RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND SPATIALITY IN HASMONEAN AND HERODIAN GALILEE

By
JOSEPH SCALES
A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law
University of Birmingham November 2020
University of Birmingham Research Archive
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UNIVERSITYDF BIRMINGHAM
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Abstract
In this thesis, I examine the connection between ancient Galilean perceptions of space and religious identity by drawing on literary and archaeological evidence from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. It is divided into three levels of spatial analysis: bodily, communal, and regional. Spatial construction in Galilee is informed by the ideas and contributions of spatial theorists. Some of these theorists have examined how religion and spatiality are interconnected. The first section, bodily space, examines ancient Jewish conceptions of purity, in order to address how religion and ritual were expressed in everyday life in Galilee. In this section, I have consulted a wide variety of texts, and compiled and discussed elements of Galilean material culture which relate to the bodily expression of purity conceptions. The second section, communal space, documents the development of public spaces in Galilee and in ancient Judaism more generally. The third and final section, regional space, examines how Galilee can be conceived of as a distinct region in the Levant. In particular, I focus on the relations between Galilee and Jerusalem, principally economic and religious ties to the Hasmonean dynasty, which ruled over the southern Levant during the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. My thesis utilises a variety of additional sources that document, and methodologies that have been applied to the study of, Greco-Roman history, archaeology and literature. Furthermore, I use insights from spatial theory to creatively imagine the spaces that were generated in ancient Galilee. My work considers discussions about identity formation and delineation, especially with respect to how groups are reconstructed through texts and archaeological materials. The thesis offers a more careful and nuanced understanding of identity and its relation to ancient materials than previous scholars’ approaches, whilst moving away from essentialist definitions of identity.
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1.2 Geographic and Temporal Scope of Investigation ...................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Galilee in Second Temple Period Sources .......................................................................... 6
1.2.1.1 Galilee in First Maccabees ........................................................................................... 7
1.2.1.2 Galilee in Judith ......................................................................................................... 10
1.2.1.3 Galilee in Strabo and Pliny......................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Hasmonean Expansion, Ideology of Occupation, and Influence ....................................... 23
1.2.3 Changes in the Archaeological Record from the 2nd to the 1st Century BCE ....................... 26
1.2.4 Summary of the Geographical Extent of Galilee .............................................................. 33
1.3 Defining Ancient Judaism ........................................................................................................ 36
1.3.1 Ancient Group Identity .................................................................................................... 37
1.3.1.1 Boundary Establishment, Maintenance, and Adaptation ............................................. 38
1.3.1.2 Gendered Perspectives on Group Identity................................................................... 40
1.3.1.3 Ancient Groups as Ethnic Groups .............................................................................. 42
1.3.1.4 Ancient Groups as Religious Groups and Ritual Practice ........................................... 43
1.3.2 Translating Ancient Group Terms .................................................................................... 49
1.3.3 Emic Definitions of Judaism ............................................................................................ 53
1.3.4 Etic Definitions of Judaism .............................................................................................. 55
1.3.4.1 Ancient Non-Jewish Perspectives............................................................................... 55
1.3.5 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 61
1.4.1 Spatial Theories ............................................................................................................... 65
1.4.2 Contested Spaces ............................................................................................................. 68
1.4.3.1 Bodily Space .............................................................................................................. 70
1.4.3.2 Communal Space ....................................................................................................... 72
1.4.3.3 Regional Space .......................................................................................................... 73
2. The Material Culture of Purity in Late Second Temple Period Galilee ......................................... 76
2.1 Jewish Ritual Immersion Pools ................................................................................................ 77
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2.1.2 Remains of Jewish Ritual Immersion Pools ..................................................................... 79
2.1.2.1 Development .............................................................................................................. 79
2.1.2.2 Construction .............................................................................................................. 81
2.1.2.3 Identification .............................................................................................................. 82
2.1.2.4 Dating ........................................................................................................................ 86
2.1.2.6 Sepphoris ................................................................................................................... 96
2.1.4 Literary Evidence on Ritual Bathing .............................................................................. 102
2.1.5 Ritual Immersion Pools as Spaces .................................................................................. 110
2.1.5.1 Domestic Contexts ................................................................................................... 111
2.1.5.2 Agricultural Contexts ............................................................................................... 113
2.1.5.3 Bathing Complexes .................................................................................................. 115
2.1.5.4 Military/Emergency Contexts .................................................................................. 117
2.1.5.5 Communal Structures ............................................................................................... 118
2.1.5.7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 120
2.2.2 Vessel Forms and Purposes ............................................................................................ 123
2.2.2.1 Mugs........................................................................................................................ 124
2.2.2.4 Miscellaneous Stone Objects Related to Stone Vessel Forms ................................... 127
2.2.3 Prevalence ..................................................................................................................... 128
2.2.4 Locations where Stone Vessels Have Been Found in Galilee ......................................... 129
2.2.5 Interpreting Stone Vessels ............................................................................................. 137
2.2.6 Literary Evidence Relating to Stone Vessels .................................................................. 139
2.2.7 Stone Vessels as Spatial Producers ................................................................................ 147
2.3 Ritual Immersion Pools and Stone Vessels, Space and Identity .............................................. 149
3. Purity in Late Second Temple Period Judaism ........................................................................... 154
3.1 The Body in Relation to Purity, and Purity in the Bodily Sphere ............................................ 154
3.2 Jewish Literary Sources of Purity and Body Conceptions ....................................................... 157
3.2.1 Leviticus ........................................................................................................................ 159
3.2.2 Numbers ........................................................................................................................ 161
3.2.3 Deuteronomy ................................................................................................................. 162
3.2.5 Temple Scroll(s) (11QT)................................................................................................ 164
3.2.7 Community Rule (1QS) ................................................................................................. 166
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3.2.9 Ritual of Purification (4Q414; 4Q512) ........................................................................... 168
3.2.10 Josephus and Philo ........................................................................................................ 169
3.3 Categories of (Im)Purity......................................................................................................... 170
3.3.1.1 Skin Diseases ........................................................................................................... 172
3.3.1.3 Immoral Behaviour .................................................................................................. 180
3.3.2.1 Contact with Impure Animals .................................................................................. 182
3.3.2.2 Contact with Impure Persons ................................................................................... 183
3.3.2.3 Contact with Impure Substances .............................................................................. 187
3.4 Purposes of Becoming Pure/Avoiding Impurity...................................................................... 191
3.4.2 Boundary Management in Everyday Life ....................................................................... 196
3.5 The Place of Purity in Hasmonean and Herodian Galilee ........................................................ 200
4. Jewish Communal Structures in Late Second Temple Period Galilee ......................................... 205
4.1 Issues for Interpreting Second Temple Period Communal Structures ...................................... 206
4.2 Proposed Galilean Communal Structures of the Late Second Temple Period .......................... 208
4.2.1 Capernaum .................................................................................................................... 209
4.2.2 Chorazin ........................................................................................................................ 211
4.2.5 Sepphoris....................................................................................................................... 215
4.3.1.1 Date ......................................................................................................................... 223
4.3.2.1 Date ......................................................................................................................... 240
4.3.3.1 Experiences.............................................................................................................. 246
4.4.1.1 Date ......................................................................................................................... 255
4.4.1.2 Location ................................................................................................................... 256
4.4.1.3 Layout ..................................................................................................................... 257
4.4.1.4 Capacity ................................................................................................................... 258
4.4.1.5 Decoration ............................................................................................................... 259
4.4.1.6 Usage ....................................................................................................................... 263
4.5.2 Similarity and Dissimilarity in Galilean Communal Spaces ........................................... 272
4.5.3 Were These Structures Considered Sacred Spaces? ........................................................ 273
5. Jewish Communal Structures in the Late Second Temple Period ............................................... 275
5.1 Terminology and Definition ................................................................................................... 275
5.2 Evidence from Inscriptions ..................................................................................................... 277
5.2.1 North Africa (Ptolemaic/Roman Egypt) ......................................................................... 278
5.2.2 Palestine ........................................................................................................................ 280
5.3.2 Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran Library) ............................................................................... 288
5.3.3 Philo .............................................................................................................................. 290
5.3.4 Josephus ........................................................................................................................ 296
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5.4.2 Hellenistic Period Diaspora ........................................................................................... 306
5.4.3 Hasmonean Palestine ..................................................................................................... 307
5.6 Practices Associated with Purpose-Built Jewish Communal Buildings ................................... 313
5.6.1 Reading Texts ................................................................................................................ 314
5.6.4 Prayers, Blessings and Hymns ....................................................................................... 317
5.6.5 Giving and Receiving Charity ........................................................................................ 319
5.6.6 Festival Worship............................................................................................................ 320
6. Regional Space in Galilee.......................................................................................................... 326
6.2 Archaeological Remains which Attest to Galilean Regional Space ......................................... 327
6.2.1 Local Pottery Workshops ............................................................................................... 327
6.2.2 Stone Vessels and Ritual Immersion Pools .................................................................... 329
6.3 Archaeological Remains which Attest to Connections to Jerusalem........................................ 330
6.3.1 Coinage ......................................................................................................................... 331
6.3.1.3 Aristobulus I ............................................................................................................ 337
6.3.1.4 Alexander Jannaeus ................................................................................................. 338
6.3.1.5 Matthias Antigonus .................................................................................................. 340
6.3.1.7 Herod the Great ....................................................................................................... 342
6.3.1.8 Herod Antipas .......................................................................................................... 344
6.3.2 Coins as Indicators and Enablers of Spatial Management ............................................... 346
6.3.3 Herodian Oil Lamps ...................................................................................................... 347
6.3.4 Other Connections to Jerusalem and Its Temple ............................................................. 350
6.4 Galilee as a Regional Space ................................................................................................... 352
7. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 355
8. Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 360
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Acknowledgments
I owe thanks to a great many people. I could not have asked for better supervisors. Each has gone above and beyond what I could have expected, and I will be ever grateful for their time and input. This dissertation’s strengths are due to their collective efforts and any weaknesses my failure to fully implement it.
Charlotte Hempel’s guidance has been exceptional. She has given me encouragement on the project itself, but also my many other academic exploits. Charlotte has been a guiding light from my first meeting in January 2017 and I am grateful for her support, questions and thoughts.
Karen Wenell has been an inquisitive conversation partner. I have learnt so much from her theoretical approaches to ancient texts, and she has consistently pushed my work to have a more robust framework through which to approach the evidence.
Gareth Sears who has provided support in addressing historical and archaeological questions around the thesis. Without his prompting, I would not have engaged in these materials in such a thorough manner. He has always been on hand to discuss issues and I am grateful for his ongoing feedback and thoughtful observations.
Special mention should go to two other scholars. The project began through discussions with Roland Deines. His guidance and encouragement helped begin this journey and I am grateful for the time he spent with me sketching out the basis of what would become this thesis. Secondly, Uzi Leibner for his many insights while I excavated with him at Khirbet el- ‘Eika. His careful work has been the basis upon which I have drawn many conclusions.
My thanks go to the many friends who have supported me along the way, Michael Bullock, Charles Comerford, Matthew Hama, King-Ho Leung, Jonathan Rowlands, Thomas Ruston, Timothy Sailors, Anna Shirav, Ryan Turnbull, and Simeon Whiting, each of whom have lent their time and support to me.
My thinking and writing has benefitted greatly from conversations with Yonatan Adler, James Aitken, Jennifer Andruska, Lindsey Askin, Rick Bonnie, Carly Crouch, Michael DeVries, Marieke Dhont, Lutz Doering, Sylvie Honigman, Jutta Jokiranta, Thomas Kazen, Sara Parks, Tine Rassalle, Roi Sabar, Shayna Sheinfeld, Yinon Shivtiel, Jonathan Stökl, James Tucker, Meredith Warren, and Cecilia Wassen.
I would not have completed this project without the following current and former academic staff at Birmingham and Nottingham: Richard Bell, Agata Bielik-Robson, Katherine Brown, Andrew Davies, Amy Daughton, Deryn Guest, Jon Hoover, Hugh Houghton, Tim Hutchings, Francis Knight, William Mack, Alison Milbank, Candida Moss, Thomas O-Loughlin, Maja Spener, Chris Thornhill, Tarah Van De Wiele, Wolfgang Vondey, Peter Watts and Isabell Wollaston who have supported me in many ways. I also thank Midlands4Cities and their staff for their funding and support. This programme has provided many useful opportunities that I have enjoyed throughout this project.
My writing group, Cat Quine and Ellena Lyell, without whom much of this would have been poorly explained and phrased. I am grateful to Cat, who has always been a source of strength, wisdom and guidance, modelling the academic excellence that I strive to achieve. Ellie’s close reading of my work has been fundamental for clarifying the questions I have sought to answer in this thesis. I am indebted to both of them.
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To the various staff at postgraduate offices, the library, Staff House café, and the cleaning teams at the European Research Institute and Westmere House, without whom I could not have worked efficiently and in comfortable settings for most of the project.
I am truly grateful to my examiners Thomas Kazen and Candida Moss. They each provided innumerable insights in their questions and comments. I am honoured that they each read my work so closely and wonderfully engaged in my thoughts.
Finally, to Kathryn, to whom this must be dedicated. I love and thank you. It has been
accomplished in no small part thanks to your proof reading and endless patience. “A book is never done, only abandoned” – Terry Pratchett, paraphrasing Paul Valéry.
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Abbreviations Abbreviations for series and journals follow The SBL Handbook of Style, 2nd ed. Below are abbreviations used in this work, following SBL and including additional entries. AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research
AB Anchor Bible
AcBib Academia Biblica
AJEC/AGJU Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity/Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums
AJN American Journal of Numismatics
AJSR Association for Jewish Studies Review
ANEM Ancient Near East Monographs
AS/EA Asiatische Studien / Études Asiatiques
AYBRL Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BARIS British Archaeological Reports International Series
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BCH Bulletin de correspondence hellénique
BibInt Biblical Interpretation
BJS Brown Judaic Studies
BNP Hubert Cancik, ed., Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. 22 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2002–2011.
BRLA Brill Reference Library of Judaism
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BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CEJL Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature
CHANE Culture and History of the Ancient Near East
CHJ William D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein, eds., Cambridge History of Judaism. 4 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984–2006.
CIIP Hannah M. Cotton et al., eds., Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: A Multi-Lingual Corpus of the Inscriptions from Alexander to Muhammad. 4 vols. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010–2020.
CIJ J. B. Frey, ed. Corpus inscriptionum Iudaicarum. 2 vols. Rome: Pontifico istituto di archaeologia cristiana, 1936–1952); CIJ i² is a reprint of Frey, with additions by B. Lifshitz.
CIRB Vasilii Struve, ed., Corpus inscriptionum regni bosporani. Moscow, 1965.
CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
ConBNT Coniectanea Biblica: New Testament Series
CPJ Victor A. Tcherikover et al, eds., Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum. 3 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957–1964.
CRS Cassell Religious Studies
CS Contextualizing the Sacred
CSHJ Chicago Studies in the History of Judaism
CurBR Currents in Biblical Research
DCLS Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Studies
DHR Dynamics in the History of Religions
DJD Documents from the Judean Desert
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DSD Dead Sea Discoveries
DSSR Donald Parry, Emanuel Tov and Geraldine I. Clements, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader. 2nd rev. ed. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2014.
DSSSE Florentino García Martínez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
ECL Early Christianity and Its Literature
EDEJ John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow, eds., The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.
EJL Early Judaism and Its Literature
EncJud Fred Skolnik and Michael Berenbaum, eds., Encyclopedia Judaica. 2nd ed. 22 vols. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007.
ER Lindsay Jones, ed., Encyclopedia of Religion. 2nd ed. 15 vols. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005.
ESTJ Daniel M. Gurtner and Loren T. Stuckenbruck, eds., T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism. 2 vols. London: T&T Clark, 2019–2020.
FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament
FCB Feminist Companion to the Bible
FNPCA Futures: New Perspectives for Cultural Analysis
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
HA-ESI Hadashot Arkheologiyot – Excavations and Surveys in Israel
HALOT The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm. Translated and edited under the supervision of Mervyn E. J. Richardson. 4 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994– 1999.
HCS Hellenistic Culture and Society
HdO Handbook of Oriental Studies/Handbuch der Orientalistik
HSHJ Tom Holmén and Stanley E. Porter, eds., Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus. 4 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2011.
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
HTR Harvard Theological Review
IAA Israel Antiquities Authority
IDel Félix Durrbach et al., eds., Inscriptiones de Délos. 7 vols. Paris: Champion, 1926–1972.
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
IJO David Noy et al., eds., Inscriptiones Judaicase Orientis. 3 vols. TSAJ 99, 101–102. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004.
IJSSJ Institute of Jewish Studies: Studies in Judaica
IJURR International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
INJ Israel Numismatic Journal
INR Israel Numismatic Research
JAJ Journal of Ancient Judaism
JAJSup Journal of Ancient Judaism Supplements
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JBV Journal of Beliefs and Values
JCP Jewish and Christian Perspectives
JCT Jewish and Christian Texts
JFA Journal of Field Archaeology
JHebS Journal of Hebrew Scriptures
JIGRE William Horbury and David Noy, eds., Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco- Roman Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
JIWE David Noy, ed., Jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993–1995.
JJMJS Journal of the Jesus Movement in its Jewish Setting
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JLRS Journal of Law, Religion and State
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review
JRASup Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplements
JSHJ Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus
JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods
JSJSup Journal for the Study of Judaism Supplement Series
JSNCT Jewish Studies in the Nordic Countries Today
JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series
JSocStud Jewish Social Studies
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series
JSPub Judea and Samaria Publications
JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
KMTS The Kenneth Michael Tanenbaum Series in Jewish Studies
LCL Loeb Classical Library
LNTS The Library of New Testament Studies
LSJ Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, and Henry Stuart Jones, eds. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
LSTS The Library of Second Temple Studies
MAMA W. M. Calder, E. Herzfeld, S. Guyer and C. W. M. Cox, eds., Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua. 10 vols. American Society for Archaeological Research in Asia Minor. London: Manchester University Press, 1928– 1993.
Marginalia Marginalia: Los Angeles Review of Books
MatRel Material Religion
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NEA Near Eastern Archaeology
NEAEHL Ephraim Stern, ed., The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. 4 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society & Carta; New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.
Neot Neotestamentica
NTOA/SUNT Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus/Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments
NTS New Testament Studies
OAWPHKD Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Philosophisch-Historische Klasse Denkschriften
OEBA Daniel M. Master et al., eds., The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
OGIS W. Dittenberger, ed., Orientis Graeci Inscriptions Selectae. 2 vols. Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1903–1905.
OHJDL Catherine Hezser, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
OtSt Oudtestamentische Studiën
RelSoc Religion and Society
SAPERE Scripta Antiquitatis Posterioris ad Ethicam Religionemque pertinentia
SASLJS The Samuel and Althea Stroum Lectures in Jewish Studies
SB F. Presisigke et al., eds., Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Ägypten. 18 vols. Strassburg: K. J. Trubner; Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1915– 1993.
SBFCMa Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Collectio major
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
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SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum
SIDA Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis
SJ Studia Judaica
SNTSMS Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series
ST Studia Theologica
STDJ Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah
StPB Studia Post-biblica
TA Tel Aviv
TRS Themes in Religious Studies
TSAJ Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum
VT Vetus Testamentum
WGRWSup Writings from the Greco-Roman World Supplement Series
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
ZBA Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie
ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins
ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche
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List of Figures
Figure 1 – Destroyed Sites in Galilee ................................................................................................................. 32 Figure 2 – Ritual Immersion Pool Locations in Galilee ...................................................................................... 88 Figure 3 – Magdala Bathhouse Plan, from De Luca and Lena, “Mosaic of the Thermal Bath,” 2 ..................... 115 Figure 4 – Plan of Gamla Bathhouse, from Berlin, Gamla, 136 ........................................................................ 116 Figure 5 – Photo of Gamla Bathhouse ............................................................................................................. 117 Figure 6 – Photo of Stone Mugs ...................................................................................................................... 124 Figure 7 – Photo of Stone Kraters .................................................................................................................... 126 Figure 8 – Stone Vessel Finds in Galilee ......................................................................................................... 130 Figure 9 – Capernaum 1st century CE basalt remains, from Hachlili, Ancient Synagogues, 25 .......................... 211 Figure 10 – Plans of Kh. Wadi amam structure, from Leibner, “Excavations,” 229 ....................................... 214 Figure 11 – Tel Rekhesh Site Plan, from Aviam et al., “Assembly Room,” 130 ............................................... 216 Figure 12 – Tel Rekhesh Structure Plan, from Aviam et al., “Assembly Room,” 138 ....................................... 218 Figure 13 – Gamla Spur Looking Southwest .................................................................................................... 221 Figure 14 – Gamla Plan, from Syon and Yavor, “Gamla,” 37 .......................................................................... 223 Figure 15 – Gamla Plan, from Berlin, Gamla, 3 ............................................................................................... 225 Figure 16 – Gamla Building A Plan, from Matassa, Invention, 194.................................................................. 227 Figure 17 – Gamla Area R Plan, from Syon and Yavor, “Gamla,” 47 .............................................................. 241 Figure 18…