Religiosity and Subjective Wellbeing in Christianity, Buddhism and Taoism by Ching Han Lufanna LAI Hons (Psych) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University August 2010
Religiosity and Subjective Wellbeing in Christianity, Buddhism and Taoism
Mar 22, 2023
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by
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
i
I certify that the thesis entitled: Religiosity and Subjective Wellbeing in Christianity, Buddhism and Taoism
submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
is the result of my own work and that where reference is made to the work of others, due acknowledgment is given.
I also certify that any material in the thesis which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by any university or institution is identified in the text.
Full Name......Ching Han Lufanna LAI......…………………………… …. (Please Print)
Signed ..................................................................................……………….
Date...............22 November 2010..........................................………………
DEAKIN UNIVERSITY
CANDIDATE DECLARATION
Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Robert Cummins, for his constructive feedback, continual guidance, cordial encouragement and countless hours of editing, during his supervision in the past few years. Moreover, I would like to thank my associate supervisor, Dr Janine Webb; and my research supervisor, Dr Anna Lau, for their supportive and stimulating supervision throughout my study. Thanks should also be given to the assistance rendered by the religious organizations including, the New Life Evangelical Church, the Buddhist Youth Association, Fung Ying Seen Koon and the Hong Kong Taoist Association, during the conduct of the survey. Special appreciation to Ting Yin, the priest of the Buddhist Youth Association; Leung Tak-wah, the Chief Executive Officer of Fung Ying Seen Koon; and Yeung Hon-pun, the Chief Secretary of the Hong Kong Taoist Association, for their religious teachings and/or support given in data collection. Last but not least, a note of thanks should also be conveyed to my family members and friends, who rendered invaluable assistance to me in the recruitment of sample.
i
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 2
2.1 Personal Wellbeing Index .................................................................................. 3
2.2 Normative Level of Subjective Well-Being ........................................................ 9
2.3 Subjective Well-Being Homeostasis ................................................................. 11
2.3.1 Core Affect .............................................................................................. 13
2.3.2 Revised Homeostatic Model of Subjective Well-Being .......................... 15
2.3.3 Homeostatically Protected Mood (HPMood) in Replacement of Core Affect for the Revised Homeostatic Model ......................................... 16
2.3.4 Cognitive Buffer Factors ........................................................................ 17
2.3.4.1 Self-Esteem ........................................................................................18
2.5.2 Collective Self-Esteem and Subjective Well-Being ................................ 28
2.6 Relationship between Religion and Cognitive Buffers/Subjective Well-Being ........................................................................................................................... 29
2.6.1 Buddhism ................................................................................................ 29
2.6.1.3 The Relationship between Buddhism and Cognitive Buffers/SWB ......32
2.6.1.3.1 Perceived Control ............................................................................32
2.6.2.2 Tao and Supernatural Forces ............................................................... 38
2.6.2.3 Tao and Human .................................................................................. 39
2.6.2.4 Tao as a State of Mind ........................................................................ 40
2.6.2.5 Tao as Purpose of Life ........................................................................ 42
2.6.2.6 The Relationship between Taoism and Cognitive Buffers/SWB .......... 43
2.6.2.6.1 Perceived Control ............................................................................ 43
2.6.3.2.1 God as the Lord of Life ................................................................... 50
2.6.3.2.2 The Meaning of Life ........................................................................ 51
2.6.3.2.3 Shaping of Life by God ................................................................... 53
2.6.3.2.4 Building up a Personal Relationship with God ................................. 55
2.6.3.3 The Relationship between Christianity and Cognitive Buffers/SWB .... 62
2.6.3.3.1 Perceived Control ............................................................................ 62
2.8 Religious Self-Esteem ....................................................................................... 75
2.9 Theoretical Framework for Studying the Relationship between Religion and Subjective Well-Being ...................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 3: HYPOTHESES FOR STUDY ONE .............................................. 79
CHAPTER 4: STUDY ONE METHODOLOGY ................................................. 81
4.1 Participants ...................................................................................................... 81
4.1.2 The Chinese Population in Hong Kong ................................................. 83
4.2 Measures ........................................................................................................... 85
4.3 Procedure ......................................................................................................... 88
5.2 Data Analyses ................................................................................................. 101
5.2.1 Hypothesis 1 .......................................................................................... 101
5.2.1.1 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 102
5.2.1.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Unique Contribution to SWB by S-R satisfaction and Religiosity ............................................................................... 102
5.2.1.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: S-R as a Domain of PWI ............................... 109
5.2.1.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Comparison of LAAW, SWB and 7 Life Domains between Non-Religious and Religious Respondents in Australia and Hong Kong ............................................................... 115
5.2.1.1.4 Exploratory Study 4: A Study on the Affects of Alert and Peaceful . 119
5.2.2 Hypothesis 2 .......................................................................................... 123
5.2.2.1 Hypothesis 2a: That the religious group will have higher optimism and lower non-religious self-esteem (NRSE) than the non-religious group in both Australia and Hong Kong.................................................... 123
5.2.2.2 Hypothesis 2b: That the Buddhists will have higher primary control, the Christians will have higher secondary control, and the Taoists will have higher primary and secondary control, than the non-religious group. ............................................................................................ 124
5.2.2.3 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 126
5.2.2.3.1 Exploratory Study 1: Cultural Differences in Control ..................... 126
5.2.2.3.2 Exploratory Study 2: Unique Contribution to SWB by Optimism, NRSE, Primary/Secondary Control................................................. 126
5.2.3 Hypothesis 3. ......................................................................................... 130
5.2.3.1 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 133
5.2.3.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: The Relationship between RSE and NRSE .... 133
5.2.3.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: Different Level of RSE and NRSE for Adherents of High/Low Religiosity ................................................................. 134
5.2.3.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Comparison of SWB between High and Low Religiosity...................................................................................... 136
5.2.3.1.4 Exploratory Study 4: Unique Contribution of RSE to SWB ............ 137
5.2.4 Hypothesis 4. ......................................................................................... 140
5.2.4.1 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 141
5.2.4.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Relative Contributions of CSE and NRSE to SWB for the Australian Chinese ..................................................... 141
5.2.4.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: Comparing Level of Collectivism between Australian and Hong Kong Chinese ................................................ 142
5.2.4.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Unique Contribution to SWB by CSE within the Homeostatic Model ........................................................................ 143
5.2.5 Hypothesis 5. ......................................................................................... 146
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6.1 Hypothesis 1.................................................................................................... 150
6.1.1 Exploratory Study 2: S-R as a Domain of PWI................................... 151
6.1.2 Exploratory Study 3: Comparison of LAAW, SWB and 7 Life Domains between Religious and Non-Religious Respondents in Australia and Hong Kong ......................................................................................... 151
6.1.3 Exploratory Study 4: A Study on the Affects of Alert and Peaceful ... 153
6.2 Hypothesis 2 ................................................................................................... 155
6.2.1 Hypothesis 2a ....................................................................................... 155
6.2.2 Hypothesis 2b ....................................................................................... 157
6.3 Hypothesis 3.................................................................................................... 160
6.3.1 Exploratory Study 1: The Relationship between RSE and NRSE...... 163
6.3.2 SWB of High/Low Religiosity Group .................................................. 164
6.3.3 Exploratory Study 4: Unique Contribution of RSE to SWB .............. 165
6.4 Hypothesis 4.................................................................................................... 166
6.6.1 Creation of a New Homeostatic Model of SWB .................................. 170
6.6.2 Restrictions of Using Ordinary Psychological Scales with Religious People ................................................................................................. 173
6.6.3 Distinctiveness of SWB of the Religious People .................................. 174
CHAPTER 7: STUDY ONE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................... 180
CHAPTER 8: STUDY TWO ............................................................................... 185
8.1 Background .................................................................................................... 185
9.1 Participants .................................................................................................... 189
9.2 Measures ......................................................................................................... 191
10.1.2 Factor Analysis for the Scales ............................................................ 195
10.1.3 Data Analyses...................................................................................... 200
10.2 Part 2 ............................................................................................................. 204
10.2.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Comparisons between High/Low Religiosity Christians and Non-Religious People on the 9 Affects ................... 205
10.2.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: A Comparison between the Mixed Religious and Non-Religious Group on the 9 Affects ........................................... 210
10.2.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Relative Contributions of the 9 Affects to SWB ..................................................................................................... 210
CHAPTER 11: STUDY TWO DISCUSSION ..................................................... 213
11.1 Part 1 ............................................................................................................. 213
11.2 Part 2 ............................................................................................................. 214
CHAPTER 13: STUDY THREE ......................................................................... 217
13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 217
13.2 Methodology ................................................................................................. 217
14.1 Results ........................................................................................................... 219
14.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Removal of Top Response Categories ............ 220
14.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: Further Examination of the Presence of Cultural Response Bias .................................................................................... 232
14.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Income as Covariate ....................................... 234
CHAPTER 15: STUDY THREE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............ 237
CHAPTER 16: OVERVIEW AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................ 240
16.1 Overview of Major Findings ........................................................................ 240
16.2 Limitations .................................................................................................... 249
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APPENDIX A1: CHINESE VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) .............................................................................. 278
APPENDIX A2: ENGLISH VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) .............................................................................. 282
APPENDIX A3: CHINESE VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN HONG KONG (STUDY ONE) ......................................................................................... 286
APPENDIX A4: ENGLISH VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN HONG KONG (STUDY ONE) ......................................................................................... 290
APPENDIX A5: CHINESE VERSION PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) ............................................................. 299
APPENDIX A6: ENGLISH VERSION PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) ............................................................. 300
APPENDIX A7: CHINESE VERSION PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT USED IN HONG KONG (STUDY ONE)............................................................ 301
APPENDIX A8: QUESTIONNAIRE (STUDY TWO) ...................................... 302
APPENDIX B1: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PWI (STUDY ONE) ..................................................................................................................... 307
APPENDIX B2: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR HPMOOD (STUDY ONE) ..................................................................................................... 309
APPENDIX B3: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR OPTIMISM (STUDY ONE) ..................................................................................................... 311
APPENDIX B4: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PERCEIVED CONTROL (STUDY ONE) ................................................................................. 313
APPENDIX B5(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY ONE) ..................................... 315
APPENDIX B5(ii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY ONE) ..................................... 317
APPENDIX B5(iii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY ONE) ..................................... 319
APPENDIX B6(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (RSE) (STUDY ONE) ........................................ 321
APPENDIX B6(ii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (RSE) (STUDY ONE) ........................................ 323
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APPENDIX B7(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM (CSE) (STUDY ONE) .................................... 325
APPENDIX B7(ii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM (CSE) (STUDY ONE) .................................... 328
APPENDIX B7(iii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM (CSE) (STUDY ONE) .................................... 331
APPENDIX B8: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION (STUDY ONE) .................................................................... 333
APPENDIX B9: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM (STUDY ONE) ...................................... 335
APPENDIX C(1) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR OZCC......................... 338
APPENDIX C(2) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR OZ2GC ...................... 339
APPENDIX C(3) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR HKC ........................... 340
APPENDIX C(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR HKB ......................... 341
APPENDIX C(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR HKT ........................... 342
APPENDIX C(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR OZCC ................................... 343
APPENDIX C(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR OZ2GC................................. 344
APPENDIX C(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR HKC ..................................... 345
APPENDIX C(9) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR HKB ..................................... 346
APPENDIX C(10) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR HKT ...................... 347
APPENDIX C(11) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR OZR .................................................................................. 348
APPENDIX C(12) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKR .................................................................................. 349
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APPENDIX C(13) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR OZCC ............................................................................... 350
APPENDIX C(14) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR OZ2GC ............................................................................. 351
APPENDIX C(15) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKC .................................................................................. 352
APPENDIX C(16) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKB .................................................................................. 353
APPENDIX C(17) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKT .................................................................................. 354
APPENDIX C(18) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 4 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR OZCC ................................................................ 355
APPENDIX C(19) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 4 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR OZ2GC.............................................................. 355
APPENDIX C(20) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 5 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HKC .................................................................. 355
APPENDIX C(21) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 5 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HKB .................................................................. 356
APPENDIX C(22) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 5 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HKT .................................................................. 356
APPENDIX C(23) CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RELIGIOSITY AND SWB AFTER CONTROLLING FOR S-R SATISFACTION ..................................... 357
APPENDIX C(24) : RELIGION x LOCALITY: SWB# .................................... 358
APPENDIX C(25) : RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP x EXCITED/HAPPY/CONTENT .......................................................................... 358
APPENDIX D(1) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND OPTIMISM ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED RELIGIOUS GROUP ................................................................................................................ 359
APPENDIX D(2) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND OPTIMISM ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED NON- RELIGIOUS GROUP .......................................................................................... 360
APPENDIX D(3) REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND NRSE ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED RELIGIOUS GROUP .............................................................................................................................. 361
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APPENDIX D(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND NRSE ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ................................................................................................................. 362
APPENDIX D(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED CHRISTIANITY GROUP (OZCC+OZ2GC+HKC) ................... 363
APPENDIX D(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR HKB ............................................................................................................................... 364
APPENDIX D(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR HKT ............................................................................................................................... 365
APPENDIX D(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP.......................................................... 366
APPENDIX E(1) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR OZCC ..................................................... 367
APPENDIX E(2) REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR OZ2GC ................................................... 368
APPENDIX E(3) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR HKC ....................................................... 369
APPENDIX E(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR HKB ........................................................ 370
APPENDIX E(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR HKT ........................................................ 371
APPENDIX E(6) : HIGH/LOW RSE OF CHRISTIANITY GROUP x SWB ... 372
APPENDIX E(7) : HIGH RELIGIOSITY/LOW RELIGIOSITY /NON- RELIGIOUS GROUP x SWB ............................................................................. 372
APPENDIX E(8) : HIGH RELIGIOSITY/LOW RELIGIOSITY /NON- RELIGIOUS GROUP x NRSE ............................................................................ 372
APPENDIX F(1): REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR NRSE AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IMMIGRANTS IN AUSTRALIA ................................... 373
APPENDIX F(2) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR NRSE AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE SECOND GENERATION IN AUSTRALIA .................................... 373
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APPENDIX F(3) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG ....... 374
APPENDIX F(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN AUSTRALIA ......... 375
APPENDIX F(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING NRSE AS IV) ................................................................................. 376
APPENDIX F(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING HPMOOD & OPTIMISM AS IVs) .............................................. 377
APPENDIX F(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING HPMOOD & PERCEIVED CONTROL AS IVs) ........................ 378
APPENDIX F(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING OPTIMISM & PERCEIVED CONTROL AS IVs) ..................... 379
APPENDIX G(1) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE THREE AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS OF HPMOOD ............................................................................ 380
APPENDIX G(2) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE FIVE COGNITIVE FACTORS ………………………………………………….………………………380
APPENDIX G(3) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SWB AND HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS ............................................................................................ 381
APPENDIX G(4) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN HPMOOD AND SWB AFTER CONTROLLING COGNITIVE BUFFERS ......................................... 381
APPENDIX G(5) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RELIGIOSITY AND SWB AFTER CONTROLLING COGNITIVE BUFFERS ......................................... 381
APPENDIX G(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HPMOOD AND COGNITIVE FACTORS ON SWB FOR ALL RESPONDENTS ..................... 382
APPENDIX G(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR EXPERIENTIAL INPUTS AND COGNITIVE FACTORS ON SWB FOR ALL RESPONDENTS ............ 383
APPENDIX H(1) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PWI (STUDY TWO) .................................................................................................... 384
APPENDIX H(2) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR HPMOOD (STUDY TWO) .................................................................................................... 386
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APPENDIX H(3) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR OPTIMISM (STUDY TWO) ..................................................................................................... 388
APPENDIX H(4) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PERCEIVED CONTROL (STUDY TWO)......................................................... 390
APPENDIX H(5)(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY TWO) .................................... 392
APPENDIX H(5)(ii): THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY TWO) .................................... 395
APPENDIX H(6) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (RSE) (STUDY TWO) ....................................... 397
APPENDIX H(7) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR CHRISTIANITY SECONDARY CONTROL (VICARIOUS & INTERPRETIVE CONTROL) (STUDY TWO) ............................................................................... 399
APPENDIX I(1) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE LOW RELIGIOSITY CHRISTIANS AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP 401
APPENDIX I(2) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE MIXED RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ......................... 402
APPENDIX I(3) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE HIGH RELIGIOSITY INDIVIDUALS OF THE MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ........................................................ 403
APPENDIX I(4) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE LOW RELIGIOSITY INDIVIDUALS OF THE MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ........................................................ 404
APPENDIX I(5) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE HIGH/LOW RELIGIOSITY INDIVIDUALS OF THE MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP .......................................................................................... 405
APPENDIX I(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP............................. 406
APPENDIX I(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR CHRISTIANITY GROUP AS A WHOLE ...... 406
APPENDIX I(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HIGH RELIGIOSITY CHRISTIANS ............. 407
APPENDIX I(9): REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR LOW RELIGIOSITY CHRISTIANS .............. 407
APPENDIX I(10) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP ........................ 408
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INDEX OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The Homeostatic Model of SWB (adapted from Mellor, Cummins,
Karlinski & Storer, 2003) ....................................................................... 12 Figure 2. A Circumplex Representation of Core Affect (Russell, 2003) ................. 14 Figure 3. A Circumplex Representation of 31 Affective Descriptors (Davern &
Cummins, 2006)..................................................................................... 14 Figure 4. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB .............................................. 16 Figure 5. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB (After Replacing Core Affect
with HPMood) ....................................................................................... 17 Figure 6. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB Incorporating RSE and NRSE 78 Figure 7. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB Incorporating RSE and CSE .171 Figure 8. A Circumplex Representation of the Affective Adjectives to be Measured in
Study Two (adapted from Davern & Cummins, 2006) ...........................187 Figure 9. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong Kong
Chinese x SWB (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ...................................................222 Figure 10. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Standard of Living (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) .....................226 Figure 11. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Health (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ........................................226 Figure 12. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Achievement (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ..............................227 Figure 13. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Relationships (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) .............................227 Figure 14. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Safety (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ........................................228 Figure 15. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Community-Connectedness (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ........228 Figure 16. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Future Security (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ..........................229 Figure 17. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Spirituality-Religion (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ..................229 Figure 18. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x LAAW (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) .......................................232 Figure 19. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x SWB x Income (Low, Medium, High) .........................236
xiii
INDEX OF TABLES
Table 1: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for Perceived Control Items...... 91 Table 2: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for Perceived Control
Items ........................................................................................................ 91 Table 3: Varimax Rotation of Three Factor Solution for NRSE Items ..................... 92 Table 4: Varimax Rotation of Three Factor Solution For NRSE Items..................... 92 Table 5: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution For NRSE Items ....................... 93 Table 6: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for NRSE Items ...... 93 Table 7: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for RSE Items .......................... 94 Table 8: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for RSE Items .......................... 94 Table 9: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for RSE Items ......... 95 Table 10: Varimax Rotation of Four Factor Solution for CSE Items ........................ 96 Table 11: Varimax Rotation of Three Factor Solution for CSE Items ...................... 97 Table 12: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for CSE Items ........................ 98 Table 13: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for CSE Items ....... 99 Table 14: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for I-C Items ........................ 100 Table 15: Correlations between Religiosity, S-R Satisfaction and SWB ................ 101 Table 16: Religious Groups in Australia and Hong Kong…
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
i
I certify that the thesis entitled: Religiosity and Subjective Wellbeing in Christianity, Buddhism and Taoism
submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
is the result of my own work and that where reference is made to the work of others, due acknowledgment is given.
I also certify that any material in the thesis which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by any university or institution is identified in the text.
Full Name......Ching Han Lufanna LAI......…………………………… …. (Please Print)
Signed ..................................................................................……………….
Date...............22 November 2010..........................................………………
DEAKIN UNIVERSITY
CANDIDATE DECLARATION
Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Robert Cummins, for his constructive feedback, continual guidance, cordial encouragement and countless hours of editing, during his supervision in the past few years. Moreover, I would like to thank my associate supervisor, Dr Janine Webb; and my research supervisor, Dr Anna Lau, for their supportive and stimulating supervision throughout my study. Thanks should also be given to the assistance rendered by the religious organizations including, the New Life Evangelical Church, the Buddhist Youth Association, Fung Ying Seen Koon and the Hong Kong Taoist Association, during the conduct of the survey. Special appreciation to Ting Yin, the priest of the Buddhist Youth Association; Leung Tak-wah, the Chief Executive Officer of Fung Ying Seen Koon; and Yeung Hon-pun, the Chief Secretary of the Hong Kong Taoist Association, for their religious teachings and/or support given in data collection. Last but not least, a note of thanks should also be conveyed to my family members and friends, who rendered invaluable assistance to me in the recruitment of sample.
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1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 2
2.1 Personal Wellbeing Index .................................................................................. 3
2.2 Normative Level of Subjective Well-Being ........................................................ 9
2.3 Subjective Well-Being Homeostasis ................................................................. 11
2.3.1 Core Affect .............................................................................................. 13
2.3.2 Revised Homeostatic Model of Subjective Well-Being .......................... 15
2.3.3 Homeostatically Protected Mood (HPMood) in Replacement of Core Affect for the Revised Homeostatic Model ......................................... 16
2.3.4 Cognitive Buffer Factors ........................................................................ 17
2.3.4.1 Self-Esteem ........................................................................................18
2.5.2 Collective Self-Esteem and Subjective Well-Being ................................ 28
2.6 Relationship between Religion and Cognitive Buffers/Subjective Well-Being ........................................................................................................................... 29
2.6.1 Buddhism ................................................................................................ 29
2.6.1.3 The Relationship between Buddhism and Cognitive Buffers/SWB ......32
2.6.1.3.1 Perceived Control ............................................................................32
2.6.2.2 Tao and Supernatural Forces ............................................................... 38
2.6.2.3 Tao and Human .................................................................................. 39
2.6.2.4 Tao as a State of Mind ........................................................................ 40
2.6.2.5 Tao as Purpose of Life ........................................................................ 42
2.6.2.6 The Relationship between Taoism and Cognitive Buffers/SWB .......... 43
2.6.2.6.1 Perceived Control ............................................................................ 43
2.6.3.2.1 God as the Lord of Life ................................................................... 50
2.6.3.2.2 The Meaning of Life ........................................................................ 51
2.6.3.2.3 Shaping of Life by God ................................................................... 53
2.6.3.2.4 Building up a Personal Relationship with God ................................. 55
2.6.3.3 The Relationship between Christianity and Cognitive Buffers/SWB .... 62
2.6.3.3.1 Perceived Control ............................................................................ 62
2.8 Religious Self-Esteem ....................................................................................... 75
2.9 Theoretical Framework for Studying the Relationship between Religion and Subjective Well-Being ...................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 3: HYPOTHESES FOR STUDY ONE .............................................. 79
CHAPTER 4: STUDY ONE METHODOLOGY ................................................. 81
4.1 Participants ...................................................................................................... 81
4.1.2 The Chinese Population in Hong Kong ................................................. 83
4.2 Measures ........................................................................................................... 85
4.3 Procedure ......................................................................................................... 88
5.2 Data Analyses ................................................................................................. 101
5.2.1 Hypothesis 1 .......................................................................................... 101
5.2.1.1 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 102
5.2.1.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Unique Contribution to SWB by S-R satisfaction and Religiosity ............................................................................... 102
5.2.1.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: S-R as a Domain of PWI ............................... 109
5.2.1.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Comparison of LAAW, SWB and 7 Life Domains between Non-Religious and Religious Respondents in Australia and Hong Kong ............................................................... 115
5.2.1.1.4 Exploratory Study 4: A Study on the Affects of Alert and Peaceful . 119
5.2.2 Hypothesis 2 .......................................................................................... 123
5.2.2.1 Hypothesis 2a: That the religious group will have higher optimism and lower non-religious self-esteem (NRSE) than the non-religious group in both Australia and Hong Kong.................................................... 123
5.2.2.2 Hypothesis 2b: That the Buddhists will have higher primary control, the Christians will have higher secondary control, and the Taoists will have higher primary and secondary control, than the non-religious group. ............................................................................................ 124
5.2.2.3 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 126
5.2.2.3.1 Exploratory Study 1: Cultural Differences in Control ..................... 126
5.2.2.3.2 Exploratory Study 2: Unique Contribution to SWB by Optimism, NRSE, Primary/Secondary Control................................................. 126
5.2.3 Hypothesis 3. ......................................................................................... 130
5.2.3.1 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 133
5.2.3.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: The Relationship between RSE and NRSE .... 133
5.2.3.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: Different Level of RSE and NRSE for Adherents of High/Low Religiosity ................................................................. 134
5.2.3.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Comparison of SWB between High and Low Religiosity...................................................................................... 136
5.2.3.1.4 Exploratory Study 4: Unique Contribution of RSE to SWB ............ 137
5.2.4 Hypothesis 4. ......................................................................................... 140
5.2.4.1 Exploratory Studies .......................................................................... 141
5.2.4.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Relative Contributions of CSE and NRSE to SWB for the Australian Chinese ..................................................... 141
5.2.4.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: Comparing Level of Collectivism between Australian and Hong Kong Chinese ................................................ 142
5.2.4.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Unique Contribution to SWB by CSE within the Homeostatic Model ........................................................................ 143
5.2.5 Hypothesis 5. ......................................................................................... 146
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6.1 Hypothesis 1.................................................................................................... 150
6.1.1 Exploratory Study 2: S-R as a Domain of PWI................................... 151
6.1.2 Exploratory Study 3: Comparison of LAAW, SWB and 7 Life Domains between Religious and Non-Religious Respondents in Australia and Hong Kong ......................................................................................... 151
6.1.3 Exploratory Study 4: A Study on the Affects of Alert and Peaceful ... 153
6.2 Hypothesis 2 ................................................................................................... 155
6.2.1 Hypothesis 2a ....................................................................................... 155
6.2.2 Hypothesis 2b ....................................................................................... 157
6.3 Hypothesis 3.................................................................................................... 160
6.3.1 Exploratory Study 1: The Relationship between RSE and NRSE...... 163
6.3.2 SWB of High/Low Religiosity Group .................................................. 164
6.3.3 Exploratory Study 4: Unique Contribution of RSE to SWB .............. 165
6.4 Hypothesis 4.................................................................................................... 166
6.6.1 Creation of a New Homeostatic Model of SWB .................................. 170
6.6.2 Restrictions of Using Ordinary Psychological Scales with Religious People ................................................................................................. 173
6.6.3 Distinctiveness of SWB of the Religious People .................................. 174
CHAPTER 7: STUDY ONE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................... 180
CHAPTER 8: STUDY TWO ............................................................................... 185
8.1 Background .................................................................................................... 185
9.1 Participants .................................................................................................... 189
9.2 Measures ......................................................................................................... 191
10.1.2 Factor Analysis for the Scales ............................................................ 195
10.1.3 Data Analyses...................................................................................... 200
10.2 Part 2 ............................................................................................................. 204
10.2.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Comparisons between High/Low Religiosity Christians and Non-Religious People on the 9 Affects ................... 205
10.2.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: A Comparison between the Mixed Religious and Non-Religious Group on the 9 Affects ........................................... 210
10.2.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Relative Contributions of the 9 Affects to SWB ..................................................................................................... 210
CHAPTER 11: STUDY TWO DISCUSSION ..................................................... 213
11.1 Part 1 ............................................................................................................. 213
11.2 Part 2 ............................................................................................................. 214
CHAPTER 13: STUDY THREE ......................................................................... 217
13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 217
13.2 Methodology ................................................................................................. 217
14.1 Results ........................................................................................................... 219
14.1.1 Exploratory Study 1: Removal of Top Response Categories ............ 220
14.1.2 Exploratory Study 2: Further Examination of the Presence of Cultural Response Bias .................................................................................... 232
14.1.3 Exploratory Study 3: Income as Covariate ....................................... 234
CHAPTER 15: STUDY THREE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............ 237
CHAPTER 16: OVERVIEW AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................ 240
16.1 Overview of Major Findings ........................................................................ 240
16.2 Limitations .................................................................................................... 249
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APPENDIX A1: CHINESE VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) .............................................................................. 278
APPENDIX A2: ENGLISH VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) .............................................................................. 282
APPENDIX A3: CHINESE VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN HONG KONG (STUDY ONE) ......................................................................................... 286
APPENDIX A4: ENGLISH VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN HONG KONG (STUDY ONE) ......................................................................................... 290
APPENDIX A5: CHINESE VERSION PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) ............................................................. 299
APPENDIX A6: ENGLISH VERSION PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT USED IN AUSTRALIA (STUDY ONE) ............................................................. 300
APPENDIX A7: CHINESE VERSION PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT USED IN HONG KONG (STUDY ONE)............................................................ 301
APPENDIX A8: QUESTIONNAIRE (STUDY TWO) ...................................... 302
APPENDIX B1: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PWI (STUDY ONE) ..................................................................................................................... 307
APPENDIX B2: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR HPMOOD (STUDY ONE) ..................................................................................................... 309
APPENDIX B3: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR OPTIMISM (STUDY ONE) ..................................................................................................... 311
APPENDIX B4: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PERCEIVED CONTROL (STUDY ONE) ................................................................................. 313
APPENDIX B5(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY ONE) ..................................... 315
APPENDIX B5(ii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY ONE) ..................................... 317
APPENDIX B5(iii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY ONE) ..................................... 319
APPENDIX B6(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (RSE) (STUDY ONE) ........................................ 321
APPENDIX B6(ii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (RSE) (STUDY ONE) ........................................ 323
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APPENDIX B7(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM (CSE) (STUDY ONE) .................................... 325
APPENDIX B7(ii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM (CSE) (STUDY ONE) .................................... 328
APPENDIX B7(iii) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM (CSE) (STUDY ONE) .................................... 331
APPENDIX B8: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION (STUDY ONE) .................................................................... 333
APPENDIX B9: THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM (STUDY ONE) ...................................... 335
APPENDIX C(1) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR OZCC......................... 338
APPENDIX C(2) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR OZ2GC ...................... 339
APPENDIX C(3) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR HKC ........................... 340
APPENDIX C(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR HKB ......................... 341
APPENDIX C(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND S-R SATISFACTION ON SWB FOR HKT ........................... 342
APPENDIX C(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR OZCC ................................... 343
APPENDIX C(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR OZ2GC................................. 344
APPENDIX C(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR HKC ..................................... 345
APPENDIX C(9) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR HKB ..................................... 346
APPENDIX C(10) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RELIGIOSITY ON SWB FOR HKT ...................... 347
APPENDIX C(11) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR OZR .................................................................................. 348
APPENDIX C(12) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKR .................................................................................. 349
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APPENDIX C(13) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR OZCC ............................................................................... 350
APPENDIX C(14) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR OZ2GC ............................................................................. 351
APPENDIX C(15) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKC .................................................................................. 352
APPENDIX C(16) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKB .................................................................................. 353
APPENDIX C(17) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 7 LIFE DOMAINS AND S-R ON LAAW FOR HKT .................................................................................. 354
APPENDIX C(18) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 4 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR OZCC ................................................................ 355
APPENDIX C(19) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 4 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR OZ2GC.............................................................. 355
APPENDIX C(20) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 5 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HKC .................................................................. 355
APPENDIX C(21) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 5 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HKB .................................................................. 356
APPENDIX C(22) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 5 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HKT .................................................................. 356
APPENDIX C(23) CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RELIGIOSITY AND SWB AFTER CONTROLLING FOR S-R SATISFACTION ..................................... 357
APPENDIX C(24) : RELIGION x LOCALITY: SWB# .................................... 358
APPENDIX C(25) : RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP x EXCITED/HAPPY/CONTENT .......................................................................... 358
APPENDIX D(1) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND OPTIMISM ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED RELIGIOUS GROUP ................................................................................................................ 359
APPENDIX D(2) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND OPTIMISM ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED NON- RELIGIOUS GROUP .......................................................................................... 360
APPENDIX D(3) REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND NRSE ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED RELIGIOUS GROUP .............................................................................................................................. 361
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APPENDIX D(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND NRSE ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ................................................................................................................. 362
APPENDIX D(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED CHRISTIANITY GROUP (OZCC+OZ2GC+HKC) ................... 363
APPENDIX D(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR HKB ............................................................................................................................... 364
APPENDIX D(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR HKT ............................................................................................................................... 365
APPENDIX D(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND PRIMARY/SECONDARY CONTROL ON SWB FOR THE COMBINED NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP.......................................................... 366
APPENDIX E(1) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR OZCC ..................................................... 367
APPENDIX E(2) REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR OZ2GC ................................................... 368
APPENDIX E(3) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR HKC ....................................................... 369
APPENDIX E(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR HKB ........................................................ 370
APPENDIX E(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND RSE ON SWB FOR HKT ........................................................ 371
APPENDIX E(6) : HIGH/LOW RSE OF CHRISTIANITY GROUP x SWB ... 372
APPENDIX E(7) : HIGH RELIGIOSITY/LOW RELIGIOSITY /NON- RELIGIOUS GROUP x SWB ............................................................................. 372
APPENDIX E(8) : HIGH RELIGIOSITY/LOW RELIGIOSITY /NON- RELIGIOUS GROUP x NRSE ............................................................................ 372
APPENDIX F(1): REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR NRSE AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IMMIGRANTS IN AUSTRALIA ................................... 373
APPENDIX F(2) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR NRSE AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE SECOND GENERATION IN AUSTRALIA .................................... 373
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APPENDIX F(3) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG ....... 374
APPENDIX F(4) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN AUSTRALIA ......... 375
APPENDIX F(5) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING NRSE AS IV) ................................................................................. 376
APPENDIX F(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING HPMOOD & OPTIMISM AS IVs) .............................................. 377
APPENDIX F(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING HPMOOD & PERCEIVED CONTROL AS IVs) ........................ 378
APPENDIX F(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS AND CSE ON SWB FOR THE CHINESE IN HONG KONG (OMITTING OPTIMISM & PERCEIVED CONTROL AS IVs) ..................... 379
APPENDIX G(1) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE THREE AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS OF HPMOOD ............................................................................ 380
APPENDIX G(2) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE FIVE COGNITIVE FACTORS ………………………………………………….………………………380
APPENDIX G(3) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SWB AND HOMEOSTATIC MODEL FACTORS ............................................................................................ 381
APPENDIX G(4) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN HPMOOD AND SWB AFTER CONTROLLING COGNITIVE BUFFERS ......................................... 381
APPENDIX G(5) : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN RELIGIOSITY AND SWB AFTER CONTROLLING COGNITIVE BUFFERS ......................................... 381
APPENDIX G(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR HPMOOD AND COGNITIVE FACTORS ON SWB FOR ALL RESPONDENTS ..................... 382
APPENDIX G(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR EXPERIENTIAL INPUTS AND COGNITIVE FACTORS ON SWB FOR ALL RESPONDENTS ............ 383
APPENDIX H(1) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PWI (STUDY TWO) .................................................................................................... 384
APPENDIX H(2) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR HPMOOD (STUDY TWO) .................................................................................................... 386
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APPENDIX H(3) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR OPTIMISM (STUDY TWO) ..................................................................................................... 388
APPENDIX H(4) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR PERCEIVED CONTROL (STUDY TWO)......................................................... 390
APPENDIX H(5)(i) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY TWO) .................................... 392
APPENDIX H(5)(ii): THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR NON- RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (NRSE) (STUDY TWO) .................................... 395
APPENDIX H(6) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR RELIGIOUS SELF-ESTEEM (RSE) (STUDY TWO) ....................................... 397
APPENDIX H(7) : THE RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS FOR CHRISTIANITY SECONDARY CONTROL (VICARIOUS & INTERPRETIVE CONTROL) (STUDY TWO) ............................................................................... 399
APPENDIX I(1) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE LOW RELIGIOSITY CHRISTIANS AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP 401
APPENDIX I(2) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE MIXED RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ......................... 402
APPENDIX I(3) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE HIGH RELIGIOSITY INDIVIDUALS OF THE MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ........................................................ 403
APPENDIX I(4) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE LOW RELIGIOSITY INDIVIDUALS OF THE MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP AND NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP ........................................................ 404
APPENDIX I(5) : MANOVA ANALYSES ON THE 9 AFFECT ITEMS FOR THE HIGH/LOW RELIGIOSITY INDIVIDUALS OF THE MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP .......................................................................................... 405
APPENDIX I(6) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR NON-RELIGIOUS GROUP............................. 406
APPENDIX I(7) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR CHRISTIANITY GROUP AS A WHOLE ...... 406
APPENDIX I(8) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR HIGH RELIGIOSITY CHRISTIANS ............. 407
APPENDIX I(9): REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR LOW RELIGIOSITY CHRISTIANS .............. 407
APPENDIX I(10) : REGRESSION ANALYSES FOR 9 AFFECTIVE PREDICTORS ON SWB FOR MIXED RELIGIOUS GROUP ........................ 408
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INDEX OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The Homeostatic Model of SWB (adapted from Mellor, Cummins,
Karlinski & Storer, 2003) ....................................................................... 12 Figure 2. A Circumplex Representation of Core Affect (Russell, 2003) ................. 14 Figure 3. A Circumplex Representation of 31 Affective Descriptors (Davern &
Cummins, 2006)..................................................................................... 14 Figure 4. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB .............................................. 16 Figure 5. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB (After Replacing Core Affect
with HPMood) ....................................................................................... 17 Figure 6. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB Incorporating RSE and NRSE 78 Figure 7. The Revised Homeostatic Model of SWB Incorporating RSE and CSE .171 Figure 8. A Circumplex Representation of the Affective Adjectives to be Measured in
Study Two (adapted from Davern & Cummins, 2006) ...........................187 Figure 9. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong Kong
Chinese x SWB (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ...................................................222 Figure 10. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Standard of Living (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) .....................226 Figure 11. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Health (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ........................................226 Figure 12. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Achievement (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ..............................227 Figure 13. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Relationships (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) .............................227 Figure 14. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Safety (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ........................................228 Figure 15. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Community-Connectedness (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ........228 Figure 16. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Future Security (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ..........................229 Figure 17. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x Spirituality-Religion (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) ..................229 Figure 18. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x LAAW (Full, ≤94, ≤89, ≤79) .......................................232 Figure 19. Australians/Second Generation/Australian Chinese Immigrants/Hong
Kong Chinese x SWB x Income (Low, Medium, High) .........................236
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INDEX OF TABLES
Table 1: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for Perceived Control Items...... 91 Table 2: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for Perceived Control
Items ........................................................................................................ 91 Table 3: Varimax Rotation of Three Factor Solution for NRSE Items ..................... 92 Table 4: Varimax Rotation of Three Factor Solution For NRSE Items..................... 92 Table 5: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution For NRSE Items ....................... 93 Table 6: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for NRSE Items ...... 93 Table 7: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for RSE Items .......................... 94 Table 8: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for RSE Items .......................... 94 Table 9: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for RSE Items ......... 95 Table 10: Varimax Rotation of Four Factor Solution for CSE Items ........................ 96 Table 11: Varimax Rotation of Three Factor Solution for CSE Items ...................... 97 Table 12: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for CSE Items ........................ 98 Table 13: Total Variance Explained by the Two Factor Solution for CSE Items ....... 99 Table 14: Varimax Rotation of Two Factor Solution for I-C Items ........................ 100 Table 15: Correlations between Religiosity, S-R Satisfaction and SWB ................ 101 Table 16: Religious Groups in Australia and Hong Kong…
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