like all which influ-ences the religious life of Islam, are conservativeand hostile to modern civilization and Europeaninfluence. In Africa and in parts of Asia thishas resulted in a great pan-Islamic movement,still actively going on, and having for its objectnot merely " resistance to the advance of Chris-


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THE DARWESHES 3tianity ; but also opposition to the progress of allmodern civilization." ^ Since the beginning ofthe nineteenth century, this same movement hasgrown with great rapidity. Under various pre-texts, innumerable agents of the Eeligious Ordershave gone throughout the Muslim world. Theyhave adopted many disguises. Sometimes theyare students, preachers, doctors; sometimes arti-sans, beggars, quacks ; but they are everywherereceived by the people and protected by themwhen they are suspected by the ruling powers.A French writer, one of the best living authoritieson the subject, says that the reform movementin Islam during the nineteenth century has ledto a great increase in the Eeligious Orders. Themovement has not depended on the orthodox ex-pounders and authorized keepers of the canonlaw, but, on the contrary, has relied on the leadersof the mystical sects, such as the Bab, the Mahdiand the great Darwesh leaders. The most activeelement in Islam is now to be found amongstthese Darweshes, and from them has proceededan active propaganda, especially in Africa. Thisauthor sums up a long review of the whole posi-tion by saying that " all this constitutes a gravedanger to the civilized world." ^

1 Count Castries, " L' IsMm," p. 220.2 Chatelier, "Islam au xix. Siecle," p. 187.


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4 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMIt was not until the nineteenth century thatIslam suffered any very grave reverses. It had

had to retire a little in Europe, but in Africait was still strong. So its religious elementbecame slack. Now the position is changed.Algiers is gone, Morocco is in danger, the Englishdominate India and Egypt, Austria controlsBosnia and Bulgaria is free. Eussia has en-croached largely on the Turkish Empire, hasalso absorbed the Central Asian Khanates, andthreatens Persia. Muslim rule in Central Africais in danger, and it is not likely that itwill now extend further south ; for on all sidesthe Christian Powers are encroaching, and someof the best tribes, not yet wholly won to Islam,are within their respective spheres of influence,and the still independent Muslim States have tosubmit to a good deal of outward control. Thedestruction of separate States as political powershas strengthened the pan-Islamic movement, theobject of which is to unite under one politicalhead, the Khalifa, all good Muslims and so tocreate a great world-power. The developmentof commerce and the wider influence of moderncivilization and learning, its art and science, arealso disturbing elements in the Muslim world.Its contemptuous isolation, its absolute sway,are becoming things of the past. This is verydistressing to pious Muslims of the old orthodox


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CONTKOL OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS 5school. It has provoked a great reaction. Thereligious spirit has been stirred up on its mostfanatical side, and the Eeligious Orders have, inconsequence, grov^rn in extent and influence.The existence of secret societies is not congenialto the spirit of Oriental despotism, for the powerof the religious leader is apt to exceed that of thetemporal one, and so, at various times, attemptshave been made to curtail their influence. In thesixteenth century, Sultan Mauli Isma'fl tried tosuppress the Darwesh Orders and failed. In theseventeenth century, Kouprouli Muhammad Pasha,the able Vizier of Sultan Muhammad IV, triedhis best to ruin the Maulawiyya, the Khilwatiyya,the Jalwatiyya and the Shamsiyya Orders, butdid not succeed. In fact, he only showed theultimate weakness of the Sultan's rule and largelyincreased the importance and power of the Ordershe tried in vain to suppress. A still strongerman, Sultan Mahmiid, in 1826, after suppressingthe Janissaries, tried to break up the Order of theBaktashiyya but failed.^ The head of the Order

1 There was a close connexion between the Janissariesand this Order. When Sultan Orkhan in 1328 created theYenicherees (Janissaries), or New Troops, he sought somereligious sanction for his action. The Shaikh of theBaktishiyyas blessed the troops by putting the sleeveof his robe on the head of one of the soldiers, in sucha way that it hung down behind his back, and said :"The militia which you have just created shall be called


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6 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMand his two chief officers were pubUcly executed,the abolition of the Order was proclaimed, manyof its monasteries were demolished, and even theDarweshes connected with it were compelled tochange their distinctive costume, but the Ordersurvived and is powerful still. These men werenot lacking in courage. One of them stoppedSultan Mahmud at the gate of Galata and seizingthe bridle of his horse said : " Giaour Padishah,art thou not yet content with abominations ?Thou wilt answer to God for all thy godless-ness. Thou art destroying the institutions of thybrethren, thou revilest Isldm, and drawest thevengeance of the Prophet on thyself and on us."The Sultan called on his guard to put this ' fool 'away. "la fool," said the Darwesh, "it is thouand thy worthless counsellors who have lost theirsenses. Muslims to the rescue ! " This Darweshwas executed the next day, and it is said thatthe following night a soft light was seen overhis tomb. He is now venerated as a saint.

In Algiers, the work of the Darweshes has beenmore manifest since 1830. The Emir 'Abdu'l-Yenicheree, its figures shall be fair and shining, its armredoubtable, its sword sharp. It shall be victorious in allbattles and ever return triumphant." In memory of this,the Janissaries wore a white felt cap, having a piece ofthe same material pendant on their backs. These troops-were very closely attached to this Order, and this mayhave excited the animosity of Sultan Mahmud against it.


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ACTIVITY OF THE DARWSSHES 7


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8 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMmuch about them that seems intolerant. On the'other hand, the system affords opportunity formuch that is low in morals, especially when thehigher degrees are reached and the restraints oflaw are set aside : when creed and formulas arelooked upon as fetters to the inspired and exaltedsoul.The temporal power has some hold on the

Orders. In Egypt the person who exercises onthe part of the State that authority is calledthe Shaikhu'l-Bakri, and is always a descendantof the Khalifa Abu Bakr. The Khah'fa 'Umaralso has a representative who is the head of theEnaniyya Darweshes. The Khalifa 'Uthman hasnone, as he left no issue. The Khalifa 'All hasone called Shaikhu's-Sadat, or Shaikh of theSayyids. Each of these is said to be the " occu-pant of the sajjcida, or the prayer carpet, ofhis ancestor." The head of an Order is also calledthe occupant of the sajjada which belonged tothe founder of it. This sajjada is looked uponas a throne. In Turkey the Shaikhu'l-Islam exer-cises a certain amount of control over the headsof a Monastery, though he has probably littlepower with the actual head of the Order. As arule, the attitude of the Darweshes to the firmansof the Sultan and to the fatwas of the Muftisis one of resistance. Many of the Orders add totheir prestige in the sight of the masses by the


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THE 'ULAMA AND THE DARWESHES 9nobility of the origin of their founders, who wereSharifs, or lineal descendants of the Prophet.The great enemies of the Orders are the 'IJlamaand the official clergy. The feeling is not un-

like that between the secular and the monasticclergy in the middle ages. The 'Ulama, in orderto maintain their own prestige, oppose the Dar-weshes and appeal to the orthodox standards ofthe Faith ; but the Darweshes do the same.The latter reproach the former with being meretime-servers, to which the retort is made thatthe Darweshes are heretical in doctrine andscandalous in practice. The mass of the Mvislims,who do not care for theological disputations, areattracted to the side of the Darweshes. Theyare not shocked at the dancing and the music ;they look upon the Darweshes as the chosen ofGod, the favourites of heaven. Others again,who look upon some of tlieir practices as border-ing on the profane, yet, on the whole, respectthem. The ignorant man also sees that, thoughdestitute of the education needed for an 'Ulama,he may without it acquire in an Order a religiousstatus and power equal to that attained to by hismore orthodox and learned brother.^

1 " A man who does not belong to the 'Ulama sees witha sense of surprise that, thanks to the support of the Orderto which he belongs, he can without instruction and in spiteof the obscurity of his birth acquire a religious power


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10 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMWith this general introduction we can now passon to consider the constitution of the Orders in

more detail. The organization of each is practi-cally the same. The head of an Order is thespiritual heir of its founder, and is called theShaikh. In some Orders he is a direct descendantof the founder ; in others he is cliosen by thebrotlierhood. He is the Grand Master, and hasunlimited power. He is also, as a rule, a man ofconsiderable diplomatic skill whose influence oftenextends beyond the Hmits of his Order. Hiscounsels and correspondence are transmitted togreat distance with a marvellous rapidity"Thevoice of the Shaikh influences also all the tribesin Algeria. Mystical in form it is difficult for out-siders to understand, but, known as it is byorientals, it preaches obstinate resistance to allprogress, to all civilization." ^ The Shaikh residesin one or other of the Zawiyahs belonging to theOrder. As a rule, the Shaikh is the husband ofone wife and only marries a second, when thefirst is childless and when his office is heredi-tary. The Shaikh is supposed to have a perfectknowledge of the sacred law and to possess skillin dealing with those who place themselvesunder his guidance. He is looked up to with theequal, and sometimes superior, to that of the Marabouts."Hanoteau et Letourneux,

" Les Kabyles," Vol. ii, p. 104.1 Oomte de Castries, " L'Ismm," p. 224.


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THE TMUQADDIIMS 11greatest veneration; in fact, absolute obedienceto the Shaikh is the very essence of the system." O my master, you have taught me that youare God and that all is God," says one disciple.The founder of the Bastamiyya Order said :" Glory be to me ! I am above all things." Theadoration of the Master too often takes the placeof the worship of God, and the ideal life of aDarwesh is one which is in absolute conformityto the will of the Shaikh. In every word andin every act the disciple must keep the Masterpresent to his mind.

Subordinate to the Shaikh are the Muqaddims,who act under his orders and have certain func-tions allotted to them. A Muqaddim is placedin charge of each Zawiyah. In a diploma con-ferred by the Shaikh of the Qadiriyya Order on aMuqaddim, the instructions given to the membersof the Order are that they should yield implicitobedience to the Muqaddim, who has the con-fidence of the chief of the Order ; that they mustnot enter upon any enterprise without his know-ledge. Obedience duly rendered to him is asobedience to the Shaikh, who is descended fromthe saint of saints, 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani. Thespiritual guide is called a Pir.From amongst the Ikhwan,^ or brethren of theOrder, certain persons are selected as assistants1 A modem form of this is Khouan.


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12 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMto the Muqaddim. These are known as the Wakil,who has charge of the property and funds of theZawiyah, and the Eaqqab, who is employed as acourier to carry despatches. In connexion withthe assemblies of the members, the Muqaddimhas the following officials under his charge. TheCha'ush, or leader ; the Maddah, or precentor ;the Qassad, or chanters of the elegies ; i theAUam or standard bearers and the Suqah, orwater carriers. All these employments are soughtafter by the Brethren, and the occupations attachedto them are performed seriously and as a gravereligious duty.Then comes the general body of the simplemembers of the Order. They are called theIkhWcin, or brothers : Ashab,^ or companions ;whilst the generic term Darwesh covers all.Murfd, disciple, is a common term and the onefrequently in use.

Outside of all these are what may be termedthe Associates or the ordinary members, whoare the lay members of the Order. They do notlive in the Zawiyahs, though they are open to

1 An elegy is called is^qaslda.2 They are subdivided into ^yâi\ ^r-W-oÂshAbu'l-

Fatwa, or companions of the decree ; tV..H v-->Ie>-o\Ashabu'l-Bisat, companions of the carpet ; J>^^^ v>U5-o\AsMbu'l-Ashad, companions of zeal ; '^\ vW^Âshabu'1-Yad, companions of the hand.


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THE MARABOUTS 13them. Still they are in possession of secret signsand words, by the use of which they can alwaysget the protection of the community. They do notmake use of the dhikr, or peculiar religious cere-mony, of the Order, but use its rosary. Theirallegiance is often more political than religious.He who habitually performs the rites of hisOrder is looked upon as a Murabit,^ or Marabout.Their origin is said to be as follows : about theyear a.h. 427 a.d. 1049 Shaikh Yahya bin Brahamal-Kedali, a chief of one of the Berber tribes,returning from the pilgrimage to Mecca stayed atQairwan with Abu Amran, a very learned man, towhom he made known the ignorance of the peopleof the Sahara and the willingness of a chief toreceive instruction. At last he found in 'Abdu'llahibn Yassi'n, a pious and austere man, a person fitfor this purpose. Some of the people had beenconverted a good while before, but 'Abdu'llah ibn

1 This word is said to come from " rabata," he bound,from which also comes Muribitun, the name of one ofthe Morocco dynasties, corrupted by foreigners intoAlmoravides (cf. Mealiiu, " The Moors," p. 331). Anotherexplanation is that a IMurabit is one " who habituallylives in a ribat, or a frontier guard-house. Such buildingswere occupied by troops, but pious individuals wishingto join in a war (jihdd) against unbelievers joined them.The word Murdbit, therefore, got the exclusively religioussignification of ' devotee ' or saint, which appears in themodern form of Marabout." (Nicholson, "A LiteraryHistory of the Arabs," p. 430.)


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14 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMYassfn found them lax in their rehgious life. Hisstern discipline was not acceptable to them and healmost gave up the work in despair ; but Yahya re-monstrated with him and said : " You came hereat my request, let us go to a secluded place and de-vote ourselves to the service of God for the rest ofour days." Accompanied by nine faithful Kedalis,they retired to an island in the river Senegal wherethey built a ribat and gave themselves up to a lifeof devotion and austere practices. As a punish-ment for and as a preventive of sin, they punishedthemselves by bodily torture. The news soonspread that all this was done to obtain Paradiseand a number of people flocked to the ribat.Thus a nucleus was formed of a brotherhood,bound to severe rules of penance and of strict ob-ligation to obedience. When about one thousandpersons had joined the community, 'Abdullah ibnYassin addressed them thus : " Is it not yourduty to fight those who refuse to submit to yourdoctrines ? " " Command what ever you please "said his disciples. Then, " Eeturn to your ownpeople and urge them to be converted. If theyrefuse, we will make war on them till God shalljudge between us. He is the best of judges."The tribes were still obstinate and so force wasemployed and in the end the people were bythis persuasive argument soon converted. Yahyawas the spiritual and temporal head of these


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THE MARABOUTS 15converts,^ and the Marabouts, as his disciples werenow called, made an expedition into the Sahara,subjugated the King of Sigilmasa and ravaged thecountry far and wide. They thus became a power-ful body and under Yusuf ibn Tashfin extendedtheir conquests, founded the city of Marrakeshin A.D. 1062 and captured Fez in a.d. 1069, whichcity, successfully besieged eight times in the firstfive hundred years of its existence, has only onceknown a foreign master, when the Turks tookpossession of it in 1554 without a siege.The name Marabout qviickly became synony-mous with that of Wall, or saint, to whom prayersmight be addressed and offerings made.The credulous believe that the Marabout cancure all evils and bless every enterprise. If heproduces catastrophes, brings epidemics and con-demns the sinful to eternal fire, he can also assistthe weak, protect the great and strengthen thefaith of the humble. They believe that from hissanctuary the Marabout sees, hears, knows allthings, and brings to nought the plans of thosewho are careless about religion. All this he doesby a marvellous supernatural power, as a truesaint, as an intermediary between God and man,as the depository of the Qur'anic lore.

1 'Abdu']lah died in a.d. 1059, but the work he begancontinued to grow and great numbers of the Berbersbecame Muslims,


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16 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMThe growing power of the Marabouts marked a

distinct phase in the evolution of Islam in Africa,M. Albert Eeville says : " If humanity at a certainmoment of religious development needs humangods, it is perhaps in Muhammadanism that thisidea draws most of its force and appears mostevident. In any case the Marabouts have playedand still play marvellously well the part of humangods. Their success depends entirely on thefundamental idea of the Musalman religion thatman is powerless to find the right waj^the truth.From that to Mahdiism and again to the Mar-aboutic worship the distance is quickly crossed."^The early Marabouts took care to ensure thattheir successors should enjoy the material aswell as the spiritual advantages of the powergained over the masses of the people.^ The super-stition of all classes brings to the descendant oftheir special saint gifts for their advice. Theiramulets and talismans are used by, and their

1 Quoted by Depout et Coppolani, " Les Confreries Reli-gieuses Musulmanes," p. 148.

2 The late Bishop Crowther in the C.M.S. " Intelligencer"for 1880, pp. 253-4, gave a very graphic description of thework of these men, of the lucrative profession of writingcharms and of some of their methods of propagating IsMm.One way is :" When childless women, or those who havelost their children in infancy, apply for these charms, the(Muslim) priest always imposes it as a condition of successthat the future children must be Muhammadans."


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THE MARABOUTS 17supposed miracles are worked on behalf of theirsupplicants. Many saintly legends arose and thepower of the Marabout is viewed with mysteriousawe. In his grave he is supposed to still possessthe means of protecting those who venerate hismemory, and of punishing the forgetful and theungrateful, who neither obey his teaching nor aidhis successors.There are two stages in this religious develop-ment in Africa. First, the Marabouts propagated

amongst the Berbers the idea of the sanctity ofthe saint and of the divine grace transmitted to thedescendants of the Prophet, and finally mouldedthe thoughts of those thus influenced by them.In

political life, therefore, the power of the Mar-about plays a distinct part. Secondly, comes thereligious Brotherhood. Though apparently re-specting the positions conquered by the Marabouts,the Brotherhood goes on, little by little, to gainground by the practices of asceticism, contem-plation, hysterical mysticism and the force of acombined association.The founders of the Orders were strictly ortho-dox ; that is, they not only followed the Qur'an.,but also accepted the Sunna, the record now pre-served in the Traditions of the Prophet's wordsand deeds, as a divine rule of faith and practice.Certain sayings of the Prophet himself on thispoint were accepted by them as authoritative,2


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18 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMsuch as, " Conform to my Sunna. He who followsthat shows that he loves me, he who does notis not a Muslim." The founders of the moremodern Orders follow the special teaching ofsome famous theologian, who can show that hisparticular instruction was based on that of menof the earhest days of Islam. Their declaredobject is, by their efforts and pious practices, tobring the faithful to the eternal blessing promisedto all who walk in the " good way " revealed byGabriel to Muhammad, who has also given tothe founders of the Orders all knowledge con-cerning it. The Shaikhs, therefore, can nowlead the disciple on, step by step, to a pure andmoral state, abounding in that spiritual perfec-tion, which draws the creature to the Creator.Thus they maintain that their object in foundingthese Orders is the glory of God, the extensionof Islam, and the salvation of men. They claimto be able to lead their disciples on by successivestages to such a state that they attain, or atleast approximate to, spiritual perfection.Then a supernatural origin is also claimed formany of these Orders. The members glory inthis, the masses of the people freely admit it.Very often this is connected with the legendsabout al-Khidr (Ehas), who is said to have beenthe greatest saint of his age and to be still theintermediary between God and the founder of a


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THE ORIGIN OF AN ORDER 19Eeligious Order. As he did not die, he is sup-posed to be still actively employed and to givepower to the religious devotee vv^ho attains tothe dignity of Quth, a term to be explained lateron. Owing to his miraculous translation, to hisbeing transported from place to place by thespirit of God, to his investiture of Elisha withthe prophetic office, it is said that al-Khidr stillretains and exercises great influence with menwho rise to a high order of saintship. To themhe unveils the future, confers the gifts of blessing(baraka), and gives supernatural powers (tasarruf).It is this supposed supernatural character of theinception of an Order which gives it its greatinfluence. All the members of it participate inthis blessing, and in the abundance of spiritualgood, transmitted from the founder of the Order,who entered into secret and direct communicationwith al-Khidr and with the Prophet. The Shaikhof an Order almost always nominates his succes-sor. He summons the chief Muqaddims and asmany of the Murids as he can conveniently gathertogether, and states tliat, after seeking the guid-ance of the Prophet, he has chosen a man whowill maintain the traditions of their founder andthe purity of their Order. " Some, however, onthe ground that the Prophet made no regulationon the subject of succession to supreme power,leave the election to the Muqaddims. In some


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20 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAlilcases the candidate must belong to the family ofthe founder of the Order." i In Constantinoplecertain Orders require the Sultan, or the Shaikhu'l-Islam, to confirm the appointment thus made.The Muqaddims are persons of much impor-tance, and great care is taken in their selection.As a rule only such men are appointed to thisoflfice who are acceptable to the brethren of theOrder. One is placed in charge of each Zawiyahand is a sort of Abbot of a monastery. Besidesthese, other Muqaddims are placed in charge ofthe various missionary enterprizes, or are engagedin diplomatic business in the interests of theOrder. In Turkey the ^Jufti at Constantinoplehas the right to confirm the appointment ofthese men, and the Shaikhul-Islam the powerto remove one from his local charge.Once or twice a year the Muqaddims meet in

conference and consider questions relating to thewell-being of the Order. The state of eachZawiyah is gone into, its financial condition isexamined, and all matters of business are attendedto. The Shaikh issues from the conferencepastoral letters to the brethren. Amulets andcharms blessed by him are sold.^ New members

1 Rinn, "Marabouts et Khouao," p. 60.2 Chatelier writing of the Muslims in Western Africa says

that they retain and use many of the pagan supei-stitions,charms and incantations. Hypnotism is also practised by


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THE MUQADDIMS 81are ailniitted into the Order, and when all isdone the members disperse, after receiving theblessing of the Shaikh. Tiiis meeting is calledthe Hadrat, a word which means the Presence.On his retm'n homo each Muqaddin\ holds asynod of the brethren of his Ziiwiyah. lie enter-tains them at a feast, and then gives an accountof the proceedings of the conference and readsthe pastoral letter. After this is over, the brethren,one after another, salute the Muqaddim anddeposit an ottering on fho tray placed beforethem. This synod is called Jalal, the Glorious.

I have already stated that tiiese Religious Ordersclaim to be strictly orthodox. Innovation in thesphere of dogma is considered to be heresy ofthe worst kind. They can trace their beliefback through a long succession of holy men upto primitive times. These men are honoured bydistinctive titles, according to their standard ofsaintliness.

the religious teachers. Thus the practice of IslAm, thoughnot its doctrines, has been largely intluencod by its ouvirou-meut. He adds, "In any case the only question is one ofritu;il. Tsltim which owes its success especially to itsadaptability, has yielded in some measure to the customs ofthe country. But fetish beliefs have not been able to in-fluence its doctrine, for they only exist as forms of ritualor as traditions, and ha\e nothing of a philosophiccharacter." (Chatolicr, " L'lshim dans IWfriquo occideu-tale," p. 313.)


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22 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMThe highest rank of all is that of Ghauth.i a

man who, owing to the superabundance of hissanctity and the influence of his merits, is ableto be the sin-bearer of the faithful, without inthe least endangering his own salvation. He isvery often, therefore, called the Ghauthu'l-'Alam,or ' Eefuge of the World,' or ' Defender of theWorld.'Then come the men of the next rank who are

called Qutb,2 or Axis. The title seems to implythat this saint is a centre of influence roundwhich all the greatness and the real grandeurof the world revolve. He has attained to sucha degree of sanctity that he reflects to the generalbody of believers the heart of the Prophet himself.The one most pre-eminent in his day is calledthe Qutbu'1-Waqt'the Axis of the Age. He isthe recipient of the special favour of God, bywhom all the affairs of the lower and higherworlds are entrusted to him. All the Aiiliya',or saints, are subject

to him. It is said thatthe founders of the Eifci'iyya, the Qadiriyya, theAhmadiyya, and the Barahim Orders held thisoffice, and that each one was the Qutb of the age inwhich he lived. It is alleged that the Qutb oftenappears in the world, but that men do not knowhim as such. He has certain favoured stations

1 )ij i> 2 ^^


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QUTB AND AUTAD 23where he appears, such as the roof of the Ka'bain Mecca, one of the gates of old Cairo and otherplaces. On his right and left there are two persons,called Umana',^ the faithful ones. When the Qutbdies, the Amin on the left hand side succeeds him ;the Amin on the right passes over to the left, andhis place is then taken by one of the Autad. Itis believed that the Qutb can in a moment oftime transfer himself from place to place ; but heusually wanders about the world, awarding goodor evil, as the destiny of the recipient may be,through the agency of Walls, or saints, subordi-nate to himself.2The Autad ^ is the name given to holy men of

influence in a country, or is applied in a mysticalsense to those who have attained to the stage ofma'rifat, the knowledge of God. The term hassomewhat of the meaning of arkan, or pillars, inthe phrase Arkan-i-DaulatPillars of the State.They are four in number.

There are five other persons called the Anwar,''or lights, who succeed to vacant places amongstthe Autad.

1 Plural of c:>*'*^amiu, a faithful one.2 A good account of the superstitious notions which have

gathered round the Qutiib is given in Lane's " ModernEgyptians," vol. I, pp. 2904.

3 Plural of jjj".watd, a pillar.* Plural of ,ynur, light.


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24 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMThe next in order are the Shuhada',i or martyrs

of whom there are forty. They are sometimescalled the rijalu'l-ghaib, or absent ones. Each dayin the montli they wander over a fixed portion ofthe earth, going over it all once in each month.It is believed that, if a person can on any day ofthe month ascertain where one of the Shuhada' is,he can obtain from him spiritual aid.Then come the Akhyar,^ a term signifying ex-cellent men. They are seven in number and are

ever on the move, spreading the light of Islam.Another class are the Abdal,-^ the changeable.

Their hearts are so purified that no vice dwellsin |hem, and so they are said to be " changed."It is supposed that, in consideration of the meritthese men have acquired, God still preserves andblesses the world. They are seventy in number,of whom forty reside in Syria and thirty else-where.* When one dies God appoints a successor,but no one can recognize these Abdal and no oneknows the exact place where they reside. This isknown to God alone. On the day of judgmentGod will summon them to himself. It is said

1 Plural of J,^^shahid, a martyr.2 Plural of j^ khaiyir, a good man.3 Plural of Ji-^badil, a substitute.* Some authorities give the number as forty, of whom

twenty-two reside in Syria and eighteen in 'IrAq (Cambon," Les Confreries Religieuse," p. 81).


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THE WALI, OR SAINT 25that every morning they go to Mecca and reportto the Qutb the result of their wanderings.Then follow the Najib, who is an assistant tothe Muqaddim, and the Naqib or chamberlain ;but these are ordinary human beings and need nodescription.

Wall, or saint, is a title given to a holy manafter his death. These saints are highly vene-rated, and this reverence is based on a verse ofthe Qur'an : ^ " Verily on the favourites of Godno fear shall come, neither shall they grieve."The word for favourites is Auliya', the plural formof Wali. They are supposed to possess the powerof working miracles. Pilgrimages to their tombsare very common.These various classes of holy men are said toexist to demonstrate now the authenticity of theQur'an and the veracity of the Prophet. Theyare })opularly supposed to have great influenceover the course of events in the world. It issaid to be by their blessing that fruitful seasonscome round, that the earth yields its increase,that Muslims are victorious over their foes. Thisgreat power they gain by the care with whichthey observe the Sunna, or the traditions of theProphet's words and deeds, and by the absoluteabnegation of their own will and wishes.

1 Siiratu'l-Yuaus (X) 63.


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26 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMThe Shaikhs, or Grand Masters of the Orders,are very skilful in dealing with new converts,

and show great discernment in adapting theirinstruction to the various classes of men withwhom they have to deal. On some general pointsthere is much strictness and sameness. All mustabsolutely obey the Shaikh, keep secret the affairsof the Order, and be loyal to it ; but beyond thatthe teaching and discipline varies. A very reli-gious-minded disciple is directed to observe themost minute details of the ritual acts of worship,a superstitious one has talismans and charmsgiven to him. The mystic finds satisfaction inthe religious ecstasy to which his devotions lead ;the learned and philosophical are charmed with thereligious speculations opened up to them ; whilstthe weak and oppressed find, as members of anOrder, the support of a powerful association. Theneophyte gains admission to and promotion in anOrder very slowly, and only after a long ascetictraining. At first he is only a Talmidh, a disciple;then a Murid, an aspirant; then a Faqlr, poor inthe mystical sense. At this stage he learns thathe possesses nothing, even his existence is asif it were not.^ He now enters upon the tariq,or path, and sees visions and has supernatural

1 A Tradition recorded on the avithority of Islklik statesthat the Prophet said, " the poor will enter Paradise beforethe rich."


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THE TRAINING OF A NOVICE 27revelations. Thus he becomes a Salik, a travelleron the mystical road, but many pass on tostill higher stages of life and become Majdhub,the attractedthat is, they are powerfully drawnby God to Himself and are illuminated and in-spired. The life of such an one is wholly spiri-tual and not material, and the outward rites ofreligion are no longer needed. He is so absorbedin the contemplation of God that he passes onto the state of tauhid (unity), and is identifiedwith the Supreme and so loses all sense of separateexistence. 1 Not all Darweshes attain to thesehigher degrees ; they are reserved for the few alone.From all this it will be seen that the initiationof a novice is a matter of great importance.*

1 There arc thus four stages through which a Muriel maypass : (1) Tlie Shari'at, or Law, in obedience to which hemust live and the rules of which he must observe. (2) TheTariqat, or path. He may now abandon forms and cere-monies and enter on the mystical life. (3) Ma'rifat orknowledge. He now gains supernatural knowledge and isbelieved to be inspired. (4) Haqfqat or Truth. He hasnow reached the stage of unity and becomes one withGod. Pew pass beyond the second stage.

2 " The following is given as a direction by the ShaikhSanusi. When the adept is a common man, he ought onlygradually to be initiated in the precept ; thus only the easyprayers should be taught him, until his soul is graduallyfortified and strengthened. Then the instruction is increasedby the addition of the invocations by the Prophet ....When the results of the practice of the dhikr and of pro-found faith have removed the impurity of the soul, and


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28 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMThe method differs slightly in some of the Orders ;but tlie chief ceremonies and the main principlesunderlying them have much in common. Theaspirant for the honour must prepare himself bya fast, a spiritual retreat, prayer and alms-giving.After he has been instructed for some days inthe general nature of the obligations he will haveto bear, the novice is brought into the assemblyof the Darweshes by two of their number and isintroduced to the Muqaddim, or to the Shaikhif he is present. He then swears that he willbe loyal to the Order and will yield absoluteobedience to his spiritual superior. He nextmakes a full profession of the creed of Islamand repeats the names of the seven attributesof God. He is then admitted into the Order,and is taught the dhikr, or special form of prayerused by it. The whole assembly then recitesthe Fatiha, or opening chapter of the Qur'an,and the newly admitted brother receives fromand gives to each of his brethren the kiss ofpeace. In some Orders the ceremony is soonover ; ^ in others it is spread over a long periodwhen with the eyes of the heart one sees nothing in thisworld and the next but the Only Being, then one maybegin the full prayer." (Rinn, " Marabouts et Khouan,"p. 90.)

1 " The ordinary initiation is soon over. A dhikr easy toremember is learnt, an oath of obedience to the Shaikh andof the abnegation of all things for the benefit of the Order


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THE TRAINING OP A NOVICE 29of time. In the Maulawiyya and the Baktash-iyya and a few others, the novitiate extends to athousand and one days, during which time thenovice has to perform the humblest domesticduties, and is put to severe proofs to test hiscapacity for obedience and his spirit of humility.Absolute surrender of the individual will is neces-sary. Thus, " thou shalt be in the hands of thyShaikh as a corpse is in the hands of those whoprepare it for burial.' God speaks to thee throughhim. Thou art his slave and thou canst do nothingwithout his order. He is a man chosen of God.Banish from thy heart any thought to which Godor the Shaikh might object." Another famousteacher says :" In the same way as a sick personought not to hide anything from his doctor, sothou mayst not conceal from the Shaikh thythoughts or words or actions." " The image ofthe Shaikh must be ever present to the disciple."Amongst other means for destroying the sense ofindividuality the following is given in the detailsof the ritual of the Naqshbandiyya Order ; "Thebeing absorbed in the spirit of the Shaikh is profit-able only to him to whom the ecstatic state comesis taken. The novice is henceforth bound to loyalty to themaster, who becomes his sole guide in things temporal andspiritual, his intercessor with God, the controller of all hisaffairs." (Depont et Coppolani, p. 199.)1 J-UJ^ ^*> Ju-.*J^ J^*-^ ^Xs-^ (^^ (^ O)^


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30 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMnaturally. To attain that object, one must en-grave in his own spirit the image of his Shaikhand look upon it as on his right shoulder. Thenfrom the shoulder to the heart, he will draw aline along which the spirit of the Shaikh can comeand take possession of his heart." Sometimes as part of the initiation the Shaikh

touches the head of the novice and breathes intohis ear the words la ilaha illa'lldh, which he hasthen to repeat one hundred and one, one hundredand fifty-one, or three hundred and one times.This is called the talqin. The novice then retires,spends much time in meditation alone, and fallsinto a dreamy :condition. This is called khilwat.He has to report his dreams to the Shaikh, whothen breathes a second time into his ear the words,ya Allah, O God, and the other names of God.This goes on for forty days or so, when the novicebecomes a Murid, or disciple. " In the Egyptianbranch of the Khilwatiyya, a woman is lookedupon as an impure being. The Shaikh does nottouch her, but holds one end of a cloth, the otherend of which the woman holds." In anotherOrder, a simultaneous ablution is made. " TheShaikh or Muqaddim and the sister place theirhands in a vessel of water and clasp their handstogether. The face of the woman must be seen

1 Rinn, " Marabouts et Khouan," p. 28G.


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RELIGIOUS DUTIES 31only by its reflection in the water. In theKahmaniyya Order the

hand of the woman is nottouched. It is sufficient if she recites after theShaikh certain prayers of initiation. Sometimesthe ends of a rosary are held by each." ^

In addition to the duties involved in renuncia-tion of the world, retreats, watchings and fasting,the Ikhwan^ must observe the ziarat, the hadyaand the dhikr. A ziarat is a religious visitationfor the purpose of collecting funds \vhen therevenue of the Order falls short. A regularassessment is made which the Muqaddim collectsthrough the agency of the Cha'ush. The poorerpersons suffer from this, often without a murmur,saying, "It is to God and not to man" we give.In Algiers the impost has been, with good results,regulated by the French Government ; but inMorocco, where there are no such restrictions, theMuqaddim lays heavy burdens on the people." The rapacity of the religious chiefs are a principalcause of the misery which permanently exists inmost of the Muslim States. This is especiallyso in Morocco, where the representatives of thereligious Orders abound." '

1 Depont et Coppolani, p. 199.2 '< In Northern Africa they arc called Khouan. In the

East, Darweshes. The Qadiriyya Order keep the nameFaqir (poor one). In the Tijaniyya Order the members arecalled AsMb (companions)." (Ibid, p. 195.)

3 Rinn, " Marabouts et Khouan, p. 91.


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32 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMThe hadya is an expiatory offering made by theIkhwan for the infraction of some rule, or the

neglect of some duty. It is also a kind of tributewhich the Muqaddim exacts from the chiefs of thelocal tribes and which few, owing to their fear ofassassination or other injury, are bold enough torefuse.The dhikr ^ is a most important part of the

daily life of a Darwesh. There are various formsof it. It may be recited aloud, in which case itis called dhikru'1-jali : or mentally or in a very lowvoice, in which case it is called dhikru'l-khafi.The Naqshbandiyya Darweshes adopt the former,the Chishtiyya and Qadiriyya Orders the latter.A dhikru'1-jali is as follows. The worshipper sit-ting down in the usual way shouts out Allah ;then, sitting as if for prayers, again in a loudervoice says Allah ; then folding his legs under

* The origin of this frequent act of worship is to be foundin Suratu'l-Ahzab (xxxiii) 40. " Believers ! remember Godwith frequent remembrance and praise Him morning andevening"The commentator 'Abdu'llah bin 'Abbds says that \jj^S\

means " Remember with tongue and heart ; " and that S^a-*-.is equivalent to ":Say the namiz." The Darweshes say that

> , frequent, means the frequent repetition of the dhiiir.


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THE DHIKR 33Mm he shouts yet louder Allah. Then sittingagain in the attitude for prayer he shuts hiseyes and shouts la, drawing the sound fromhis navel ; then he says ilaha as from the head ;and lastly illa'llah from the left side. All thisis called a darb, and is repeated hundreds oftimes on each occasion.The Darwesh, who makes dhikru'l-khafi, closes

his eyes, and then inwardly and slowly says, asif from his stomach, AUahu Sami'unGod thehearer; from his breast, Allahu BasirunGodwho sees ; from his head, Allahu 'AlimunGodthe knower.He keeps on going over these names backwards

and forwards, not audibly but mentally, sayingthem to himself in an ascending and descendingscale. Then in a very low tone of voice, as iffrom his right knee and left side, he says Allah :then he exhales breath and says, whilst so doing,la ilaha, and then inhales breath saying illa'llah.This darb is repeated hundreds of times and ismost exhausting. By long practice a Darweshattains great control over his breathing, and itis said of one man that, exhaling his breath, heused to say la ilahathere is no godat themidday prayer, and inhaling his breath, sayilla'llahbut Godat the afternoon prayer.Thus he breathed out continuously for, at least,three hours.

3


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34 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMSometimes there is also a meditation on certain

verses of the Qur'an, as, " He is the First. Heis the Last. The Manifest: The Hidden " ^ "Heis with you wherever you go " ^ " We (God)are closer to him (man) than the veins of hisneck " ^ " Whichever way ye turn, there is theface of God " ^ " God encompasseth all things." ^The dhikr is said to produce union of the heartand the tongue in the act of saying the nameof God, to cause the soul to recover its calm inthe presence of the Shaikh. The mysteriousvirtue attached to the rite vanquishes evil desires.A Murid ought to say a dhikr three times inone breath and so impress it on his heart, whichis thus kept constantly occupied with the thoughtof God. Similar exercises to the dhikr are thetasbih, or saying subhanu'llahholiness to God ;the tahmid, or al-hamdu'llahpraise be to God ;and the takbir, or Allahu AkbarGod is great.Muhammad is reported to have said that he whorepeats the tasbih one hundred times morningand evening will have all his sins forgiven. Itis by the use of dhikr, by khilwat, or retiringfrom men for devotional purposes, by tawajjuh,or turning the face towards God devoutly inprayer, by the muraqabbah, or contemplating1 Suratu'l-Mujddilali, (Ivii.) 3. 2 Suratu'l-IMujadilah, (Ivii.) 4.3Suratu'l-Qaf, (1.) 15. ^Suratu'l-Baqarah, (ii.) 109.

5Suratu'ii-Nis^', (iv.) 125.


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THE DHIKR 35God with fear, by the tasarruf, or mystical spirit-ualism, that the fervent Darwesh gains thespiritual internal powers, which enable him tosubdue the will of others. It is said of twoShaikhs, in illustration of this, that one daythey saw some wrestlers equally matched, andthey determined to will that one particular manshould gain the victory. He did so and thenthey willed that the defeated man should con-quer, and in turn he did so. The mechanicalrepetition, consecutive and prolonged, of the fewwords in the dhikr naturally weakens the personalwill of the Darwesh, and deadens his intellect.It produces a morbid state of mind in which heis easily and blindly led by the stronger will ofhis religious superiors. It maintains the habit ofdiscipline and of submission. In fact, the wholesystem is now so developed that individuality iscrushed out and the Order is exalted. The willof the Shaikh is absolute and all venerate himand implicitly obey his commands.There are now altogether eighty-eight Eeligious

Orders.^ The first came into existence in the firstyear of the Hijra and the last was founded inA.H. 1293A.D. 1876. It is said that the KhalifaAbu Bakr first called men to a sort of commonlife. A short account will now be given of a

1 The names of the founders of these Orders, with dates,are given by Rinn in " Marabouts et Khouan," pp. 2651.


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36 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMfew of the most important Darwesh Confraterni-ties in their historical order.The Siddiqiyya Order talies its name from the

word Siddiq ^the righteousa title given to AbiiBakr, and it exists to this day in Yemen, in Egypt,aind in small numbers in Algiers. Its chief prin-ciple is said to be the profound contemplation ofthe person and virtues of the Prophet. The resultis that they say the Prophet appears to a Dar-wesh of this Order in times of difficulty, andin his hours of ecstasy. The joy of this is sogreat that it can be known only by experience.The religious exercises are continued by the piousmembers until the soul of Muhammad appearsto them in sleep and in their waking hours,to nourish them and to lead them on to heightsof spiritual perfection.The Uwaishiyya Order arose thus : in the thirty-seventh year of the Hijra, Uwaisu'l-Karani, whohad lived the life of a recluse, announced that

1 The BlsUmiyya, the Naqshbandiyya, and the Bak-tdshiyya Orders claim to have descended from the Siddfqiyyacommunity founded by Abu Bakr. The Uwaisiyya, theAdhamiyya, the Qddiriyya, and the Sanusiyya Ordersconnected themselves with the Khalifa 'Umar and alsowith the Khalifa 'Ali, to whom all the other Orders lookup as their original head. Each Order has its silsilah, orchain of succession, up to one of these Khalifas.An Order is always called by the adjective formed from

the name of its founder.


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THE ALWANIYYA OKDER 37Gabriel had appeared to him in a dream, andrevealed to him the constitution of an Order tobe started on strictly ascetic principles. Uwaiscarried his veneration for the Prophet so far as toextract his teeth, because Muhammad had losttwo at the battle of Uhud. Uwais then requiredhis followers to do the same. The Prophet hada great regard for Uwais and commanded that hisown mantle should be given to him. It wasmade of wool with a collar and long sleeves reach-ing to the knee. It is said to be still preserved inConstantinople by a descendant of Uwais. Oncea year it is carried in procession to the OldSeraglio. The mantles of the Darwesh Orders aremade after the fashion of thisthe Khirqa-i-Sharif. The Uwaishiyya Order has not spreadbeyond Arabia.The first Order with special rules and distinctivereligious exercises is the Alwaniyya, founded byShaikh Alwan in a.h. 149a.d. 766. He wasthe first to make formal rules for the initia-tion of a novice and to regulate the duties of thespiritual directors and the Murids. The wholesystem in its present form may be said to datefrom the time of this Shaikh.The Bistamiyya Order was founded by a Per-

sian about A.H. 261A.D. 874 and traces its con-nexion up to the Khalifa 'Ali. Sufi doctrines aretaught in it. Abu Bayazid Bistami, its founder,


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38 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMis looked up to as a saint by the Shaikhs ofmany of the most famous Orders.The Qadiriyya, founded by 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani,who died in a.h. 561a.d. 1165, is one of the

largest and most respected Orders.^ Other Ordershave arisen out of it. The banner and the turbansof this Order are white. A rose is worn in thecap. It is found in the northern parts of Indiaon the one side and in Algiers on the other. Asearly as the fifteenth century it was introducedinto Western Africa, by emigrants from Tuat . Asettlement was formed at Walata, but beingdriven from that place the Order moved on toTimbuktu. The great revival of religion at thebeginning of the nineteenth century, probably dueto the Wahhabi movement in Arabia, stirred upthe members of this Order to great activity*Shaikh Si Ahmad ibn Idris, a man of great repu-tation, was then the chief of the Order. Hesent in 1835 one of his disciples, Muhammad'Uthmanu'1-Amir Ghani, to the Nile region wherehe enrolled many Muslims in the Order and pro-ceeded to Dongola and then to Kordofan. Inthe latter country he stayed until his death in1853 and gathered many pagan tribes into thefold of Islam. These he formed into a newOrder, called the Amirghaniyya.

1 An excellent account of the founder is given by S. D.Margoliouth in the R. A. S. J. for April, 1907, pp. 267306.


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THE QADIRIYYA ORDER 39In their innumerable Zawiyahs the brethren of

the Order place much trust in their mysticalceremonies and seek in the hallucinations of theecstatic state to realize all their aspirations. Thishas been thus described :" at each moment ofthe day and night their thought strives to crossspace, to perceive the Unknown. Their lipsrepeat the dhikr revealed to 'Abdu'l-Qadir and,with half shut eyes and the rosary slowly movingbetween the thumb and forefinger, they invokethe Supreme Being, and listen to the beating oftheir hearts, as if they expected an inward reve-lation of the Divine spirit-^the beginning of thebeatific vision. Softly they rise and bow and maketheir ablutions, take a frugal meal and return tocrouch in the same spot, still with the same ten-sion of mind, awaiting the psychological momentwhen the divine breath will visit their purifiedminds." i On Friday they gather together insilence and concentrate their faculties on a singleidea, the majesty of God. Seated in a half circlebefore the Shaikh or Muqaddim, with legs crossedand the fingers of the open hand spread on theknee, they recite in unison many hundreds oftimes the dhikr compiled by their great founder.The dhikr of this Order is a very long one. The

novice, however, on admission has only to add to1 Depont et Coppolani, p. 156.


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40 THE RELIGIOUS OEDERS OF ISLAMthe namaz, or five obligatory prayers, the repeti-tion one hundred and sixty-five times of the creedsla ilaha illa'llahu. One form used by the mostspiritually advanced members is to recite theFatiha witli the intention that the reward for itshall go to the Prophet and to 'Abdu'l-Qadir ; torepeat one hundred and twenty-one times thewords, "0 God, bless our Lord Muhammad and hisfamily

"; then one hundred and twenty-one times" Glory be to God. Praise be to God. There is

no god but He. God is great. There is nopower except in the Lord Most High " ; thenone hundred and twenty-one times " O Shaikh'Abdu'l-Qadir, something for God"; then onehundred times Suratu Ya Sin (xxxvi) ; thenforty-one times Suratu'1-Jinn (Ixxii) ; then onehundred and twenty-one times Suratu'n-Nasr(ex) ; then eight times Suratu'l-Fatiha ; thenonce Suratvi'l-Ikhlas (cxii) ; and finally three timesthe words, " God bless the Prophet. "^

All this must be done with great precision.The Shaikh gives the signal for prayer, controlsand corrects the movements. Then slowly allturn their faces to the right and, with an admirable

^ To each dhikr the follovviug words are added :&1!\ jaAx^\ and ^gU^ e?*^^


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THE QADIRIYYA ORDER 41cadence, say Allah, then they turn to the left andsay Allahu, then they bow their heads and say Allahi.They go on repeating this again and again, eachtime increasing the pace of their utterances, untilwearied and exhausted the words die on their lips,they become almost senseless and feel a deliriousvision filling their minds. They seem to catch aglimpse of Paradise and beside the throne of theAlmighty appears their great Master, 'Abdu'l-Qadir, in saintly glory. This goes on year in yearout until they think they reacli the highest stageof absorption in the Divine. To the multitudethey are as men gifted with supernatural powers,^exorcists, visionaries, miracle workers, though inreality they are either self-deceived mystics withminds unbalanced, or pretended saints of doubtfulcharacter. These ecstatic practices were intro-duced into the Order by its founder. They aredenounced by the 'Ulama as contrary to theQuran and the Sunna and are looked upon asprofane.

This Order is widely dispersed and is oneof the most tolerant. It endeavours to get onwith rulers and with men in high positions ; itstimulates their charity and seeks their aid.The authority exercised by the Shaikh is verycomplete. At the time of the initiation of anovice, the Shaikh taking his hand and placing itbetween his arms, says :" In the name of God


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42 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMmost merciful, most clement. I believe in God,in His angels, in His book, in His Prophet, in theday of judgment, in His decrees, in His favours,in His punishments, and in the resurrection fromthe dead." To this the novice replies ;" I ama Muslim, and I am confirmed in my worshipand in my faith. I purify myself by a sincererepentance, from all my sins. I repudiate allheresy. There is no god but God, and Muham-mad is His servant and apostle. It is from himI receive admission into this Order. I take theoath of fidelity. I engage to obey all the divinelaws, to do all things as in the sight of God, toaccept what He may be pleased to send me andto thank Him for troubles which may oppressme." Other ceremonies follow and a long listof questions is pvit,^ after which, when they havebeen satisfactorily answered, the novice is ad-mitted into the Order.

All throughout the Western Sudan, a hundredyears ago, small and scattered communities of theQadiriyya were to be found. Then stirred up bya missionary spirit, they became active amongstiheir heathen neighbours and since that timehave made great progress by their pacific pro-paganda. In fact, this Order and that of a moremodern and a warlike one, the Tijaniyya, havebeen the principal agents in the extraordinary1 Rinn, "Marabouts et Khouan," pp. 190-196.


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THE QADIRIYYA ORDER 43advance of Islam in the Western and CentralSudans in modern times.'^ As-Sanusi was once oneof the members of this Order. 'Abdu'l-Qadir, itsfounder, is represented as being a man of largeheart and charitable feelings, and his Order wasfounded " not only to improve by its mysticalteaching the corrupt morals of Muslims, but alsoto relieve the miseries of men, to comfort theafflicted and to aid the very poor by alms." Oneof the Muqaddims of the Order has said that " ifGod had not sent Muhammad to be the seal of theprophets, He would have sent 'Abdu'l-Qadir, forTie, by his virtues and charity, most of all men

1 This is confirmed by the latest writer on the subject,vfho writing in 1899 says :" By the instruction which theygive to their disciples, by the colonies they found on everyside, the Darweshes multiply in the Sudans their centres ofaction." (Chatelier, " L'Islam dans I'Afriqiie Occidentalle,"p. 254.) The Rt. Rev. Bishop Johnson writing in Decem-ber 1902 of the city of Benin, says : " A ilosque has beenerected there and the ]\Iuhammadan call to prayer is heardand both there and at Warri and at Sapele proselytizingwork is going on. Already some Benin young men have be-come Muhammadans

"(C.M.S. Intelligencer, February 1903,p. 115.) The Synod of Western Equatorial Africa met onMay 4 to 7, 1908 and amongst others passed the following

resolution, " That the rapid growth of Muhammadanism iuthe Yoruba country calls for serious and prompt action onthe part of the Church." Speal^ing of the success of theQAdiriyya Darweshes in parts of Algiers, the French Sudilnand Senegal, a French authority says of the converts :" The apostles (Darwesh missionaries) become their mastersspiritual and temporal, veritable princes and at the sameiime priests and warriors" (Depont et Coppolani, p. 311).


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44 THE EELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMresembles Jesus Christ." He is called the Saintof Saints, the Qutbu'l-Qutub, and the Ghauthu'l-A'zamthe greatest defender. It is said that hissoul hovers now between earth and heaven, andthat God always answers his prayer made onbehalf of others. No saint equals him in thepower of working miracles, nor are such marvellousstories told of any other. The oflfice of Shaikh ishereditary. If the son is a minor when his fatherdies, the Ikhwan appoint one of their number toact for him until he reaches the age of twenty.The Eifa'iyya, often called the howling Dar-weshes, belong to an Order founded by Ahmadar-Eifa'i of Baghdad who died in a.h. 578a.d.1182 and was buried in the principal Zawiyyahof the Order, situated in a town in 'Iraq. Hewas a nephew of 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jflani and isconsidered to have been a theologian of greatrepute. The banners, robes and turbans of thisOrder are black. ^ The members of the Ordermake fires which tliey extinguish by rolling onthe burning coals, and they even eat live coalsand glass, and swallow serpents, or appear to doso. In Mecca their agents are active, and theyare very hostile to Europeans. Lane describes ascene he witnessed in Cairo thus: "A Darweshtook a large piece of live coal, plaK^ed it between

1 For the special prayers used by this Order, see " TheDarweshes," by Brown, pp. 114-124.


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THE RIFA'IYYA ORDER 45Ms teeth, and kept it there; then drew it onhis tongue, and, keeping his mouth wide openfor two minutes, violently inhaled and exhaled,showing the inside of his mouth like a furnaceand breathing out sparks. Having chewed andswallowed the coal he sat down, without ap-parently having suffered any pain." ^

In the course of years these Darweshes havebeen scattered about in the East, and have formeddistinct groups. In recent years the chief matterof interest connected with them is that there is amovement towards union amongst the scatteredbranches. This has been mainly brought aboutby the influence of Abii'l-Hauda, a great friend ofthe present Sultan of Turkey, 'Abdu'l-Hamid II.who has made the members of this Order andthe grand Sharif of Mecca agents in the recentpan-Islamic movement. " Under the powerfuldirection of Abii'l-Hauda the Eifd'iyya Darweshesseem to recover their spiritual homogeneity andbecome, at the same time, the sworn enemies ofprogress and civilization, the unscrupulous ex-ecutors of the designs of the Ottoman Porte." ^This gives the Order a political importance.The Chistiyya Order was founded by Mu'inu'd-

1 Lane, "Modern Egyptians," vol. ii, p. 190, see alsovol. 1, pp. 305-7.2 Depont et Coppolani, p. 327. On the other hand, C.Snouck Hurgronje, whilst admitting that the centre of the


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46 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMdin Chisti, who was born a.h, 537 a.d. 1142.He died in Ajmir in India. His tomb is avery favourite place of pilgrimage. He was adisciple of 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani. The membersof this Order are mostly Shi'ahs. They are fondof music and perform the dhikru'1-jali.The Suharwardiyya Order was founded byShahabu'd-din as-Suharwardi, who died in Persiaabout A.H. 623a.d. 1226. The majority of itsfollowers are still found in Persia, but its in-fluence has been felt elsewhere. The teaching ofas-Suharwardi was highly mystical and dealt withthe deeper aspects of Sufiism. Now, it is not somuch an Order as a school of mystic philosophywhich has had a great influence on the teachingof many of the African Orders and fosters thegrowth of fatalism amongst them.The Shadhiliyya Order was founded in a.h.656A.D. 1258, and is spread through mostMuslim lands. It flourishes in Egypt and inAlgiers. It has given rise to many brancheswhich now form separate Orders. Its doctrinesare held by almost all the modern Orders. TheSanusiyya are afiSliated to it. A famous teacherAbu Madian al-Andalusia, who was born in SevillePan-Islamic movement is in Mecca, does not think thatthe Grand Sharif and his assistants play any great part init. He also thinks that the influence of the ReligiousOrders in this matter is over-rated (" Revue de I'Histoiredes Religions" tome, quarante-quatritoe, p. 281.)


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THE SHADHILIYYA ORDER 4Tin A.D. 1127, a disciple of 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani,brought the mystical teaching of his master intoNorthern Africa, whilst his disciple, 'Abdu's-Salamtaught it in Western Africa. He too had anearnest follower, Sidi Abu Hasanu'sh-Shadhil who,carried on the propaganda both in Northern andEastern Africa and in Egypt. Abu Madian addedto his great knowledge of mysticism, a modestyof manner and a ready eloquence which helpedto make him one of the most influential men ofhis age. The early chiefs of the Order, worthydisciples of their great master, took little interestin worldly affairs, diligently disseminated histeaching and were really the heads of a mysticalphilosophical school. One of the instructions ofShadhil was " obey your Shaikh before you obeyyour temporal sovereign." Abu Hasanu'sh-Sha-dhil, a man of great reputation as a mystic,moralist, jurisconsult and theologian gave hisname to the Order. He was born in a.h. 593.He was a good example of a Muslim mystic andhis followers were looked upon as excellent Sufis.He said to his disciples, " You will not smellthe odour of sanctity until you are detached fromthe world and from men. He who desires gloryin this world and in the next should accept myteaching. Then he will reject from his heartall that is not God, will seek nothing, will lovenothing but God. Hear him who calls you to


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48 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMpeace, not liim who calls you to battle. God hasgiven me a register in which my companionsand their disciples are enrolled and will be shel-tered from hell-fire.'' He was known in Moroccoand his popularity so influenced the 'Ulama ofthe University of al-x\zhar in Cairo that he waslooked upon as the spiritual Master of confrater-nities in Mecca, and wise men and philosophersof both these cities highly regarded him as aneloquent doctor, an imcomparable master.When he died he left no heir. He appointedno successor, but the brethren retained his nameand the Shadhiliyya soon occupied the frontrank of the existing Orders. In the course oftime it gave rise to many other Orders whichform distinct groups, tinged, however, with themysticism of the older one. Some of them havemade practical changes, and devote less time tomystical studies and more to practical ones ; butthey now form a very great social and religiouspower.The Maulawiyya, often called the dancing

Darweshes, are the most popular Order in theTurkish Empire where they are known as theMevlevi Darweshes. There are no Zawiyahs ofthis Order in Algiers. These men are famousfor their music and their mystic dance, whichconsist chiefly of whirling round and round.This is said to represent the revolution of the


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THE NAQSHBANDIYYA ORDER 49spheres and also the circling movement of thesoul, caused by the vibrations of its love toGod. They say their prayers in silence, stand-ing up and turning round from east to west.Their religious performances are to be seen inConstantinople and in Cairo. The Order wasfounded by Maulana Jalalu'd-dfn Rumi who diedin A.H. 672A.D. 1273. It is a very wealthyOrder. There is in it a singular union of austerepractices, political obsequiousness to the Sultan,and frivolous ceremonies. ^ The Shaikh of theOrder must be a descendant of its founder. Theoffice is hereditary and so the marriage of theShaikh is obligatory.The Naqshbandiyya Order was founded byMuhammad Beha'u'd-din Naqshbandi who died inPersia in a.h. 719ad. 1319. He was a manof learning and piety and a Sufi. At first he didnot wish so much to form an Order as to gathertogether an association of religious people, whomight meet for prayer without much outwardshow or special rites. He held that " The ex-terior is for the world ; the interior for God " ; ^but the association grew into a very large andimportant Order which is found chiefly in Cen-tral Asia and in Turkey, but is little known in

1 For a full account of the dauces, see Brown, " TheDarweshes," pp. 199-201.2 îÛ ^Û\ ^ji^ ^&UiJ\4


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50 THE EELIGIOUS ORDEES OP ISLAMAfrica. It attracts men of high social positionand of learning. They generally perform thedhikru'l-khafi, or silent devotions, and are moder-ate in their mysticism. In addition to this eachmember must daily recite the istighfar, or prayerfor forgiveness, once ; the salamat, or prayer forpeace, seven times ; the Fatiha seven times ;Suratu'l-Inshirah (xciv) nine times ; Suratu'l-Ikhlas (cxii) once, and then the appointed dhikran indefinite number of times. The conformityof its teaching to that of the Khalifa Abu Bakr,the dignity of its outward ceremonial, the highclass of 'persons affiliated to it are amongst thecauses which give this Order a very high placein the esteem and regard with which other Dar-weshes look upon it.The important Orders, the Qadiriyya, the Eif-a'iyya, the Maulawiyya and the Shadhiliyya, wereformed at a time " when, through the influence ofGhazali, Sufiism had won for itself a secure and arecognized position in the Muhammadan Church.Orthodoxy was forced to accept the popular saint-worship and to admit the miracles of the auliya',although many Muslim puritans raised theirvoices against the superstitious veneration whichwas paid to the tombs of holy men, and againsttlie prayers, sacrifices, and oblations offered bythe pilgrims who assembled." i

1 Nicholson, "A Literary History of the Arabs," p. 93.


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THE QALANDAEIYYA ORDER 51The Qalandariyya,* or wandering Darweshes,

were founded as an Order by 'Ali Yusuf Qalandari,a native of Spain,'^ who died in a.h. 724a.d. 1323.He was a disciple of Jalalu'd-din Eiimi and ofHaji Baktash and was also, for a while, a mem-ber of the Chistiyya Order which he afterwardsleft and founded an Order of his own. He tra-velled much and finally settled down at Panipat,where pilgrimages are made to his tomb. Thestatutes of the Order oblige its members to liveon charity, to be always on the move, and notto amass wealth for themselves. They are practi-cally Sufis. The Order exists in India, Persia andTurkey. Their dhikr contains a prayer for thefounder and certain passages from the Qur'an,^repeated many times, and concludes with theduriid, a prayer for blessing on Muhammad andhis family, which is said twice. The QalandarDarwesh is a well known character in Easterntales.

1 The word Qalandar is also used for a man who neednot be connected with an Order. He may be a sort ofunattached wandering friar. Suharwardi says that theyare persons possessed of an intoxication^ which they callpeace of heart and that they are men who totally dis-regard the ordinary rules and customs of society.

2 Some authors say he was born at Panipat in Hindustan.3 The FAtiha, or the opening chapter, of the Qur'^n ;Suratu Ali 'Imran, ii. ('25G), three times ; Suratu't-Tatfif,

(Ixxxiii), three times : Suratu Yusuf (xii), ten times : then thedurud (prayer for Muhammad and his descendants) twice-


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52 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMThe Baktashiyya Order was founded by HajiBaktash, who died in a.h. 738a.d. 1337, and is

famous in Turkey owing to its connexion withthe Janissaries.i It is very popular with thearmy still. The symbol of the Order is themystic girdle which is put on and off seventimes. The Darwesh in so doing, says :I tieup greediness and unbind generosity ; I tie upavarice and unbind piety ; I tie up anger andunbind meekness ; I tie up ignorance and unbindthe fear of God; I tie up passion and unbindthe love of God ; I tie up hunger and unbind(spiritual) contentment ; I tie up the influence ofSatan and unbind the influence of the Divine.The symbolical number of the Order is twelve,and so each of its communities contains twelveelders, to whom special duties are assigned. Theesoteric doctrines held by these Darweshes are acurious mixture of pantheism and materialismand are thus described, "Each human soul is aportion of divinity which exists only in man.The eternal soul, served by perishable mediums,constantly changes its dwelling without quittingthe earth. Morality consists in enjoying the goodthings of earth without injury to any one, what-ever causes no ill to a person is lawful. Thewise man is he who regulates his pleasures, forjoy is a science which has degrees, made known

1 Ante, p. 5.


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THE BAKTASHIYYA OEDER 53little by little to the initiated. Contemplation isthe best of all joys, for it belongs to the celestialvision." ^ Orthodox Muslims now look with dis-favour on this Order. This has been attributedto the influence of the Hurufi sect^ amongstthe Baktashiyya Darweshes. In 1871-2 someBaktashis published a Hurufi work which wasseverely condemned by the orthodox 'Ulama.Gibb says that the Huriifis were antinomianswho, believing themselves to be identical withGod, looked upon the moral law as not bindingupon them. He adds, " such beliefs may lead tono practical evils so long as they are confined tosaints and sages ; but when they are proclaimedopenly to all classes of society, and when, in ad-dition, the promised Paradise is declared to behere in this present world and the Houri-bridesto be none other than the beauties of earth, theflood gates of social anarchy have been flungopen. Here we have the real explanation of therelentless hostility shown towards the Hurufis."

^

This sect originally Persian is now unknown inPersia. It exists in Turkey and is strong inAlbania, where, it is said, the Baktashiyya Order

1 Rinn, "Marabouts et Khouan," p. 37.2 For an account of this curious sect, see articles by

Professor Browne, R. A. S. J., January 1898, pp. 6194 ;R. A. S. J., July 1907, pp. 53340; also Gibb, 'OttomanPoetry," \ol. I, pp. 83842 ; 353-5 ; 373.

3 Gibb, " Ottoman Poetry," vol. I, p. 387.


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54 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAMhas also eighty thousand lay members, supposedto be more or less connected with the politicaldisturbances in that region.The initiation of a Baktashiyya Darwesh is madein secret. He is deprived of nearly all his cloth-ing to show that he makes a voluntary sacrificeof the world and its wealth. With a rope roundhis neck, he is led into the assembly and, as aslave, begs the Shaikh to pardon his sin. Hethen goes through the ritual of initiation. TheShaikh whispers in his ear the secrets of the Orderwhich he is charged most solemnly never todivulge. A special sign is made known to himby which all the members of his own Zawiyah,or Takya, can recognize him.The origin of the Khilwatiyya Order is tracedto Brahimu'z-Zahid, who lived about the middle ofthe fourteenth century a.d., but it was broughtinto notice by Si Muhammadu'l-Khilwati and stillmore especially by 'Umaru'l-Khilwati, who diedin A.H. 800A.D. 1397. In Turkey and in Egypt iieis looked up as the practical founder of the Order.Influenced by the ascetic practices and the doc-trines of the Qadariyya Order, he fasted long andlived in strict retirement (khilwat). The practiceof holding " retreats " is still kept up as a customderived from the Shaikh. In the Zawiyahs ofthe Khihvatis there are a great number of cellswhere the l^rethren shut themselves up for stated


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THE KHILWATIYYA ORDER 55periods, often for forty days, in solitary seclu-sion for contemplation and prayer. The sense ofhunger, thirst and isolation disappears ; the ideaof existence vanishes, and they say their soulsare rapt in the contemplation of the Divine. ]nimagination they hear the voice of God and seethe angels who are near to him. The ultimategoal to be desired is the annihilation of individ-uality by the absorption of the individual intothe essence of God. They pray for the welfareof all Muslim people and in Turkey and in Egyptfor the State that it may be preserved from alltemporal evils.

In the eleventh century of the Hijra, a numberof the Khilwatiyya Darweshes went forth fromtheir Zawiyah in Egypt and built many monaste-ries amongst the ruined ones of Christian monks.They settled in Persia, Arabia, Khurdistan, Tur-key, Syria and Northern Africa. Many otherOrders have branched out from this one.The initiation of a neophyte is long and to himthe great merit of solitude is highly extolled. It

is said that the Prophet in speaking to 'All laidgreat stress on this habit and that, through a longline of men, this teaching of Muhammad washanded down to the Founder of the Order. TlieTradition is that one day 'All said to the Prophet," which is the shortest way to the knowledge ofGod?" He replied, "repeat daily the name


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66 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMof God in solitary places, such is the virtueattached to the invocation of the name of God."" In what position shall I make the invocation ? "" Close your eyes and say after me ' There isno god but God ' three times." 'Ali did thisand thus the sanctity of the idea of solitudecame dov^n to the Khilvs-'atiyya leaders, whoto the present day have maintained intact thedoctrines and practices of the Founders of theirOrder. They observe this solitude with all itsrigours, they keep long and exhausting fasts,they repeat the dhikr unceasingly in solitudewith a special posture of the body and head.The old Persian pantheism appears under theveil of Sufiism. The oath of allegiance to theShaikh is a strict one and is rigidly observed.Intellectual freedom is crushed out, the mindis enslaved. Such is the inward condition. Out-wardly there is systematic opposition to politicaland social progress, persecution of those whotouch, or endanger, the temporal power of theOrder which, from its wide-spread influence andthe sanctity which has gathered round it, owingto its prolonged periods of meditation in thedarkness of seclusion, is a great antagonisticelement to the cause of civilization and enlight-enment. " The very secrecy with which muchof their worship is done tends to produce in menanimated by the same passionate sentiments


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THE BAKAYIYYA ORDER 57this retrograde political spirit. They have stirredup trouble in Egypt and many of them joinedthe Mahdi in the Sudan." ^ It is largely re-cruited from pilgrims of an ascetic tendencywho come to live in the sacred cities of Meccaand Madina.The Orders more recently formed are to be

found in Timbuktu, Algiers and Morocco. Theyare, generally speaking, offshoots from the olderones, especially from the Shadhiliyya. I givesome account of the more important ones.The Bakayiyya Order has its centre in Tim-buktu. It was founded by Ahmad Bakkay, whodied in the year a.h. 960A.d. 1552. It is anoffshoot from the Shadhiliyya Order and hasmuch influence south of Morocco. It is entirelyin the hands of the Marabout family of Bakkay.In former years its members extended the religionof Islcim to bhe extreme south of the Sahara andnow the Bakkayis are in many tribes the realpolitical and spiritual rulers.The Shaikhiyya Order was founded in a.h. 1013A.D. 1604. It is named after Sid 'Abdu'l-QadirMuhammad, known as Sidi Shaikh. He was alineal descendant of the Khalifa Abii Bakr. It isnot so distinctly an Order as others are, butrather a confederation of individuals, often dis-agreeing among themselves, but united in one

1 Chatelier, " Les confreries Mnsnimanes du Hedjaz, p. 74.


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68 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMcommon bond of regard for the Sidi Shaikh, andfor the spiritual teaching of Hasan ash-Sliadhil.It is powerful in the southern part of Algeria andits influence is now more political than religi-ous. The distinguished lineage of its Founder,and the character of many of its leaders, who asMarabouts died in the odour of sanitity, havegreatly increased and maintained the reputationof the Shaikhis. At present the aims of its leadersseem to be directed less to the religious good oftheir followers, than to tlie maintaining, fortemporal and political ends, all the superstitiousnotions and practices of the Marabouts.The Karzaziyya Order was founded in a.h.1016A.D. 1607. The founder, a member of theroyal family of Morocco, had been a Muqaddimof the Shadhihyya Confraternity. He tauglit hisfollowers to reject reason as it was a guide toerror, to place absolute confidence in the Shaikh,to meet death boldly and to be ever ready tofight

in the cause of God. The leaders adoptedan ascetic life and assumed a voluntary poverty.This caused them to be held in great esteem.The Muqaddims are chosen by the members ofthe Order. It is spread over the east and southof Morocco. Shaikh TNIulai Karzaz, the founder,was a patron of the Berbers and of the nomadictribes. Ilis Zawiyah at Karzaz was an asylumfor the poor and for tliose who were oppressed


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THE TAIBIYYA ORDER 59by the warlike Tuwariq Tribes. His successorsfollow his kindly example and so tliis Order ishighly esteemed by the common people. It haskept the favour of the Sultans of Morocco andhas also maintained friendly relations witli theFrench. Its members are scattered over theSahara and the Order, if hostile, could from itshead Zawiyah, situated near to Tuat, give muchtrouble.The Taibiyya Order was founded l)y Mulai

'Abdu'llah, who died in a.h. 1090a.d. 1679. Thefirst Zawiyah erected was at Wazzan where thechiefs of the Order are buried and which is nowa place of pilgrimage. The Sultan of Moroccohoped that this Order, founded by a member ofthe royal family would be a great support to liisdynasty. The Order is named after its secondShaikh, Mulai Taib, a man of austere life, devotedto the interests of liis Confraternity. Convertswere numerous from the negroes, who becamehenceforth free from the danger of slavery. TheOrder is inclined to be political in its aims. Thedhikr is long and complicated. Such sentencesas, "I implore the mercy of God, the Almighty JI celebrate the praises of God ; O God ! give tliyblessing to our Lord Muhammad, his wives anddescendants ; There is no god ))ut God and Mu-hammad is the apostle of God" are repeated hun-dreds of times in a day. The very pious members


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60 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMof the Order make over four thousand recita-tions daily. The leaders are careful not to offendmen in authority. It is said that some Sultanshave heen affiliated to it. The neophytes swearthat they will render implicit obedience to theShaikh and obey all the rules laid down for theirguidance. Every year inspectors go forth fromWazzan to look into the affairs of the differentZdwiyahs, to strengthen the weak, to stir up thezeal of all and to collect money.The Order has cultivated friendship with theFrench, whilst still remaining devoted to the causeof Morocco. The Shaikh 'Abdu's-Salnn in 1876wished to be declared to be a citizen of Franceand was an admirer of European civilization.He married an English lady, a governess inthe family of a gentleman in the diplomaticservice, and sent his sons to be educated in aLycee at Algiers. He took no part in the opposi-tion to the entrance of the French into Tuat,or to their occupation of the surrounding country.Still, the interests of the Order with Moroccois very strong and a French writer says : " Weought not to lose sight of the possibility of enor-mous difficulties to our interest from the TaibiyyaOrder in Algiers, Senegal and Morocco, shouldits Shaikh become hostile to our authorities."They are said to be rather unfriendly, at leastin appearance, with some of tlie other Orders,


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THE HANSALIYYA ORDER 61such as the Qadiriyya, the Tijaniyya and theDarqawiyya, though this does not prevent theirworking with them when an occasion calls for it.The Hansaliyya Order was founded by Sayyidibn Yusufu'l-Hansali, a native of Morocco whodied in the year a.h. 1114a.d. 1702. It is an-other olfshoot of the Shadhiliyya confraternity.The founder was connected with a Berber family.After the pilgrimage to Mecca, he studied forawhile at the al-Azhar University in Cairo ; butthe toil and fatigue he had to undergo in his longjourney home made him forget all he had learnt.So he led an ascetic life, and spent a long timein constant devotion at a shrine of a famoussaint, with the result that his memory returnedto him and his vocation was revealed to himby God. There are many legends about themarvellous things that happened to him on hisjourney. The influence of this Order is verygreat amongst the Berbers of the Atlas Mountains,a people of an independent spirit, fanatical andwarlike. In addition to the dhikr, the Ikhwanrecite some portions of a famous poem on theninety-nine names of God. It is said that, ifthe Darwesh who recites any one of these versesis not in a state of complete moral purity, heexposes himself to the divine displeasure. Onthe next page I give a translation of a few verseson ten of the names.


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G2 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMPardoning God, I cry to Thee,Thy pardon to implore.Sovereign Lord, subdue thro' meWhoe'er subverts Thy law.

Thy glory, Glorious Being, dothJNIy feeble strength increase.Thou who humblest in the dust.Cause lying tongues to cease.

Knowledge and understanding give,0, Giver of all, to me.

Sustainer, for my sustenanceI look for ease from Thee.

The souls of all Thine enemies,Seizor of spirits, seize.

Scatterer of gifts, increase desireIn beauty's devotees.Humbler, humble Thou the powerOf all wh

Religious Order So 00 Sell u of t

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