Religions Before Christianity - Forgotten Books

RELIGIONS BEFORE CHRISTIANITY.

A MA N UA L F O R S UN DA Y S C H O O L S .

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B O S T O N

UN I T A R I A N S UN DA Y S C H O O L S O C I E T Y ,

7 T R E MO N T PL A C E .

1884.

Copyright, 1883,

B Y T H E UN I T A R I A N S UN DA Y -S C H OOL SOC I E T Y .

1

I N T H E ex tremely limited space O ff ered by this manual ,

it has been thought best to attempt to give general

principles rather than details of fact. T hose religions

have been chosen for presentationwhich adapt them

selves most readily to this treatment, or the names of

which are most familiar. T he H ebrew religion is not

included,as it has already beenpresented in this series

of manuals. Mohammedanism is ex cluded by the plan

and title of the work .

i

T eachers can add much to the

interest of the study

.

by presenting such details inregard

to each religionas they may judge ex pedient .

I t will be observed that there are two kinds of $ues

tions. T hose that are printed inthe longer lines and in

the larger type have always answers in the paragraphs

to which they refer. T he others are more general in

their nature . T o these, no answer is given, though one

is sometimes suggested. T he object of these is to lead

the pupil to regard the re ligionas a real thing, and thus

to prevent the study from being a.mere aff air of memory.

O f course, they are not to be used mechanically. T hey

4 PR EFAC E .

are designed to suggest conversation between teacher

and pupils.

few references are added to such English books as

it is thought might either be most helpful or most

available . I have to thank the R ev. H . G . Spaulding,

S ecretary of the S unday S chool Society, for valuable help

inpreparing this list.

C AMB R I DGE , May, 1883.

II.

III .

IV.

V.

VI .

VII .

VIII .

IX.

C O N T E N T S .

T H E E A R LIE ST R E LIGIO N ,

A NC IE NT A R Y A N R E LIGIO N ,

T H E H INDU R E LIGIO N ,

B UDDHISM ,

T H E R E LIGIO N O F T H E PA R SE E S ,

T H E R OMA N A N D T H E G R E E K R E LIGIO NS,

T H E R E LIGIO N O F E GY PT,

T H E R E LIGIO NS O F C HINA ,

C ON C L U S ION : C O MPA R I SON O F T HE SE RE L IG IO N S WITH

O N E A NO THE R A N D WITH C HR ISTIA N ITY ,

B O O KS F O R R E F E R E NC E ,

RELIGIONS BEFORE CHRISTIANITY .

T H E E AR LIE ST RELIG IO N .

I . T Ize earliest f orm of rel igioncannot be known. T he earliest peoples keptno record . T he earliest remains of humanworkmanship that are found represent a period already com

paratively late in the history of man; and even these do notconvey the precise informationwhich we requ ire.2. T li e rel igi ons of savage races now ex isting may perhapsteach us something inregard to the earliest form of religion.

Many O f these races, however, have evidently fallen from asomewhat higher condition, and inregard to none of them canwe know through what C hanges i t has passed . While we gainwhat information we can from the study of the religionofsavages, we must remember how very imperfect are the resultsthus obtained, so far as our knowledge of the earliest religionis concerned.

3. N o people absolutely w itlzont religion has probably yetbeen found ; although insome degraded tribes the religionis

O ftenhardly worthy of the name.

4. F our elements enter into the religion of the savage,viz. : fetichism,

nature-worship , and the worship of the spiritsO f the dead . T here is also a more or less distinct recognitionof spiritual beings that cannot be identified by us with theObjects O f any one of the forms of worship just named .

5 . F etielzisnz ana’ natnre-worslzio grow out of the fact thatthe savage believes ingeneral that the Objects about him aresomething like himself ; that is, he believes that they have

8 RE LIGIONS BEFOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

thought and feeling, only they O ften possess much greaterpower thanhe has.

6. Infitic/zzisrn, some O bject is selected by accident orcaprice. T he worshiper sometimes distingu ishes i t by artificial marks. He thinks that this Object is a divini ty that wi llbring him good fortune . I f he succeeds inhis enterprise , hehonors i t. If he fails, he punishes

.

i t, or throws it away.

Some savages have great numbers of these fetiches.

7. I nnature-worslzio, the object is selected for more spe

cial reasons thanthe fetich . I t is something that is imposingby size or strength or usefulness, or evenby its destructivepower. I t may be something merely that has beenassociatedwith good or evil fortune . T hus, it may be a mountainor ariver, or aninsect or a wi ld beast.8. T lze worslzioof tlze spirits of the dead holds animportantplace in the religionO f most savages. T his worship is O ftennothing more thananattempt to propitiate the spirits that arefeared .

9 . Tbe ex i stence of Me sou l is firmly believed by the savage .He thinks that the soul, eveninthis l ife, may be sometimesindependent of the body. He beli eves that the soul may leavethe body insleep. Whenhe has dreamed of a distant place,he believes that his soul has really beenthere . Whenhe hasdreamed of a person, l iving or dead, he thinks that the sou l ofthis personhas actually visited him. T his soul, he sometimesidentifies with his shadow,

or with the reflectionof himself ina mirror, or with any representationO f himself. For th is reason, the savage is generally unwill ing to have his picture taken.

\Vhoever has his picture, he believes has some power overhimself.I O . I nMe worslzip of spirits ingeneral, those that work evi l

O ftenrece ive more attention than those that are more kindlydisposed. T he former need to be propitiated ; the latter donot.

I I . T ite clzicf and most commonmethods of worship are

prayers for what is wanted, and O fferings. T he latter includewhat the Spirits are supposed to value the most. T O the dead

THE EAR LIEST R ELIGION . 9

are giventhe articles that they are supposed to need inthenew life. Much important knowledge of the habits of earlypeoples is gathered from objects found intombs or other resting-places O f the dead. Attendants, and evenwives, are sometimes Slainthat they may accompany the spirit of the deadC hief. E specially are O ff erings O f food universal . What thespi rits of the dead are supposed to enjoy, other spirits and thedivinities ingeneral are also supposed to prize . T he earliestform O f sacrifice is thus the O ffering of gifts. If animals areslain, it is that they may serve the divinity for food.

1 2 . me savage may seem very f ool islz to us, whenhe honors,as divine, stones, trees, and beasts,— things so much lowerthanhimself. B ut we must remember how very little he knowsabout the world. He does, however, feel that there is abouthim a power which is different from any strength that he has,and which is greater thanhis strength . He feels himself atthe mercy of this power. He has not learned to trust it.

I3. Tbe obj ects about lzim do wonderf ul tbz'

ngs w itlzout

organs such as he has. H ow rapidly the snake moves withoutlimbs $ H ow the animals understand one another wi thoutspeech $ H ow they guide themselves through regions that arestrange to them $ H ow they foresee coming changes $ H ow theriver brings to him so much that he needs $ He believes, aswe have seen, that everything has a consciousness like hisown; and whatever works thus w i thout instruments seems tohim supernatural or divine.14. H is notions about tbe sou l may seem absurd. B ut i t is

much that he has found something inhimself which cansay,

I and me, which is not the body, though it is closely connectedwith the body.

I 5 . H e sometimes means inkindness what seems to us verycruel . What canseemmore cruel than to kill those who aregrowing O ld, as if to escape the burden O f them. B ut thesavage O ftenbelieves that he enters the nex t world inthe stateinwhich he leaves this. If his body is strong whenhe dies,his spirit wi ll be strong after death . T hus he wishes to bekilled before the infirmities of age have come uponhim.

R ELIGIONS BEFOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

1 6. Tbe rel ig ionof the savage is of a very low sort ; and heis oftenreally cruel . T his religion, however, is the beginningof something that is to be the great glory of life. I t is alreadya great step to feel the sense O f aninvisible power, evenif oneonly fears i t.1 7. Tbe religionof tbe savage is superstition; because, whilehe recognizes a supernatural power, he does not know what itreally is. T his power is to him something chiefly to be feared

,

or something that canbe made anally. He does not knowthat it has ends of its own. T hat which is beautiful does notreveal i t to him, more thanthat which is ugly. E venthe rainbow he sometimes believes to be a demon.

I 8. W/zen man knows tlzat tbis power, before which the

savage Shrinks, is j ust and good, and that it would have menalso become just and good, then supersti tion has becomereligion.

QUESTIONS .

1 . I s it possible to discover what was the earliest form of

religion? Why not?

What is the earliest thing that you remember inyour ownl ife ? C anyou remember how you first showed your love for

your mother or other friends? C anyou remember how you

showed that you knew that you had friends ormother? C an

you illustrate by this the way inwhich the race of menhaveforgottentheir earliest history ?

2. What is the best means we have of getting any knowledgeof the earliest religion? Why is this means not wholly satisfactory ?

I f you cannot remember how you felt and acted whenyouwere a baby, how do you know anything about it ? Whatreasonhave you to think that you did not always walk andtalk ? C anyou find out inthis way ex actly what you used todo? Why not ?

3. I s there probably any people wholly without religion? I s

the religionalways what we should easily recognize as such ?

THE EARL IEST R ELIGION . I $

C anyou think of any other matters inregard to which wecannot judge others by our standards? T hink of some games

or other amusements that would not seem such to you . D id

you ever hear what the H indus think of the English dancingand out-of -door games ? S o maynot some people find religious

meaning inceremonies that we should think very unrel igious?

4. What three elements enter into the religionof savages?

5 . What feeling is the source of fetichism and natureworship

Do you ever have a similar feel ing toward lifeless objects ?Did you never get angry with a stone that you stumbledover? S hould you have beenangry, if you had thought thatit was merely a stone ? Does every l ittle girl always re

member that her doll cannot love her, and cannot feel if shepunishes it ? H ow does the sailor sometimes feel towards hisship

6. What is meant by fetichism?

7. What is meant by nature-worship?

D id you ever know any one to believe inunlucky times, anyone, for instance, who would not beginanything on F riday ?D id you ever know any one to believe in lucky or unluckythings ? H ow does this resemble fetich worship, and how doesit differ from it ? H ave you never felt anaffection for anyobject innature, any flower, or tree, or brook ?

8. Of what nature is the worship of spi ri ts ?

9 . What does the savage believe about the soul ? H ow doeshe connect this with dreams or reflections of himself?to. Why are kindly disposed spirits less worshiped thanthose who work evil ?

1 1 . What are the most commonmethods of worship ? Ofwhat nature are the earliest sacrifices?

1 2. I s all this as foolish as i t looks at first ? What has thesavage found out inspite O f his ignorance ?

Do you never feel the presence of such a power inthe world ?Did you ever think what makes the trees grow, and the streamsrun, and the apples fall ? Do scientific laws really explainanything

1 2 R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY .

1 3. What makes the savage think that some of the things

about him are more divine thanhe

Did you ever think how the birds of passage find their wayf rom one region to another? H ow do you suppose that a cat

that has beencarried a long way ina box finds its way home ?H ow do you suppose that the stars keep up inthe sky ? Does

the earth rest onanything? C anyou not, then, understand themystery that the savage found in everything, and how he

thought that the things about him must have some supernatural power that he did not have ?

I 4. I s his notionof the soul as foolish as it may look at first?

What do you meanwhenyou say of yourself , $ I have a

headache,$or

$ I have hurt my hand What is it that suf

fers ? C anthe hand or the head itself ache ? What do youmeanwhenyou say, My head is tired w ith studying or thinking

$? C anthe head wink ? I f we should take the body to

pieces, could we find the something that thinks and feels?

What is it ?

1 5 . I s the savage always as cruel as he seems? G ive anillustration.

1 6. What sort of religion has the savage ? I s he neverreally cruel ? What canwe claim for his religion?

A re childrennever cruel w ithout knowing it ? A re theynevercruel without caring? S uppose such Childrento be as large

and strong as men,would they not be something l ike savages?

H ow are savages l ike children? H ow are they dif ferent ?

1 7 . Why do we call the religionof the savage superstition?

A re you ever afraid in the dark ? What are you afraid ofWas not the savage inhis ignorance very much l ike a C hild inthe dark ?

1 8. Whendoes supersti tionbecome religion?

I f a manmerely trusts that G od w il l help him carry out hisprivate plans, so that he Shal l be safe or rich , is he rel igious

or superstitious? H ow canany manhelp to carry out G od’s

plans inthe world ? H ow does the superstitious man try to

make G od his instrument ? H ow does the religious mantryto make himsel f G od’

s instrument ?

A NC I ENT A RY A N RELIG IO N .

1 . Tbe ancestors of most E uropeanpeoples, of the Hindus ofgood caste, and of the Persians, once formed but one nation;just as the ancestors of the E nglish and the inhabitants of theUnited S tates once formed but one nation.

2. A sf rom E ng land colonists went out to found new S tatesin C anada, inMassachusetts, Virginia, and other regions, soemigrants went out at different times, and indifferent directions, from this more ancient home.

3. Dif ferent f orms of speeclz arose inthe difierent coloniesthat in time became difierent languages. T his occurred, because the difierent colonies had little intercourse with one another. S o in some parts of E ngland, Germany, and othercountries are found dialects that persons living inanother partof the same country cannot easily understand .

4. N eit/zer bistory nor traditiongives any account of this

primeval people . T he only evidence of its ex istence is foundinthe various languages spokenby i ts descendants. T hese,from their resemblances, show that they are derived from acommonorigin while from the structure and meaning of the

words, some hints are givenas to the beliefs and customs ofthe commonancestors.

5 . Tbis ancient people were pastoral in their life . T heywere also familiar with the arts of war, and bore some marksof civilization. T hey are commonly called Aryans.

6. Tbeir god s would seem to have been chiefly connectedwith the bright upper heavens. T heir name for gods signifiedbright or celestial .

7. T lzeir clzief god at the time that the ancestors of theGreeks and R omans left their early home would seem to have

I 4 R ELIGIONS BEFOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

beenDy aus, the heavenly, or celestial one. T his name is preserved inthe Greek Z eus. He is also called Dyaushpitar, or

the celestial father. T his title reappears inthe L atinJupiter.8. O tlzer gods were also worshiped ; some of those that we

shall find to have beenrecognized inthe Vedas were alreadyhonored . Varuna, representing the enveloping heavens, wasalready somewhat known; though not fully developed, as inlater times. Also, a divinity of the morning, cal led S aramyu .

9 . T bename of S aramy u would seem to be preserved intheGreek name for the furies. T he dawnwas said to ex posecrime, because with the Shades of night the veil was takenaway by which crime had beenconcealed . T hus the name ofthe divinity came at last to be regarded simply as that of anavenger of crime .

1 0. F aitlz in immortal ity was C herished by the ancientAryans. T his is evident from the nature of their funeralrites.

1 1 . Tbe tlzree important ideas, of a Father inheaven, of apower that punishes sin, and of immortality

, would seem tohave beenheld by this early people , and transmitted to theirdescendants.

QUESTIONS .

1 . What nations are said to have a commonancestry ?2. H ow canyou illustrate this relation?

3. H ow do the languages of these peoples come to be so

different? H ow canyou illustrate this by d ialects indifi'

erentparts of the same country to-day?

T o what extent do we have such dialects inthis country ?Could you not understand the language inany part of the

United S tates? Why is there so little difference of languageinthis country ?

4. H ow do we know anything about this early people ?

5 . What was the character of the civilizationof this earlypeople ? B y what name are they ordinarily called ?6. What was the nature of the divinities worshiped by them?

ANCIE NT AR YAN R ELIGION . 1 5

7 . What was the name of their ch ief god ?

What do you see whenyou look up into the sky ? H ow far

off does it seem? Do you never, in looking up into the sky,

have a feeling that may help you understand how these earlypeople found something there to worship ?

8 . What other gods did they worship ?

9 . H ow did the name of a goddess of the dawnbecomeconnected by the Greeks with the punishers of crime ?

Why should any be afraid of the l ight ? What does Jesussay of hating the l ight? $Johniii ., 1 9 ,

1 0. What is said of faith in immortality among the ancientAryans?1 1 . What three important ideas do we thus find that they

held?

T H E H I N DU RELIG I O N .

I . Tbe ancestors of tire H indus remained longer in theirancient Aryanhome than those of other peoples

,and their

religionmay be regarded as a direct continuance of the ancientAryanfaith .

2. Tbe Vedas containthe earliest records of the Hindu religion. T hese consist of hymns addressed to various divinities.

Some of these hymns are of great beauty. T hey Show thatthe nationwas already far advanced inliterary skill . T hey arevery ancient. T heir precise date is unknown, but they musthave beenwrittenearlier thanthe twelf th century before C hrist.

3. Tbegod Varuna is recognized inthe earlier Vedic hymnsas filling the chief position. Varuna represented the heavenswhich envelop the earth . He was a god of great sublimityand holiness. N othing escaped his knowledge . T he thoughtsof men’

s hearts were known to him. T he winkings of theireyes were numbered. Where two talked together

,there was

the god Varuna as the third . Some of the hymns addressedto him are very lofty, and express ex alted religious feeling.

I will give inprose translationa part of a hymnaddressedto Varuna .

T he great one who rules over these worlds beholds all things as if

he were close at hand. Whenany manthinks he is doing aught bystealth , the gods know it all ; and they perceive every one who standsor walks or gl ides along secretly or withdraws into his house or into

any lurking place. Whatever two persons, sitting together, devise,Varuna, the king, knows it, being present there as a third. T hisearth, too, belongs to the k ing Varuna ; and that vast sky, whose ends

R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

Agni was, as we have seen, the god of fire . I will quote , ina

prose translation, verses takenfrom a hymnto Agni

T O A GN I .

L et us l if t this song of adoration, l ike a car $ladenwith praise] tohim who is worthy of it, the preserver of riches, for his providence brings us weal incouncil . Inalliance with thee, O A gni $no harm canbefall us.

H e whom thou helpest insacrifice flourishes ; he lives uninjured,and

wins beautiful strength . H e is exalted, and no trouble reacheshim. Inall iance with thee , etc.

May we have power to kindle thee $ B ring the work to its issue.

T he gods eat what is sacrificed inthee. Inalliance, etc.

L et us bring wood. L et us accompl ish thine offering, at every changeof the moonreminding thee of us. B ring the work to its issue,

so that we may l ive long. Inal liance, etc.

Inthe night, thine offspring $the stars] are the protectors of dwellingsand of the two-footed and the four-footed creatures. A t the

dawning $as the sun] thou art greater and brighter, thou messen

ger $ Inalliance, etc.

T hou art the sacrificer and the first herald ; thou art the teacher, thepurifier. T hou art the priest of nature. T hou knowest and

blessest, O wise one $ every priestly work. Inalliance, etc.

Whenthou dost harness the red-flaming, the storm-driven, spanto thechariot, then thou dost roar l ike a bull . T hendost thou fal luponthe wood with the smoke-flagged $flames] . Inal liance, etc.

T heneventhe birds are scared by thy bel lowing, whengrass devouring thy sparks are scattered. E asy is it for thee and thy chariotto reach the goal . In al l iance with thee, O A gni $ no harm can

befall us.

I t wi ll be noticed that Agni is here described as the fire . I tis f ed with wood. We see i ts sparks. We hear its roaring.

We see j ts brightness inthe sunand the stars. Y et i t is something more thanfire . I t is a god . Y et i t is not a god wi th apersonality separate from the object i t represents, like one ofthe Greek divinities. I t is, as was stated before, inpart con

nected wi th the natural object, inpart distinct from i t.

T H E HIN DU R ELIGION . 1 9

8. Varuna and Indra were not ex a lted above the otherdivinities as Jupiter was above the C lassic gods. I t is onlythat they were somewhat more prominent thanthe rest.

9 . E very god, as be was pra ised, was ca l led supreme aboveall the rest. Very much the same terms of adorationare foundapplied to all . I t seems as if the worshipers felt that allwere manifestations of only one divinity. E verything seemedto them divine . T hey had not merely the vague sense of thesupernatural, such as the savage has. T hey felt something ofthe real beauty and divinity that was about them,

so that theirhymns oftenexpress a real worship .

I O . Tkey Izad strong f a i l/z inimmorta l i ty . Y ama was theking of the abodes of death . He probably represented thesetting sun. T o his paradise the souls of the good and noblewent, and found supreme happ iness.

1 1 . me wars/zip of the divini ties consisted in prayer andpraise, and in offerings. T he O fferings consisted chiefly ofclarified butter poured uponfire

, and of the fermented ju ice ofthe soma plant. T his seems to have beenpoured uponfire, orSprinkled onthe sacred grass with which the floor was strewn.

I t was poured uponthe fire,that Agni might transmit it to the

divinities for whom it was designed . T here seem. to have been

no temples. T he worship was held ina chamber inthe houseof the worshiper devoted to this purpose .

1 2 . Tbe H indu relig ion underwent sti l l greater clzanges.

T he sacred or B rahmancaste became more and more supreme

inreligious matters. B eliefs were largely transformed . Many,

inprocess of time , came consciously to recognize all the godsas indeed manifestations of one divini ty. Many came tolook uponall that is as the manifestation of this divinity.T his deity was not l ike any of the gods that are ordinarily

worshiped. I t was simply the great unity of the universe,with neither thought nor love . T h is one divinity was com

mouly called B rahma.1 3. T o lose tlzeir indiv idua l ex i stence, and to become absorbed

inB rahma, came to be , for these thinkers, the great object ofreligion; so they withdrew from the world into the wi lderness.

co R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

T hey fasted and inflicted upon themselves all bodi ly torment.T hey wished to draw and drive th emselves back into themselves, to lose though t and desi re , that so they might becomeone with B rahma, the all.

14. Tbe bel ief in tbe transnrationof sou ls furnished the

Special motive for this course . T hey believed that their soulswould be born, endlessly , into new ex istences, in heaven, inearth , or inhell. T hus the future was full of peril . Life

,at

best, they regarded as an evil . I f, by the processes abovereferred to, they could become absorbed into B rahma, theywould rest at death , lost inhim, and would be bornno moreinto the changes and sorrows of ex istence .

1 5 . T lzese H indus field a prof ound h ut]: inthe belief thattheir .true life was inGod . Pau l himself tells us that $ inhimwe live and move and have our being.

$

1 6. T lzey lzeld i t very imperyectly , however. T hey did notknow what God is. T hey thought that they must sink backinto unconsciousness to find him

, and must thus lose themselves inhim. T he apostle John teaches a higher and moreinspiring truth : $ God is love,

$ he tells us ;$and he that

dwelleth inlove dwelleth inG od, and he inhim.

$ We sharethe divine life most whenwe live the ful lest

,most active , and

’

most loving lives. Another point of diff erence between thisHindu view and the C hristianteaching is, that in i t God wasonly inN ature, not above it. T hat recognized nothing morethanthis unity of all things. Paul teaches the fuller truth.

$E ph. iv.,6 ; comp. Acts x vi i . ,

1 7. Tbe modernH indu religion is very unl ike the ancient.T he principal deities recognized in the later rel igion areB rahma, Vishnu , and S iva. T hese are knownas the creator

,

the preserver, and the destroyer. T hey form a trini ty, and

are represented as united . Of these, B rahma receives leasthonor, because his work is regarded as completed . Vishnuand S iva have each many worshipers, who make of him theirC hief d ivini ty. Vishnu is believed to have been incarnatedseveral times uponthe earth. T hese incarnations were undervarious forms, as those of a fish, a tortoise, and a man, the

THE HINDU R E LIGION . 2 I

great hero of Hindu tradition, and were to de liver or to helpman. T he worship of S iva involves often ex travagant and

shameful rites. B esides these deities, a multitude of divinities,idols, and natural objects are worshiped E specially are thecow, the serpent, and the monkey considered sacred.

1 8. A purer and more spiri tua l rel igi on. based largely uponthe teachings of Jesus

,has beenaccepted by certainH indus.

C hunder S en is now the most prominent representative ofthis movement.

QUESTIONS .

I . What is the relationof the early Hindu religionto that ofthe ancient Aryans ?2. What is the name of the earliest religious writings of theHindus ? T heir nature ? T heir date ?

3. What divinity fills the chief position inthe earlier hymnsof the Vedas? What was his C haracter?

What words of Jesus does one of these phrases remind youof ? $Matt . x . , 3O .]

4. What divinity succeeds Varuna in the highest honor ofthe Hindus? What are some of the reasons of this change ?What was the chief work of Indra ?

Do the C louds keep back water ? What do they do for us?

A re the clouds, then, to be regarded as enemies or friends ? DO

we ever make, inother matters, a mistake l ike that of the

H indus ? Do you remember a verse of a hymn, by Cowper$that illustrates this

5 . What else was believed about Indra ?6. What are some other gods that the Hindus worshiped ?

Do you remember anything that was said about the rainbow

in the first lesson? What is the difference betweenthe waythe H indu regarded the rainbow and that inwhich the savage

regarded it ? What gain does this Show in the progress of

religion

7. What, ingeneral, was the nature of these gods?8. Inwhat sense were Varuna and Indra the chief gods?

9 . What peculiarity of their worship is spokenof? What

S ee the hymnbeginning G od moves ina mvsterious way .

22 R E LIGIONS BE FORE CHR ISTIANITY.

view of nature would seem to be Showninthis? What advancedoes this Show from the religionof the savage ?

H ow does this compare with our commonview of nature ?Which do you think is the highest v iew ,

— to look upontheworld as a sort of complicated machine, or to look uponit asthe manifestation of a certaindivine life ? Which do you

think is the truest view ?

I O . What was the faith of the early Hindus inregard toimmortality ?1 I . G ive some account of the worship that was paid by them

to their divini ties.

1 2 . What very different view came later to prevail inregardto the gods, and inregard to the universe ?

13. What was the great object of religion with thesethinkers? H ow did they accomplish this object ?

H ave any Christians ever used such bodily torment inorderto obtain salvat ion? What can you find out about S imonS tyl ites? H ave not Christians of tenbel ieved in fasting forthe sake of spiritual good ? Was this the method of Jesus?

$Matt. x i ., IS it not better to fast sometimes than to

pamper the body ? H ow Shou ld we l ive inthis respect ?

14. What was the doctrine of transmigrationof souls?1 5 . What was the truth in the belief of these thinkers inregard to their relationw ith God ?

1 6. What was their error ? C ompare their thought w ith thatof John, and with that of Paul . What other point of differenceis named betweenthe Hindu and the C hristianv iew?

In the $ uotation from the E pistle to the E phesians, whichwords mark the difference betweenPaul ’

s v iew and that of theH indus ? S uppose a leaf to want to enter most really into thel ife of the tree, how could it best do it ? Could it do it bydrawing back into itself and thus withering? H ow does thisillustrate the beliefs that we are considering?

1 7. Give some account of the later Hindu religion.

1 8. What movement toward a better religionis taking placeamong the Hindus

B UDDH I SM .

I . The religion cal led B uddhism preva i ls inC eylon, S iam,

and B urmah , also inN epal, T hibet, C h ina, apd Japan. B uddhism, as it exists inthe three countries first-named, is supposedto be more like the original form of the religionthanthat professed by B uddhists inthe other and more northerncountries.

I t at first ex tended over the greater part of India. I t is calculated that more thana third of the inhabitants of the earth areB uddhists.

2. B uddh ism is named from the title of its founder. T histitle means the awakened , or the enlightened . I t describesone who is believed to have attained the highest wisdom.

3. The f ounder of the religionwas bornas a prince , in thelatter half of the sixth century B C . T he sense of the evi lsof ex istence drove him into a l ife of poverty and withdrawalfrom the world . He became a recluse , and l ived only onalms.

4. T he character of B uddha,so far as we know anything in

regard to it,was one of ex treme beauty. He united in a

remarkable degree strength and gentleness. N one were so

lowly that his sympathy did not reach them.

5 . M any bel ief s commonto other H indu systems were heldby B uddha through the whole course of his life and teaching.

6. The doctrine of the transmig ration of sou ls was practi

cally thus held. Whena man dies, he is born againonearth,or inheavenor inhell. T he state into which one is bornwasbelieved to depend upona certainlaw of retribution

,by which

every good act is rewarded , and every evi l act is punished .

Whenthis recompense wi ll be received is doubtful . Acts arelike seeds ; one, like the pea or the bean, bears its fru it verysoon; another, l ike the oak, bears its fru it very late. If a manis born into heaven, he remains there only so long as some

24 R E LIGION S BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

good deed requ ires. After that, he may be born into hell forsome evi l deed committed either before or after the good deed.

T he future is thus who lly uncertain. A s we cannot remember our past ex istences

,we do not know what good or evil we

may have commi tted, so we do not know what joy or miserymay be before us. T his law of retributionis called Karma.

7. The obj ect of B uddha ‘Zt/ J S‘

to put anend to this processof repeated birth . H e therefore sought

,and as he believed

found, the cause of this process, and thus the way to end it.8. I . H e taught that nothing is permanent . T here is noreality in the universe , but that of a process which goes on

forever. N oth ing has more reality thanbubbles that rise andburst.

9 . I I . H e taught that men are bound to the world by so

strong a love, that, when they die, they are drawnback againinto life .

10. I I I . H e taught how to overcome this cl inging to life .T his was, first

,by learning the emptiness of all earthly things

and thus acqu iring a d isgust for what had givenmost pleasure ;and

,secondly, by training one

’

s self inthe virtues of unselfishness and charity.

1 1 . C erta inphy sica l states, as that of trance , were also usedfor this purpose ; but whether these formed a part of B uddha

’s

teaching,I do not know.

1 2. T o imitate the course of their master was ingeneral theduty of the disciples. T hey were obliged to withdraw fromthe world, and jointhe order that he founded. T hey must liveonalms

,and devote themselves to the religious life . Fasting

and bodily torment were, however, forbidden. B esides the

disciples who gave themselves wholly to his d irectionwereothers less perfectly identified with his work, but who yet

owned B uddha as their master.1 3. A l l stood uponanegua l f ooting inthis order

,no matter

what had been their previous stat ionin l ife . T he principle ofcaste was not recognized there.

14. R el igi onhas no place in the teaching of B uddha ; atleast, religion in the commonmeaning of that word was not

26 R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

tion, but not prayer, for he has passed into N irvana. T he

adorationis paid to his memory. T hey do pray to those whoin the future are to be B uddhas, and may also call upon thegods, who, as we have seen

,receive only a minor homage.

Probably no worshipers use so many flowers intheir rites as

the B uddhists. Preaching fills as largea place intheir religion

as i t does inthat of the C hristian.

QUESTIONS .

1 . Where does B uddhism prevail ? What proportionof theinhabitants of the earth are B uddhists ?2 . What is the originof the name B uddhism? What doesthe name B uddhamean?

What other rel igion is named for a title of its founder?What does this title mean?

3. Into what positionwas B uddha born? Why did he giveup this posi tion?

Ought the evils of l ife to drive one to leave the world ?H ow ought they to aff ect us

4. What was the character of B uddha?

H ow does this remind you of Jesus? H ow does B uddhadiffer from Jesus?

5 . Were the teachings of the religionof B uddha all originalw ith him?6. N ame one that was received from the Hindu religion.

H ow was one ’s future life determined ? Why was the future

doubtfulCompare this with the Christiandoctrine of immortality.

7. What was the object of B uddha’s teaching ?

8 . What did he teach about the reality of things in theworld ?

I s there any outward thing inthe world that we cantrust to,as always to be ours, and always to give us pleasure ?

9 . Why,$ according to B uddha

,do men live again after

death ?

BUDDHISM . 27

10. H ow was this attractionto the world to be overcome ?

H ow much of this corresponds to the teaching O f Jesus?

1 1 . What physical states are referred to inthis connection?1 2. What was to be the general life of the B uddhist ?

Compare this w ith the

?life taught by Jesus. What C hris

tians have adopted a li e l ike that of B uddhists? What ad

vantage has this l ife ? What disadvantage ?

13. What was the relationof B uddh ism to the law of caste ?

DO you know anything about H indu caste ? IS there anything l ike caste inthis country ? I s it a good thing ?

14. What did B uddha teach about God ?

C an you imagine Christianity without the idea of G od ?

C anyou imagine l ife without it ?

1 5 . What was N irvana ? What was i t as reached inthis l ife ?What after death ?

I s this l ike the heavenof Christianity ? Must not the Christiangive up himself as tru ly as the B uddhist ? What does he

give himself up to ? T o what did the B uddhist give him

self up

1 6. H ow do ordinary B uddhists t hink of N i rvana? Whatsignwas there believed to be when the B uddhist was soonto enter N irvana ? What does this Show ?

C an you imagine a school with different prizes for the

younger and older scholars ? What would the younger thinkof the highest prizes, say a G reek Plato ?

1 7. What is said of the B uddhist monasteries ?1 8. What is the nature of the honor paid to B uddha ? T o

whom do the B uddhists pray ? What else is said about theirmethods of religious service ?

T H E RELIG IO N O F T H E PA RS EES .

I . T hepeople who hold the M azdeanrel ig ion, and who arecalled Parsees, are comparatively few innumber. T hese aremostly inthe Presidency of B ombay , in India. T he religionwas, however, introduced into India from Persia

,inwhich

country a small number of Parsees, bearing however anothername , stI ll remain.

2 . T he P arsees are of ten ca l led fire w orshipers, from thefact that they keep constantly burning a sacred fire . T hey are,however

,inno Special sense fire worshipers.

3. T his religion resembles that of the Vedas in some re

spects, though insome it is very different . I t is a more spiritual religion, and its morality is much more marked .

4. T hef ounder of this rel ig ion is believed to be Z oroaster,or, inthe older form of his name, Z arathustra. I t is doubtful,however, whether this word be not a title, rather thana name .He l ived very long before the C hristianera ; how long, we cannot conj ecture .

5 . H e w as no recluse l ike B uddha, but l ived in the world

like other men.

6. H e taught a lof ty religionwhich led to his persecution, andto his leaving his native land . T hese things are implied bycertainpassages inthe sacred books.

7. The most sacred booh of the P arsees is called the A vesta .

One part consists largely of hymns and psalms ; that is, ex pressions of praise , of which the oldest are in verse . Anotherconsists chiefly of the law . We may compare them with theB ook of Psalms and that of Leviticus inour B ible .

THE R ELIGION O F THE PAR SEES. 29

8. The highest div ini ty of the rel ig ionis Ormuzd, or, inthemore ancient language , Ahura Mazda. He is the creator of

good spirits, and of whatever is good and usefu l inthe world.

He created the universe itself, so far as i t is good . He is thegod of light ; and, at first, probably, the impersonationof light.

9 . O ver against O rmuzd $Ahura Mazda) was A hriman

$Angra Mainyus), the power of darkness. He created aneviluniverse , as Ormuzd $Ahura Mazda) created a good universe .He made snakes and insects. He made, also, a host of evil

S pirits, to do battle w ith the good spirits.

10. The spiri ts of menwere also created by Ormuzd $A huraMazda). T hey were created all at once at the beginning. He

gave them their choice , whether to remaininthe spiritual worldat peace , or to put onbodies and be borninto the world , to takepart inthe battle with the powers of evil . T hey chose to enterthe life of the world . T hus, their very ex istence was for thepurpose of accomplishing something for goodness. Inspite

of this, some became wicked . T hese have left the service ofthe power of light, and entered that of the power of darkness.

T hey are thus traitors to their owncause .1 1 . T hey worshzjbed many other gods ; who were all

, how

ever,created by Ahura Mazda, and subordinate to him. T hey

worshiped, also, objects of nature , as trees, water, and stars.

I wi ll add an ex ample of the praise of natural objects just

spokenof

A ll waters, the fountains, as well as those flowing down instreams,praise we .

A ll trees, the growing, adorned with tops, praise we.

T he whole earth , praise we.

T he whole heaven, praise we .

A ll stars, the moon, and the sun, praise we .

A ll l ights, w ithout beginning, praise we.

A ll cattle, those which l ive under the water, under the heavens,beasts with claws, praise we.

A ll the good, pure creatures working for A hura Mazda,praise we .

1 2. M ora l ity is enf orced by this religionina striking andgrand way. I t teaches truthfulness and honesty. Goodness,

3o R ELIGIONS BEFOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

wi th i t,i s nothing abstract and vague . I t means the being

good for something, the doing something to advance life . In

stead of calling mento seclusionand poverty, as B uddhismdid

,i t calls them to a life of industry and prosperity.

1 3. T he v iew of l if e held by this religionis, that i t is a greatbattle-ground betweengood and evil . Ahura Mazda is at thehead of the army of the good . With him work the gods and

spirits, good men, and the good lower creation. E ven thetrees and the objects of nature are described as having theirplace inthis great army. Opposed to this army is the host ofdarkness, headed by Ahriman$Angra Mainyus]. Under himare his demons, evil men, and the bad creation, such as snakes

and reptiles.

14. B el ief in immorta l ity is firmly held by this religion.

After death, the soul remains about the body for three nights.

T heni t goes to the bridge that leads to the abode of spirits.

T here the deeds of the good and the bad are weighed . Forthe good , the bridge is so wide that they pass over i t into paradise. I t would appear that the bridge grows narrow, whenthesouls of the evil would pass over it, and they fall into hell.T he spi ri ts of the good remain inparadise , and those of thewicked inhell, till the end of the struggle betweenlight anddarkness, or of good and evil .

1 5 . T his battle is not to go onf orever. At last, the powersof good will win the victory by the aid of S aoshyans, thedeliverer who is to come .1 6. A t this consummation, the dead w i l l be ra ised. T he

souls of the dead will be joined to their old bodies. T he wickedwill be judged , and sent to hell for three days. T hen, good andevil wi ll alike be plunged into moltenmetal . T his will be tothe good as pleasant as a bath inwarm milk . T o the evil, i twi ll be terribly painful, just as i t would be to any of us now.

At the. end of the three days, whenthey come forth from thismoltenmetal, the wicked will have become wholly purified.

T here will be no difference betweenthe good and the bad.

All will enter into endless blessedness.

1 7 . The sacred rites of the Parsees involve much that is

THE R ELIGION O F THE PAR SEES. 3I

merely formal . T he sacred drink, called by the Hindus soma,fills a great place in thei r service, under the name of haoma.One of the most important Observances consists in eatingsacred cakes and indrinking the haoma. Special passages fromtheir Scripture are read inconnectionwith this. At present, thepriests only eat and drink at this rite . T he priests also readfor those who arrange for it $not to them) the sacred books.

T his counts as a merit to those who employ the priests inthisservice . Holy water is an important element in their rites.

T he sacred fire is kept always burning. Although,as we have

’

seen, work is so sacred for men, yet use for household ormechanical ends makes fire impure

,and i t has every little while

to be kindled afresh from the central fire of the community .

I t Should be noticed, however, that according to the sacredbooks, such forms are always subordinate to virtue. E ventheir ownprayers work against the w icked.

1 8. T his rel igi on is in some respects superior and in some

inf erior to the others which we have studied . I t has a recognitionof the moral ideal and of the d ivine goodness which theHindu did not have . B ut the Parsee does not have the truthwhich the B rahmanpossessed of the unionof the soul wi thGod . I t enforces the moral law by the thought of a good God ,as B uddhism did not ; but i t does not have the inspirationthatcomes from having this ideal manifested as a human form,

as

i t is inthe story of B uddha. I ts.

morality was more practicalthan that of the B uddhist ; but the latter had a tendernesswhich it lacks.

QUEST IONS .

1 . A re there many Parsees ? Where do they live ? Whatother name has their religion? Which country gave the religionto the others?2. Are the Parsees inany special sense fire worshipers?

3. C ompare the Parsee religionwith that of the Vedas.

4. Who was its founder?

5 . C ompare him with B uddha.

6. What is knownof his history?

32 R ELIGION S BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

7 . What is the name of the most sacred book of this religion?Of what parts does i t consist?8 . G ive some account of the highest divinity of this rel igion.

What does it meanwhen it says in the N ew T estament

$I . JohnL , 5) that G od is l ight ? What is the difference between this and the statement that Ormuzd $A hura Mazda]is l ight ? N ame some of the blessings that l ight brings ?

H ow would you l ike to pass a winter near the N orth Pole ?

C anyou not thenunderstand that the G od of l ight should beregarded as the best of all divinities?

9 . G ive some account of Ahriman$Angra Mainyus) and his

creation.

D id you never wonder what troublesome insects were madefor, or how there came to be sickness and painin the world ofa good G od ? H ow do the Parsees explain this ? What do

you think O f this explanation? I s there anything wholly evi l ?What sort of people would those be who never had any painor trouble ? What sort O f history have the best and most

heroic persons inthe world had ? Compare the Christianideaof evil with that of the Parsees.

I O . Whenwere the sp irits of men created ? What choicewas giventhem? Have all beentrue to their cause ?

What do you suppose that you were put into the world for?Was any one made simply that he might have a good time?What did Jesus say that he was sent into the world for?

$Matt. xx., W'hat do you think of those who l ive as if

there was nothing for them to do in the world but to amuse

themselves

1 1 . What else did they worship ? Were any of these equalto Ormuzd $Ahura Mazda) ?

Compare this worship O f natural objects with the referenceto them inPsalms. $Psalm cxlviii . , 3— I O .] What is the difference? Do you not suppose that both peoples had somethingthe same feeling toward these things? What was it?

1 2. What was the teaching of this religion in regard tovirtue

What was the test of goodness suggested by Jesus? $Matt.vii., 16. Johnx v.

,

T H E RO MA N A N D T H E G REEK RELIG IO NS .

I . The ancient R omans were a very plain and practicalpeople . T hey laid the foundation for the science of government and for that of war. T hey had , however, less taste forart and poetry, and for philosophy. Much of the interestwh ich they afterwards acqu ired for these pursuits was caughtfrom the Greeks.

2 . The R oman rel igionand the G reek religionwere originally very unlike each other. Later, the two were , to someex tent

,united . T he attributes and the history of the Greek

gods were ascribed to such R oman gods as most resembledthem ; so that we now very commonly think of the R omangods as possessing the qualities of the Greek, and of theGreek gods under R omannames.

3. The R omangods were such as we might expect from thecharacter of the R omanpeople. T hey were very bare andabstract. T hey had l ittle personality. Very few myths grewup inregard to them. R ome was one hundred and seventyyears without statues. T hen, first a painted wooden statueof Jupiter was placed inthe capi tol. T he people stood simplyina practical relationto the ir gods. T hey were very part icularabout the forms of worship, but further than this they saidvery little about the gods.

4. The R omans recognized a vast number of gods. T heyhad gods for every event in life. Whenthe child first stoodalone

, wheni t first walked, when it went out, when i t came in,and, indeed, for every act and circumstance there was a specialdivinity to be invoked . Very often these divini ties are knownonly inrelationto this single circumstance.

5 . The serv ice to the god s was very complicated and dificult.

THE R OMAN A N D THE GR E EK R E LIGIONS . 35

One had to be sure that he called onthe right god , and that hecalled uponhim in the right way . Any mistake might resu ltinevil .6. j anus was the god of the gates of heaven, of the morn

ing and the evening. He was thus represented with two faces,one looking forward and the other backward . He was, on

account of the functionjust descr Ibed, the god of gates. T he

gates of his temple were O penintime of war, and closed intime of peace ; and they were rarely closed . He was peculiarly a R omangod , and was named first inthe lists of gods, perhaps as ushering inthe rest .

7. j upi ter , we have already seen to be the father inheaven.

H e was the god of the sky . H is name was sometimes used torepresent the sky i tself. He was the thunderer.8. T henames of the R omangods are fami liar to most boys

and girls. T here was Venus, the goddess of gardens and

pleasantness, of friendship and concord . She was also thegoddess of love , and later

,being identified with the Greek

Aphrodite, became almost exclusively knownas such . T here '

was Saturn, the god of seeds and of sowing,who later became

identified with the Greek C hronos, the god of time ; and manyothers whose names are inthe school-books.

9 . The P enates and the L ares are oftennamed together.T he former were the gods of the household . T he Lares became identified with the spirits of ancestors.

10. T he worship of ancestors filled a great place with the

R omans as with all ancient peoples. R el igionwas thus largelya matter of the family and the State . T his was one reasonwhymenrejoiced so much to have a son. Daughters might marryinto other fami lies

,and take part inthe ri tes of strangers ; but

the sonwould pay the fitting ri tes to the spi ri t of his fatherand to those of his ancestors.

1 1 . The G reeks were very dzfierent f rom the R omans. T heyhad great power of imagination. T hey had genius for art andpoetry, and loved both. T hey were great lovers of philosophy,too ; and their systems have ever since taught the world, whiletheir poems have cheered and ex alted i t.

36 R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIAN ITY .

1 2 . The religionof the G reeks was wholly diff erent from thatof the R omans. T heir gods seem to us l ike real persons, somuch have we heard of their deeds, and so O ftenhave we seentheir images. Myths grew up about the gods without l imit.E ach had his story and his special characteristics.

13. M any of these stories are not what we should expect tohear related about the gods. B ut we must remember that thegods for the most part represent natural Objects and forces.

T hey stand to each other inmany relations, so that whentheyare personified , and their relations take form inmyths

, we

must ex pect to find them very fanciful and complicated, and

to have our moral sense sometimes shocked.

14. A sense of a div inity lof tier thanwould be impl ied b ythese stories is oftenfound among the Greeks. Just as whenthe clouds openwe see the bright sky , so sometimes

,through

and above the world of gods, with their caprices and their faults,we catch a glimpse of the upper heavenof love and holiness.

1 5 . We must not suppose that the Greeks regarded theirgods as mere impersonations O f natural objects and relations.

I t is singular that they did not understand their religionas

well as we do . I t is the study of language , of the meaning ofthe names of the divinities, and the comparisonof the namesand histories of the gods of one nationw ith those of the godsof others, that have taught us the ir real meaning.

16. The religionof the G reeks is the religionof beauty . T he

personality of the gods is developed just enough to becomebeautiful . T hey are fresh and strong and joyful . T he statuesof the gods are among the most beau tiful works of humanart,as the poems about them remainamong the most beautifulcreations of poetry.

1 7 . N o G reek god sw il l be especia l ly named and described inthese lessons. T heir characters are so real and so distinctlydefined , the stories about them are so full, that I do not like togive mere names and functions, as I have done inregard toother religions. I canonly tell you what sort of a religiontheGreek religionwas, and leave you to learnmore about i t fromlarger and fuller works.

THE R OMAN A N D T H E GR E EK R E LIGIONS . 37

1 8. B el ief in immortdli iy was held by both Greeks and

R omans. T heir beliefs were similar,only that of the Greeks

was more fully wrought out. T hey believed inanunder world,where there was punishment for the w icked, and happiness forthe good . T his life of happiness was, however, very thinand

unsubstantial , and the spirits of the dead looked back wi thlonging upon the l ife of the upper world . N ow and thenanoble hero was believed to be takenup among the gods.

QUESTIONS .

1 . What were the characteristics of the ancient R omans ?

What did they accomplish of most value for the world ?

2 . What was the relationbetweenthe religionof the R omansand that of the Greeks?

3. C haracterize the R omangods.

4. What is said of the number of the R oman div ini ties?What of th$ divisionof their offices?

Why do we not need special divinities for all these things?

$Psalm cxxxix .]

5 . What were some of the di fficulties in the service of thegods ?6. G ive some account of Janus.

Why do we not need a special divinity for the gates of themorning and evening ? $Psalm lx v .

,

7 . G ive some account of Jupiter.8. N ame one or two other gods.

9 . What were the Penates and Lares?10. What place was fill ed by the worship of ancestors ?

Why were sons specially valued ?1 1 . C haracterize the Greeks.

What do you know about the theatre of the G reeks? Whatdo you know about the gladiatorial shows of the Romans ?H ow would you say that these two kinds of amusements illus

trate the character of the two peoples?

1 2. What was the nature of the Greek religion?

38 R E LIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

1 3. H ow canwe ex plaininpart the absurdities and immoralities inthe stories of the gods?

S hould the sun, for instance, be considered as the child, thelover, or the brother of the dawn? M ight we not suppose one

as wel l as the other? T o what is the suncompared in the

Psalms?$Psalm x ix . ,I f the H ebrews had beena myth-mak

ing people, might not elaborate myths have beenmade out of

these comparisons, stories about the bridegroom and the

racer Might not the sunbe considered as the slayer O f the

dawn, because, as he rises, its colors fade ? C anyou not, then,understand how,

in the mythology, Daphne $the dawn) flees

before A pollo $the sun) ? DO you remember the story of thedeath of H ercules? C anyou point out the resemblance betweenthat and the setting sun?

14. What Sense do we find of a divinity higher than thesestories would indicate ?

i

What is the difference betweenrel igionand theology ? I s

not what is called theology sometimes a kind of mythology ?DO mep to—day, whose theology is harsh and dark, always feeltowards G od as they might be supposed to do ? H ave theynot,then, a rel igionhigher than their theology ? I s it not a goodthing, if we canhave a theology that really expresses a true

religion?

1 5 . Did the Greeks understand their religion as well aswe do?

B ut may they not have had a deeper sense of its meaning ?

May they not have felt more really the divine element inall

things? H ave you ever read Wordsworth’s sonnet, beginning,

The world is toomuch with us What does he say inthatabout the $

creed outworn of the Pagan? B ut might notN ature seem more divine to us thanto the Pagan? Ought itnot to seem so? S hould not the thought of one divine S piritinN ature be more inspiring thanthat of a separate divinity ineach object ?

H ow is the religionof the Greeks the religionof beauty ?

H ow are the G reek gods more beautiful than the Vedicdivinities? Which have the most personality ? Which are

R enouf makes this comparison.

T H E R OMAN A N D THE GR E EK R E LIGIONS. 39

most closely associated with the natural Objects? Inreadingabout Jupiter or Z eus, do you need to think that he represents

the heavens ? Why does he hold the thunderbolt ? Why isthe eagle the bird O f Jove ? What other gods do you think of

that bore marks O f the Object that they represented? B ut is

not this very different from having the god so identified withthe object represented that we cannot th ink of him as apartf rom it ? Why were the G reek gods more beautiful thanmen?

1 7 . Why are no Greek divinities named and described inthis book ?

1 8. What was the Greek and R oman belief in regard toimmortality ?

T H E RELIG IO N OF EG Y PT .

1 . The religionof E gypt is recognized as the most ancient

of all historical religions. We may be helped to realize itsantiqui ty by considering that we are almost two centuriesnearer to the date of Jesus thanthe Israelites at the time O f theE x odus were to the foundationof the E gyptiank ingdom. T he

establishment of this k ingdom,it should be remembered, must

have beenpreceded bymany ages of religious and social development.2 . E gypt has a lway s been regarded as the land of my stery .

T he Greeks felt the awe of th is mystery ; and we, to-day, aftermuch ex ploration and study, find mystery still . T he religion contains contradictions that we cannot wholly reconci le .Scholars diff er inregard to the meaning of forms and beliefsthat were probably, inthemselves, very simple .

3. The art of the E gyptians is fitted to deepen this senseof mystery. All is vast and sombre . Instead of the beautythat charms us inthe art of the Greeks

,we find here anawful

sublimi ty. T he statues ex press a solemnpeace. Many of thepictures that are of most interest are found in the innershrines of temples, or in tombs, where they were hidden fromthe public gaze .

4. A mong the strange and contradictory elements of theE gyptianreligion, we should name the blending of monotheismand polytheism. One supreme God was worshiped, yet amultitude of gods were worshiped at the same time. Ani

mals were also worshiped . Gods were often pictured withthe heads of animals ; and, inthe form of the sphinx , we have

42 R E LIGIO NS BE F OR E CHR I S TIAN ITY.

One of the most striking figures inE gyptianart is that of Isisholding the infant Horus inher arms.

1 1 . M any explanations are givenof this myth . Accordingto one, Osiris represents the sunhiddenat night. Accordingto another

,he represents the sunshornof his might inwinter ;

and, according to still another, the N i le when i t shrinks intoitself after the inundation. S ometimes, it is supposed to bethe seed that is buried inthe earth, inorder that i t may throughdeath germinate into life . B ut, whatever be decided to bethe special symbolism of the story of Osiris, its general lessonis the triumph that comes through defeat and loss.

1 2. The sun, hiddenand buried at night, and rising in the

morning, we may assume to furnish the most probable ex

planation of the myth, even though other symbolism mayhave beenunited with this. If we take this v iew, I sis may beregarded as the dawn; Set, as somehow connected with thedarkness, and thus as contributing to the overthrow of Osiris ;while Horus was the light of the upper heavens. Inregard toSet

, inparticular, there is, however, much obscurity. In the

earlier times, he was worshiped as a god. Later, he wasregarded as the principle of evil .

1 3. What became of the sunat night, must have beenaninteresting questionto this ancient people . T he sun sets inthe west ; how can i t get round to the cast, in order to riseagain? T hey regarded the earth as fix ed . T he sunmust

,

therefore,

find some passage under the earth , by which i t maypass from the west to the east.1 4. The sou ls of the dead were believed to joinOsiris

,and

to press with him through the difficulties of the under world.

T heir hearts were weighed ; the result being according to thegood or evi l deeds that had marked the l ife of each . T hosewho were found wanting were punished miserably. T hose whowere approved kept on their peri lous way . T rials and terrorsof many sorts beset them. T here were directions how to meetthese

,and charms to be used inorder to escape them. T hese

were inscribed upon the tombs, and recorded inbooks thatwere sometimes placed beneath the arm of the dead, or on

THE R ELIGION O F EGYPT. 43

amulets wornby them. T he study of these di rections duringlif e was considered very important. I f the souls passedthrough all successfully, they shared the triumph of Osiris ;they indeed became identified with him, and were called byhis name ; they were with him inglory.

1 5 . T he bodiesof the dead were carefully embalmed, and preserved insolid tombs, the most massive and famous of whichare the Pyramids. I t is commonly supposed that this was

done inorder that the spirits might at last become united with

them again. T he bod ies of the sacred animals were also em

balmed and preserved with like care .

1 6. The moral ity taught by this religionwas very lofty.E vil speaking and lying, ex aggerationand idle words are con

demned. Oppression, fraud, the causing of painto others, aswell as the grosser sins, are forbidden. Souls that had com

mitted such sins were condemned at the judgment.

QUESTI ONS .

1 . What is supposed to be the comparative anti$uity ofE gyptianreligion?2 . What is said of the mystery of the religion?

3. In what respects is the E gyptian art suited toreligion?

D id you ever see a picture of anE gyptianstatue ? I f you

have, compare it with the G reek statues that you have seenpictures of . Do you remember what L ongfellow said of

B uilders $ inthe elder days of art

4. What are some O f the elements of the E gyptianreligionthat seem strange and contradictory to us? What is onepoint of diff erence between the earlier and later forms of thisreligion

D id these elements necessarily appear contradictory to them?DO not persons O ftenseem to us to be inconsistent, because wehave not learned what they real ly think and mean? B ut do

persons never bel ieve doctrines that seem to them self-contradictory? A re any of us perfectly consistent inour thoughtand conduct ?

44 R ELIGIONS BEFOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

5 . What may be one C hief source of our difficul ty ?

S uppose that thousands of years hence our houses andchurches were discovered with no hint of our past history,might not the world be puzzled to know what it all meant ?

6. Of what nature was probably the one absolute God ?

7 . Inwhat respect may the worship of the separate gods becompared with that of the Vedic divinities? What may thisimply ?

M ight there be no other reasonfor this ? Would it not benatural to exalt the god from whom they expected presentfavors ?

8. What canyou say of the number of the E gyptiangods ?

What of their nature ?

9 . What was the basis of the worship of animals?

DO you remember what was said about animal worship inthe first lesson? Do you remember under what form the

G reeks chiefly worshiped the gods? Under what form do

Christians find the highest manifestationof G od ? I s not G od

really manifested through all forms O f being? May he not be

really worshiped under all ? B ut is he not most perf ectlymanifested through the highest form? What did Jesus say of

the nature of G od ? $Johniv . ,Where, then, shal l we find

him best revealed?

1 0. What is the story of Osiris ?

What does the figure of Isis and H orus remind you of ?

Why is it natural that men should worship the divine underthe figure of the mother and child ?

1 1 . What are some of the ex planations that have beengivenof the story O f Osiris? What lessondo they all teach ?

I s not this also the central lessonof Christianity ? $Johnx i i . ,

1 2 . Give more fully the ex planationthat is based upon the

hiddensun.

THE R ELIG ION O F EGYPT . 45

1 3. What did the E gyptians believe became of the sunatnight ? What did they believe about the earth ?

Must it not have beena startl ing thought, whenmenfirstlearned that the earth is not fixed, bu t is whirling throughspace ? I s it any less wonderf ul now ?

14. What was believed inregard to the souls O f the deadI 5 . What was done with the bodies of the dead ?

I s there any‘

resemblance betweenOsiris and Yama? $S eeL essonIII .]

16. What was the nature of the morality taught by this religion?

What, then, helped to give weight to the heart whenit wasweighed ? What did this weighing symbol ize ? What do wemeanby weight whenwe use the term inrelationto character?What is a

$ l ight character H ow does this resemble an

object that is physically l ight ? A re we not all we ighed ?Inspite of all superstition, were not the E gyptians right inregarding the weighing as animportant matter ? What otherrel igion have you studied that recognizes a weighing af terdeath ?

T H E RELIG ION S OF C H INA .

1 . There is no one rel ig ionproperly to be called the religionof C hina. What ina special manner may be called the Statereligionhas undergone many changes inthe course of history

,

and other religions have been founded within the empire orintroduced into it from without .2 . The ancient religi onof China was inmany respects anex alted one. T hough not wholly free from superstition

,it

recognized a supreme deity,possessing really divine attributes.

3. The name of this deity was S hang T i,or the supreme

ruler. He is oftenspokenof as Heaven just as we to-dayspeak sometimes O f ffhe $ will of Heaven,

$whenwe mean the

wi ll of God. T he relationof Shang T i to the visible heavenwas, however, probably closer than this comparisonwouldimply. Shang T i was believed to be inflex ibly just. N o wor

sh ip and no partial ity could induce him to favor the wicked .

4. P rosperi ty depended uponthe righteousness of the people.When righteousness prevai led , there were fertile crops andpeaceful days. Whenunrighteousness prevailed

,there were

tempests and floods and all evils. Much depended upon thejustice and puri ty of the government . When this was wrong

,

the good and bad suffered together, from such natural evi ls ashave beenreferred to .

5 . The ancient Chinese worshiped also other and lower

div ini ties . T hey worshiped the spiri ts of the mountains andthe grain

,for instance: T hese spirits were pure abstractions,

without history or personali ty. T hey may thus remind us ofmany R omandivinities. T hey also worshiped the spirits ofdeparted ancestors.

T H E R E LIGION S O F CHINA. 47

6. The spir i ts of antestors were worshiped by means offeasts. T hey were represented at the feasts by a boy, whoreceived the homage of those present, and partook of the offerings. He was welcomed with joy, and his presence was a Signof good fortune .

7. Conf ucius was born 55 1 B .C . Whenhe l ived, the ancientreligion had already lost something of its hold uponmen.

C onfucius attempted to revive the customs and religious ritesof the past. He was anhistorianand a statesman, as well as ateacher of morality.

8. H e lived a beautif u l and self lsacrzficing l if iz. He gavehimself wholly to his efforts at reform. He wandered fromState to State

, O ften ex posed to peril and privation, but wasalways true to his high mission.

9 . Conf ucius was earnest in religious serv ice, and gained

great strength and peace from his faith inGod , whose instrument he felt that he was.

I O . R el ig ionhad l ittle place, however,inhis teaching . He

contented himself with urging attentionto the forms of religion

, as i f these were sufficient inthemselves.

I 1 . T he mora l i ty that he taught, was, however, very ex alted.He evengave to his followers what we know as the $ GoldenR ule $ ; only he gave it in a negative form : Do not do toothers what you would not wish others to do to you.

1 2 . The Chinese reverence the name of Conf ucius as that ofthe most perfect of men, and his teaching has beeninmanyrespects of great service to them ever S ince he l ived .

13. The S tate rel ig ionhas become st i ll more a f orm sincethe time of C onfucius, but its forms are still carefully observed .

1 4. The Chinese of to-day worship heaven,and the spirits of

whatever is most helpful to man. T hey have also many idols.

One of the most important divinities is the god of the kitchen.

He remains all the year near the hearth , and, at the end O f theyear

,is believed to depart, bearing to heaven the record of

the good or evil that the members of the household have doneduring the year. Whenhe has gone , they believe that anothertakes his place .

48 R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

1 5 . The Chinese have no priests. T he emperor is the chiefperformer of religious ri tes. E very O fficial is expected to takepart inthem. C ommonpeople also have their ownrites.

1 6. The ancestors are still honored . T hey are represented ,

however’

,not by a boy, but by tablets, inscribed with their

names.

1 7. B esides this S tate religion, there is another religion inC hina called T auism. T his arose

,at first

,from the teaching of

L ao-tsze, one of the noblest and most ex alted of the teachersof men. H is followers

,however

,d id not understand his words,

which are indeed very O bscure : so this religion is mostly asystem of magical rites

,without meaning.

1 8. B uddhism is also recognized as a rel igioninC hina. T he

pagodas that you see represented in pi ctures are B uddhisttemples.

1 9 . T hese three rel ig ions $the S tate religion, T auism, and

B uddhism) do not divide the people in C hina, so that someaccept one and some another. T he people ingeneral acceptthem all, and use the rites of one or another, as they thinkthem best fitted for certainends.

20. R eligionhas lost much of i ts l if e inC hina, because theforms of rel igion have beenso much more insisted on thanits truths. T he rites of religionmay be very helpful ; butwhenthey become more prominent than the ideas of religionthenthey become mechanical, and real religiontends to die out.2 1 . T he spiri t of the Chinese isprosa ic and practica l . T heytend to see each thing as i t is ini tself, rather thaninits grandrelations. T hey have thus accomplished some very wonderfulthings for practical purposes, but have less thansome otherpeoples of the high ideals that take form inreligion. T husreligionhas tended to be less a power intheir lives thanatthe first.

QUESTIONS .

1 . I s there any one religionof C hina? What do we findinstead of this ?2. What was the nature of the ancient religionof C hina?

50 R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY .

up to the G oldenRule of Confucius, and the next to live up to

that of Jesus. Do you think that you could wholly l ive up

to that of Jesus? What is the advantage inhaving a rule thatwe cannot whol ly reach ?

1 2. What has beenthe efiect of C onfucius uponhis nation?13. What has been the character of the C hinese religion

since his day?

I f he had taught more definitely rel igious truth, might theresult not have beenbetter? Which do you think has donemost good, the rel igious or the moral part of the teaching of

Jesus? Would the religious teaching have done much goodwithout the moral teaching ?

14. What do the C hinese now worsh ip ?

Would it not be a good thing to have such a god of the

ki tchen inevery house ? B ut does G od need to have some

lower divinity to report what we do ? $Psalmcxx xix., 2

1 5. Who perform the part of priests in the C hinese statereligion1 6. H ow are the ancestors now honored ?1 7. What other religionis found inC hina?

H ave the teachings of Jesus ever been thus perverted ?Do you think that Jesus would recognize his ownreligion insome of the forms that it has taken?

1 8. What third religionis found inC hina ?1 9 . What is the relation of these three religions to one

another?20. What has beenone reason of the loss of power byreligioninC hina ?

Why do people go to church ? Does the mere going to

church do any good ? I s it enough to hear a prayer or a

sermon? I s it enough to understand them? What is needed?

2 1 . What is said of the characteristics of the C hinese ?What was, therefore, the tendency of religionamong them?

Do you suppose that such a statement as that inthe text istrue of all Chinese ? What is an A merican’

s idea of the

typical Engl ishman? What do we mean by$ John B ull $ ?

THE R ELIGIONS O F CHINA. 5 1

What is the Englishman’s idea of B rother Jonathan H ave

these ideas any truth ? Y et would all , or evenmost, E nglishmenO r Americans conform to these ideas ? Do you supposethat the Chinese are all alike ? May we not, however, behelped by such general ideas of the people of different countries, if we do not hold them too strictly ? Why should wenot see everything as it is initself ? WhenWordsworth saidof Peter B ell

A primrose by a river’s brim

A yellow primrose was to him,

And it was nothing more,

What did he mean? What more was it ? I s there, then, morein the world thanwe can really see ? What does T ennysonmeaninhis poem about the F lower inthe crannied wall $ ?

C O NC LUS IO N .

I . The religi onof the savage is superstition, as we have seen,because the savage has no idea of his divinities, ex cept thatthey are powers that canhelp or injure him.

2 . The H indu came to see inGod the being inwhich all

things consist. He had so far an idea of God . He did notadd to this the idea of goodness. He could not say ,

$ G od is

good .

$ He could only say ,$ God is all .$

3. T he B uddhists had anidea of goodness, but not of a goodGod . T he universe was not good . E x istence was anevi l tobe escaped from. Life could not be made so good as to beworth living. T heir idea of goodness they embodied in thegracious form of B uddha . He could not change the nature ofthings. He could only call to us to escape with him fromex istence .

4. The P arsees saw that G od is good. T hey bel ieved thathe is to make the world good . B ut manwas his creature, nothis child . Mancould worship and serve him, but not becomeone wi th him. We do not find in their religionthe sympathyfor weakness and snfiering that we find inB uddhism. Y et i twas a noble and beautiful religion.

5 . T he rel igi onof the G reeks was a rel igi onof beauty . T he

gods and goddesses were so beautiful that men loved to makeimages of them that we delight innow,

and to sing about theminpoems that we now are glad to read . B ut these divinitieswere only beautiful ; they were not good , l ike the God of theParsees.

CO NCLUSION . 53

6. The E gyptianrel ig ionseems to us f u ll of my stery . We

can only understand that the E gyptians worshiped in theirdivini ties the hidden life of N ature . T his they set forth in

forms that seem strange and confused to us

7. The early Chinese had fewer superstitions thanmanyother peoples. T hey had a very lofty idea of God . T hey had

much practical common sense, but they have lacked enthu

siasm for the highest ideals. T hey have trusted too much tom s. T hus religioninits best reality has tended to die awayamong them.

8. The religions that we have studied were not whol ly f a lse .

So far as they were religions, they were true . E ach had a partial truth , united wi th many errors. Pure C hristianity holdsall these truths. E ach, joined with the others, is more perfectthanit was alone . T hus C hristianity is the fu lfilment of all,as it was the fulfilment of the religionof the Jews.

9 . The relig ionof the savage is true, so far as it goes. T he

savage recognizes the presence of some power that he cannotsee. He is right inturning to this, and trying to make it hisfriend . B ut, because he knows only that i t is a power, he fearsi t. He does not know that it is good, and that he canbecomeone with it only by becoming good . C hristianity teaches this.

T hus C hristianity fills out the bare belief of the savage, wi th

its great fulness.

Io. Christianity teaches w i th the f l indus that we and al l

things are inGod . I t adds to this the truth taught by theMazdean religion, that God is wholly good . T hese two truthstake each a new meaning, whenthey are thus uni ted. O ur l ifeis from and inGod. God becomesknownas the loving Father.B ut i t should be noticed that the Parsees have a faith inthefinal triumph of goodness that many C hristians lack.

1 1 . C hri st ianity is l ike B uddh ism inteaching love and sym

pathy for man. Like B uddhism, i t has its idea of goodnessembodied ina human life , Jesus mani festing the C hristianideal as B uddhism manifested the B uddhist ideal . B ut i t addsto this the thought of a good God our Father

,inwhom and

through whom we live, and to whom we may live. B ecause

54 R ELIGIONS BE FOR E CHR ISTIANITY.

C hristianity has this lofty thought, i t teaches what B uddhismcould not, that life may be a good. T he world itself is good,since i t manifests God .

1 2 . Christiani ty is l ike the G reek rel igion, inthat i t canmakeus rejoice in the beauty of the universe. I t makes us see,

also, God manifested through man. B ut it adds to the thoughtof beauty that of goodness. And what most reveals God inmanis not the physical beauty by which the Greeks set forththe divinity ; or eventhe d ignity and grace which they Showus insome of their representations of the gods ; but the higherspiritual qualities, the love and self-sacrifice, that are showninJesus. T hese most clearly manifest G od to us.

13. T he my stery that wefind inthe E gyptianreligi onis notabsent from C hristianity. All things manifest God, yet wecannot understand him. He has learned little who is not awedby the sense of the mystery of the universe, and the mysteryof G od. B ut C hristiani ty brightens the mystery by the thoughtof the infini te love . E venthe mystery may become a source ofjoy

,like that which we feel in the forest, or in some cathedral

of the old world .

14. We need the commonsense of the Chinese no less thanthe mystery of the E gyptians and the poetry of the Greeks.

We need to use our understanding in religious matters,as in

all others. B ut this alone is not enough. C hristiani ty bringsan enthusiasm which is evenmore precious thanthe clearnessO f commonsense . I t does not O ppose our understanding ; itgoes far beyond it. I t brings a faith inwhat we cannot see,or wholly comprehend .

I 5 . These rel igions teach certa inf orms and ceremonies bywhich the favor of the divini ty may be secured. E ach religionhas its ceremonies, and those of each differ from those O f all

the rest. B uddhism, indeed, has no such method of winningthe favor of God , because it has no supreme God to whom it

turns. C hristianity trusts to no forms. I f i t uses forms,i t is

because these help the moral and spiri tual life ; not because, inthemselves, they will please God . T here is only one way of

pleasing God, and that is the striving to do his will.

CONCLUSION . 55

QUESTIONS .

1 . Why is the religionof the savage superstition?2. What idea did the Hindus have of God ? What did this

idea of God lack ?

3. D id the B uddhists have an,

idea of a good God ? H ow

did they regard the world and life ? H ow did they embodytheir idea of goodness?

4. What idea did the Parsees have of God ? What was therelationof manto him?

5 . H ow did the Greeks represent their divini ties ? Whatdid their thought of the divinities lack ?6. H ow does the E gyptianreligionseem to us

7. What is said of the C hinese and their religion?8. Were these religions wholly false ? What is the relationof C hristianity to them?

9 . What truth has the religionof the savage ? What doesthis religionlack that C hristianity adds?

I O . What does C hristianity teach with the Hindus? Whatdoes i t add that the Mazdeanreligion taught ? What is thetruth that it teaches about God ? What faith had the Parseesthat many C hristians have not?1 1 . Inwhat does C hristianity agree with B uddhism? Whatdoes i t add to the teaching of B uddh ism?1 2. Inwhat is C hristianity like the Greek religion? Whatdoes it add to this ?13. What has C hristiani ty in commonwith the E gyptianreligion What does i t add to this1 4. What do we need that the C hinese have ? What more

is needed that C hristianity adds?1 5 . What place do forms hold in these religions ? What is

the relationof C hristianity to forms? H ow does it teach thatwe canplease God ?

A re there no Christians who depend uponforms? Could wedo without forms altogether? Why do we shake hands when

R ELIGIONS B EFOR E CHR ISTIA NITY.

we meet ? I s it not easier and pleasanter oftento ex press ourfeelings by some such sign thanto tell a f riend how much wethink of him? Why do parents caress a l ittle child before itcanunderstand ? Does it do the child any good ? May not

forms thus have a use inreligion? May not religious feel ingssometimes express themselves best by Signs and forms? B ut

is not this diff erent from trusting to forms, as if they had somesaving power in themselves ? B ecause the Christianreligion

is the best, does it follow that all Christians are better thanthe fol lowers O f other faiths? May not the follower of anotherfaith be better thanmany Christians? C ana manbe judged ,then, by the faith he holds ? H ow may he be judged ? Doesa manreally hold a faith that he does not try to obey ? Whocanbe truly called Christians? $Compare Matt. vii .,

58 BO O KS F O R R EFER ENCE .

C O X , G . W . Mythology of the Aryannations. N ew ed . 2 vols.

8vo. L ondon: KeganPaul . 28s.

Full of information. T he theories are perhaps, sometimes, pushed too far.

KN OX , T . W . T he B oy T ravellers inthe F ar E ast. In4 parts.

i

I . Japanand China. II . S iam and Java. III . Ceylonand India.

IV. E gypt and the H oly L and. N ew York : H arper B rothers.

1883. each .

These books containmuch informationina very simple and atttractive form.

They are good books for the young.

T he last editionof the E NCYC LO PE D IA B R ITA NN IC A contains manyvaluable articles uponthese religions.

L E SSO N I .

T Y L OR , E . B . Primitive Culture. B oston: E stes 8r L auriat.2 vols. 8y o.

L U B B OC K , S I R J .- T he yO rigin of C ivilization. N ew York

D . A ppleton C O . 1 2mo.

SPENC E R , H E RB E RT .— Descriptive S ociology. N ewly pre

pared under the direction of H erbert S pencer. 8 numbers.

N ew York : A ppleton C O . F olio. E achThese volumes contain a vast amount of very important informationin

the most condensed form, and arranged insuch a way as to be most easily

used.

L E SSO N II .

JO H N S ON , S . OrientalA

R eligions. Vol . I . India. B ostonH oughton, Mifll in& C o. 1 872. 8vo.

T he early part of this volume contains some statements In regard to the

ancient Aryanreligion.

F or statements inregard to Dyaus and S aramyu , see Muller’s Science of

L anguage: PP. 392 1 444-449 1 and etc

L E SSO N III .

W IL L IAMS , MON IER . H induism. N on-Christian ReligiousS ystems. L ondon: S ociety for Promoting ChristianKnowledge.

8vo. 2s. 6d.

This little work containsmuch wholly trustworthy information.

E A R T H , A . Religions of India. T ranslated by G . I . Wood.

L ondon: T riibner C o. l 6s.

A work of great value.

BO OKS F O R R EFER ENCE. 59

MU I R , J . Original S anscrit T exts. 5 vols. L ondon: T rubnerC o. 1867

—7 1 . 8y o. Vols. 1 and 2, zl s. each ; vol . 3, 16s. ; vol . 4,

1 5s. vol . 5, zl s.

This is a mine of information inregard to early H indu beliefs. T he workconsists of classified ex tracts from the early H indu literature, referring to themost important subjects covered by it.

MU IR , J .— Metrical T ranslations from S anskrit Writings. L on

don: T rubner C O . 14s.

WH EEL ER , J . T . H istory of India. L ondon: T riibner C o.

4 vols. 18s. and zl s.

T he first two volumes are very interesting as containing ina condensed formthe stories of the great H indu Epics.

L E SSO N IV.

OL DEN B ER G , H ER MANN . B uddha, his L ife, his Doctrine,and his Order. T ranslated byWm. H oey. L ondon: WilliamsN orgate . 1882. 8vo. 18s.

This is by far the best book onearly Buddhism.

H A RDY , R . S . Manual of B uddhism. 8vo. 7s. 6d.

H A RDY , R . S . E astern Monachism. 8vo. 7s. 6d . L ondonW illiams N orgate . 1 864.

These containthe best statement inregard to later or historic Buddhism.

DA VIDS , T . W . R H Y S . B uddhism. N on-ChristianReligions.

N ew York : Pott, Young 8: C o. 1 2mo.

DAVIDS , T .W . R H Y S . B uddhism. H ibbert L ectures for 188 1 .

L ondon: Williams N orgate. 1 0s. 6d .

Davids’works are valuable and interesting. That first named is perhaps the

most condensed account of Buddhism. Inregard to both , it must be remarked,however, that Davids’

view of N irvana is insome respects peculiar to himself.

B I G A N DE T , P ., B ishop o f R amatha. L ife and L egend of

G audama. 2 vols. 3d ed. L ondon: T riibner C o. 8y o.

1880. a1s.

MUEL L ER , F . M A X . S cience of Religion. N ew York : CharlesS cribner C o. 8vo. 1876.

This contains the Dhammapada, anearly and very important statement of

ethics. T he view of $ Buddhist N ihilism $takenby Max Muller in this

volume has not beengenerally accepted by scholars.

60 BO O KS F O R R E FER E NCE .

AR NOL D . L ight of A sia. B oston: Roberts B rothers.

$A C heap editionof this poem is published by F unk andWagnal lsat 1 5 cents. )This presents the legend of Buddha in the form of a poem. One may be

helped by this to enter into the spint of Buddhism. I t must be remembered ,however

, that the work Is a poem, and does not undertake to reproduce th$story with perfect literalness.

UN ITAR IAN R EV IEW : N ovember, 1 882.

Anarticle on R ecent S tudies in the author of this manual , gives a brief statement and discussionof the difierent views that have

beenheld by Westernscholars inregard to N irvana.

L E SSO N V.

DA R M E S T E T E R , J .— T ranslation of Z end-A vesta, T he Ven

didfid . Max M iil ler’s S acred B ooks of the E ast. Vol . IV. 8v0.

Oxford : C larendonPress. 1 0s. 6d.

E . W . WEST . T ranslationof B undahis. $Pahlavi T exts .) Mul

ler’s S acred B ooks of the E ast. Vol . V. 8vo. O x ford

C larendonPress. 1zs. 6d.

H A UG , M . E ssays onthe S acredWriting, L anguage, and ReligionO f the Parsis. B oston: H oughton, M ifll in C o . C r. 8v0.

$4.50.

Z END-AVESTA . T ranslated from S piegel’s G erman T ransla

tionby A . H . B leeck . 3 vols. inone . 8vo. S cribner.

L E SSO N VI .

C O X , G . W . Myt hology inthe F orm O f $ uestions and Answers.

1 2mo. L ondon: KeganPaul . N ew ed. 1878. 3s.

H AR R ISON , J . E . Myths of the Odyssey inA rt and L iterature .

L ondon: 1882. 18s.

A copious and learned book containing much new information. Interestingto every reader of Homer.

S Y M ON DS , J . A . S tudies of the G reek Poets. 2 vols. N ew

York : H arper B rothers. 1 88 1 .

T he opening chapter of Vol. I I . is anadmirable discussionof the mythologyof the G reeks as reflected inG reek art and poetry.

DE C OUL ANG ES , F .— T he Ancient City . B oston: L ee 81 S hepard.

1 873.

BO O KS F O R R E FER ENCE. 6 1

W I T T , C . Myths of H ellas ; or, G reek T ales. T ranslated byF . Y ounghusband. 1 2m0. L ondon: L ongmans. 1 883. 3s. 6d .

C overs a wide range , and introduces legends which are rarely met with inthe writers ordinarily studied inthe schools.

SEEMAN , O . T he Mythology of G reece and Rome. T ranslatedby G . H . B ianchi . N ew York : H arper 8: B rothers. 1 877 . 90

cents.

B U L F IN C H , T . T he A ge of F able ; or, B eauties of Mythology.N ew, enlarged, and illustrated edition. E dited by R ev. E . E .

H ale, D .D . B oston S . W . T ilton C 0. 188 1 .

KING SL EY , C H AR L ES . H eroes ; or, G reek F airy T ales.

L ondon: Macmillan. 1868.

H AW T H ORN E , N . T anglewood T ales. B oston: H oughton,M ifll in& C o. L ittle C lassic ed . 18mo. 1882.

R USKIN , J . $ ueenof the A ir : A S tudy of the G reek Myths of

C loud and S torm. N ew York : W iley.

S H A K S P E A R E , C H A R L E s. S t. Paul at A thens. LondonKeganPaul . 1878. 5s.

T YL E R ,W . S . T heology of the G reek Poets. Andover : Draper.

1867 .

L E SSO N VI I .

R ENOU F ,P . L E PAG E . H ibbert L ectures. Originand G rowth

of Rel igion as illustrated by the Religion of Ancient E gypt.L ondon: Will iams N orgate. N ew York : D. S cribner. 1880.

Very clear and interesting.

T IE L E , C . P .— Comparative H istory of the E gyptianand Meso

potamian Religions. T ranslated by James B allingal . B oston

H oughton, M iff lin C 0 . 1 880. $English and F oreign PhiloSophical L ibrary, Vol . XXVII .)

B RU G S C H -B E Y , H . H istory of E gypt under the Pharaohs.

2 vols. 8vo. L ondon Murray. 3os.

Animportant work for those making a thorough study of the subject.

UN ITAR IAN RE VIE W , VO L . X I I .

This volume contains interesting articles on Egypt, by Professor F. G .

Peabody . I would refer especially to the article on T he First G limpse of

H istoriml R eligion,$ inN o. 6.

62 BO O KS F O R R E FER E NCE.

B IRC H , S . E gypt. Volume of $ Ancient H istory from the

Monuments.

$N ew York : E . J . B . Young 8: C o. 16mo.

60 cents.

L E SSO N VIII .

L EG G E , JAMES . L ife and T eachings of Conf ucius. Philadel

phia : L ippincott & C o. 8vo.

MEN C IUS . Works : with L ife, E ssays and N otes by J. L egge.

Philadelphia : L ippincott C o. 1 2mo.

L egge is perhaps our best authorI ty inregard to the religionof C hina.

MUEL L ER , M A X . S acred B ooks of the E ast. Vol . III. T he

texts of Confucianism translated by J. L egge. Ox ford : C larendonPress. 8vo. 1 zs. 6d.

This contains a translationof the S hu King and O f the religious portions ofthe S hIh King, by James L egge.

JOH N S ON , S . Oriental Religions. II. China. B oston: H oughton,M itflin C o. 1 877.

L OOM I S ,A . W . Confucius and the C hinese C lassics. S an

F rancisco : A . Romers C o. 1 2mo. $ 1 . 50.

L A O -T S Z E . T ranslated by John Chalmers, A .M . L ondonT riibner. 8vo . 1868. 4s. 6d.

DOO L IT T L E ,

$

JUSTUS . S ocial L ife of the Chinese. 2 vols .

N ew York : H arper B rothers.