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Early Reform

The Nineteenth Century

Harvie, C. Ch. 8. Revolution and the Rule of

Law, in Morgan.

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Reform & Religion (Harvie in

Morgan, p. 481)

The British government did not play apositive (definite/leading to practical

action/constructive) role inindustrialization; as the Corn Laws of 1815

were to show, neither did itabstain

(refrain/hold back) in the interests of

laissez-faire (freedom from political and

economic constraints).

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Corn Laws (1815-46)

Corn=BrE grain plants: e.g. barley, oats,

esp. wheat (staple diet of working class)

1804: 1st

Corn Law 1815: Depression. Abolition of income tax,

indirect taxes levied, e.g. New Corn Law.

= Foreign corn imported free of duty if priceof bread=80 s ; 1 shilling= 1/20 1

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Thomas Robert Malthus (1776-1834)

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An Essay on the Principle of Population

Malthus, T. R. (1798) An Essay on the Principle

of Population, as It Affects the Future

Improvement of Society with Remarks on the

Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, andOther Writers.

I said that population, when unchecked,

increased in a geometrical ratio, and subsistencefor man in an arithmetical ratio

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Malthus, T. R. (1814)

Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws

Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws, and of a Rise or Fall in the

Price of Corn on the Agriculture and General Wealth of the Country

if we inquire into the expenditure of the labouringclasses it by no means consists wholly in food, and still

less in mere bread or grain {I}n a labourer's

family house rent, fuel, soap, candles, tea, sugar, and

clothing, are generally equal to the articles of bread or

meal {T}herefore that the whole of the wages of labour

can never rise and fall in proportion to the variations in

the price of grain

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an argument in favour of the corn laws {is} that thegreat sums which the country has had to pay for foreigncorn during the last twenty years must have beeninjurious to her resources, and might have been saved by

the improvement of our agriculture No purchase is evermade, either at home or abroad, unless that which isreceived is of more value than that which is given;we shall never buy corn or any other commodities abroad,if we cannot by so doing supply our wants in a moreadvantageous manner, and by a smaller quantity ofcapital, than if we had attempted to raise thesecommodities at home

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As one of the evils therefore attending the throwing open our portsif the stimulus to population, from the cheapness of grain, should inthe course of twenty or twenty five years reduce the earnings of thelabourer the condition of the lower classes of people in this countrywould be deteriorated. And if they should not be so reduced, it isquite clear that the encouragement to the growth of corn will not be

fully restored Those who contend for the unrestrained admission of foreign corn,

must not imagine that the cheapness it will occasion will be good;and that it will give an additional stimulus to the commerce andpopulation, while it leaves the present state of agriculture and itsfuture increase undisturbed. They must be prepared to see a sudden

stop put to the progress of our cultivation, and even some diminutionof its actual state; and they must be ready to encounter the risk, ofmaking a considerable proportion of our population dependent uponforeign supplies of grain, and of exposing them to those vicissitudesand changes in the channels of commerce to which manufacturingstates are of necessity subject

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David Ricardo (1772-1823)

The Principles of Political Economy (1817)

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Ricardo, David.An Essay on Profits

(1815)

The exchangeable value of all commodities, rises as thedifficulties of their production increase. If then newdifficulties occur in the production of corn, from morelabour being necessary the exchangeable value of corn

will necessarily rise, as compared with those things. Onthe contrary, facilities in the production of corn whichshall afford the same produce with less labour, will lowerits exchangeable value Thus we see that improvements inagriculture, or in the implements of husbandry, lower theexchangeable value of corn Wherever competition can

have its full effect, and the production of the commoditybe not limited by nature the difficulty or facility oftheir production will ultimately regulate theirexchangeable value

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(1815) As the revenue of the farmer is realized in raw produce, or in the value of

raw produce, he is interested, as well as the landlord, in its highexchangeable value, but a low price of produce may be compensated to himby a great additional quantity. It follows then, that the interest of the landlordis always opposed to the interest of every other class in the community. Hissituation is never so prosperous, as when food is scarce and dear: whereas,

all other persons are greatly benefited by procuring food cheap. High rentand low profits, for they invariably accompany each other, ought never to bethe subject of complaint, if they are the effect of the natural course ofthings

If then, the principles here stated as governing rent and profit be correct,general profits on capital, can only be raised by a fall in the exchangeablevalue of food, and which fall can only arise from three causes:

1st The fall of the real wages of labour, which shall enable the farmer tobring a greater excess of produce to market.

2nd Improvements in agriculture, or in the implements of husbandry, whichshall also increase the excess of produce.

3rd The discovery of new markets, from whence corn may be imported at acheaper price than It can be grown for at home.

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(1815) There are two ways in which a country may be benefited by trade

one by the increase of the general rate of profits, whichcan nevertake place but in consequence of cheap food, which is beneficial onlyto those who derive a revenue from the employment of their capital,either as farmers, manufacturers, merchants, or capitalists, lending

their money at interestthe other by the abundance of commodities,and by a fall in their exchangeable value, in which the wholecommunity participate. In the first case, the revenue of the country isaugmentedin the second the same revenue becomes efficient inprocuring a greater amount of the necessaries and luxuries of life.

It is in this latter mode only that nations are benefited by theextension of commerce, by the division of labour in manufactures,and by the discovery of machinery,they all augment the amount ofcommodities but, they have no effect on the rate of profits, becausethey do not augment the and it is impossible that all other profitsshould rise whilst the profits on land are either stationary, orretrograde.

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(1815) If we became a regularly importing country, and

foreigners could confidently rely on the demand of ourmarket, much more land would be cultivated in the corncounties with a view to exportation. When we considerthe value of even a few weeks consumption of corn in

England, no interruption could be given to the exporttrade, if the continent supplied us with any considerablequantity of corn, without the most extensively ruinouscommercial distressdistress which no sovereign, orcombination of sovereigns, would be willing to inflict ontheir people; and, if willing, it would be a measure towhich probably no people would submit. It was theendeavour of Buonaparte to prevent the exportation of theraw produce of Russia, more than [any] other causewhich produced the astonishing efforts of the people ofthat county against the most powerful force perhaps ever

assembled to subjugate a nation

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Corn Laws (1815-46)

1839: trade depression, Anti-Corn Law Leaguefounded

1845-50: Irish Famine

1846:Repeal of Corn Laws

PM: PeelTory (1834-35; 1841-46), despiteopposition by protectionists (DisraeliPM 1868;1874-80)

Peelites broke away from Tories to form LiberalParty, ruled 1846-74

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Sir Robert Peel (PM 1834-35; 1841-46)

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Benjamin Disraeli Disraeli (PM 1868; 1874-

80)

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Petition to Parliament (1841)

The humble Petition of the undersigned Members and Friends of the Congregation of ProtestantDissenters, assembling for divine worship Hackney

That your Petitioners contemplate with pain and distressing apprehension the continuanceof certain Laws of Her Majesty's realm, the design and effect of which are to restrictthe supply of the necessaries of human life, and greatly to increase their cost.

That the results of those unhappy Laws are now made manifest in the extreme sufferingsof those classes of our fellow subjects which constitute the basis of our national

strength, in the depression of manufactures, and their exportation to rival countries, inthe miserabel [sic] inadequate wages of both agricultural and manufacturing industry,in the entire want of work to an alarming extent, in the hazardous and perniciousdirection given to mercantile pursuits, and in a fearful tendency to the impoverishingand ruin of the nation.

That your Petitioners arc especially affected by a rational and Christian conviction of theimpiety involved in those Laws, as being in their nature a crime against God, and as intheir practical operation productive of discontent, disloyalty, infidelity, profligacy of

conduct, a rejection of the authority of religion, and by necessary consequence themost appalling dangers to the peace and security of all classes as to both property andperson.That therefore your Petitioners humbly and earnestly implore your honourableHouse to take these awful facts into your consideration, and to adopt prompt andeffectual measures to stop the progress of national misery, and to prevent our commonand irreparable ruin.

And your Petitioners shall ever pray {names}.

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Western, Baron Charles Callis (1839) The

maintenance of the Corn Laws Essential to the

General Prosperity of the Empire.

I distinctly affirm that my object is PLENTY to secure to the people of thiscountry the most abundant and regular supply of corn possible: maintain thatsuch has ever been and now is the object of our Corn Laws, and that theyhave produced that effect; that the existing law has worked admirably; thatthe price has been as moderate and steady for the last eight or ten years, lessfluctuating than in any other country in Europe...

The establishment of the system was completed in the reign of Charles theSecond {In 1670 an Act was passed extending the exportation price that is tosay, the permission unlimited to export till the price reached to 53s. 4d. aquarter for Wheat and imposing at the same time prohibitory duties on theimportation of Wheat, till the price rose to 53s.4d. and a duty of 8s. betweenthat and 80s. when it was free}

The moment this country took a spring in all its branches of industry, its

commerce, and its manufactures, which period I may perhaps date about theyear 1765, the price of Corn rose; and with our increasing prosperityThiswas certainly the effect produced by our commercial and manufacturingindustry upon the agriculture of the country; but it does in no measure decidethe question of the Corn Laws namely, whether the encouragement ofBritish agriculture by restrictive regulations on foreign growth, or the freeadmission of the same, affords the best prospect of plenty...

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maintenance of the Corn Laws

{The Corn Laws are based upon} the principle of self-preservationand national independence, in the supply of Corn, the chief food ofour people ; thus, by teaching the country to rely upon its ownresources, by encouraging and almost forcing our own Agriculture,they, in fact, did produce independence

What is it then that makes our price so much higher than theContinental price? It is our superior wealth, and our higher Revenueand burdens necessary to be borne to support that Revenue; it is notthat these burdens make the price of Corn it is our wealth thatmakes a higher price in England, not only for Corn, but for everything else, and which enables us to bear those heavier burdens andmaintain our superior revenue with comparative facility; and that

superior wealth is mainly owing to our commercial andmanufacturing pre-eminence. It is, I repeat, to the vast achievementsof our merchants and manufactures, the wealth acquired by theirsuccess, that the price of corn has reached and maintained its superiorheight over that of other countries.

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maintenance of the Corn Laws {If the price of Corn is brought down, this would result falling corn prices, wages,

revenue and in general in the falling to pieces of everything else. Low agriculturalprices would lead to unemployment which is}infinitely worse than the difficultiesattendant upon a defective harvest, and has always more irritated and oftener driven toacts of violence the hard- working classes of the community than any other cause

I am thoroughly convinced that Corn is grown cheaper in this country than anycountry in Europe, that is to say, when the cost price is measured by the quantity oflabour and seed bestowed upon its production : that our skill science, and capital,enable us to effect this result

{U}ninterupted Foreign supply {of Corn is} very problematical indeed I think itmadness to rely upon it But it will be so evidently and so much for their interest tobring their corn to our market, and to extend their growth largely for our supply; if itshould be so our price must remain high and our growth continue to decrease as theirscontinues to advance We are at their mercy

Our markets must be for ever in a most feverish state, and such a state must be

allowed to be highly injurious As to steadiness of price so desirable, I contend thatso far from ensuring it we must bid adieu to that degree of it we have hitherto enjoyed,and it is distinctly provable that our fluctuation in price has been less in England thanboth in the Corn-growing and importing countries

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Morgan, p. 481)

But increasingly it [the Br. gvmt] observedprinciples which were more or lesssystematic(careful, thorough, methodical, rigorous), andless unfavourable to industrial capitalists

(owners of means of production & employers ofwage labour = industrial millionaires, theleaders of industrial armies) than they were toany other classexcept, of course, landowners

(MPs) , who were often capitalists themselves inmining (coal, iron), transport (railways,steamboats, canals, turnpike trusts) andproperty

development(building)

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Morgan, pp. 481-82)

The axioms (principle accepted as truth) ofBlackstone and Burke: of(1) continuity, (2) thedivision of powers, (3) the interpenetration

(mutual influence) of gvmt, economy, andsocietyand above all (4) the notion of gvmt asa self-regulating mechanismcomplemented (a)the mechanics of classical economics, (b) the

discoveries of science, and even (c) the cultivateddeism ( theism) of the upper classes(aristocracy & gentry).

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Sir William Blackstone (1723-80)

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The axioms ofBlackstone

Sir William Blackstone (1723-80) Commentaries on the Laws

of England(1765-1769)

Unwritten law= common law =general customs,

judgesare its depositories

Universal public relation: governors & governed

Division of powers (balance, mutual checks):

legislative& executive:

In the legislature the people are a check upon the nobility and thenobility a check upon the people; by the mutial privilege of rejecting

what the other has resolved: while the king is a check upon both

And this very executive power is again checked and kept within

bounds by the two houses

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The axioms ofBurke

Edmund Burke (1729-1797).Reflections on the

Revolution in France (1790)

Cf. Glorious Revolution & French Revolution

1688: Two principles:

1. Conservation (ancient form of gvmt: monarchy,

hereditary descent)

2. Correction (statute law, new line of descent,Protestantism as qualification)

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Edmund Burke (1729-1797).

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The axioms ofBlackstone and

Burke

(1)continuity=uninterrupted connection beneaththe surface turbulence of politics (Morgan:ix), slow development, evolution

(2)division/separation of powers= persons,functions, mutual checks & balances

(3)interpenetration of gvmt, economy, &society= small, closely-knit interdependentisland, common interests

(4)gvmt: self-regulating mechanism (sets its ownlimits=rule of law)

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The axioms ofBlackstone and Burke

complemented (blended in, matched, suited):

(a) the mechanics (ways) ofclassicaleconomics=laissez-faire=economic liberalism

(b) the discoveries of science: e.g.

1790: Lavoisier: Table of 31 Chemical Elements1796: Jenner vaccination against smallpox

1816: Lannec invents stethoscope

1827: Niepce: photographs on metal plate

1831: Guthrie & Liebig invent chloroform1859: Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species by Natural

Selection.

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1790: Lavoisier: Table of 31 Chemical Elements

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1796: Edward Jenner innoculates a

boy

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Early Lannec stethoscope

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Niepces first photograph

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Joseph T. Clover administering chloroform.

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Charles Darwin (1809-82)

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Origin of Species (Ch 4)

It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourlyscrutinising, throughout the world, every variation, eventhe slightest; rejecting that which is bad, preserving andadding up all that is good; silently and insensibly

working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers, atthe improvement of each organic being in relation to itsorganic and inorganic conditions of life. We see nothingof these slow changes in progress, until the hand of timehas marked the long lapses of ages, and then so imperfect

is our view into long past geological ages, that we onlysee that the forms of life are now different from what theyformerly were.

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Reform & Religion (Harvie: 482)

But the ideal(axioms) required renovation.Corruption and inefficiency had taken theirtoll (done harm) at the time of the American

War, and although the spectacle of mob(large violent crowd) violenceparticularlyin the Gordon Riots of 1780maderespectable (decent) reformers more

circumspect (cautious),reform(reorganization, restructuring) was an admittednecessity

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Gordon Riots6 days June 1780

1558-1700: Penal Laws: enactments against

Catholics religious, civic, labour freedom

1778: Catholic Relief Act: Catholic worship

1778: Protestant Association founded,

President: Lord George Gordon

1780:Gordon Riots in London, suppressed with

troops

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Lord George Gordon

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Catholic Emancipation, 1829

1828: Repeal of Test & Corporation Acts

Corporation Act (1661): holders of municipaloffice to take CofE communionTest Act (1673): excluded non-members ofCofE from public office 1829: Catholic Emancipation passed:

Catholics permitted to sit in Parliament,participate fully in public life

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Reform & Religion (Harvie: 482)

The messages ofAdam Smith and JohnWesley had seen to that (reform was anadmitted necessity).

Smith (1723-90):An Inquiry into theNature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations 1776=free trade, restrictions are

harmful Wesley (1703-91): Methodism

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Adam Smith (1723-90)

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John Wesley (1703-91)

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Social Unrest

Peacetime economy: depression, unemployment,crop failures=economic hardshiprioting +repression

1811-16: Luddite riots , machine-breakers.Mythical leader, general Ludd. East midlands,South Lancashire, West Yorkshire.Transportation/execution.

1819: Peterloo, repressed by Hussars reserve(yeomanry)

1830: Captain Swing Riots: Kent, againstagricultural machinery: Seed drill; Horse-drawn hoe.

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Luddites smashing looms in a

factory 1811-16

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Captain Ludd 1812

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Peterloo Massacre

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Peterloo

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Peterloo The Manchester Guardian

48

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Swing Riots (rioters settting fire to alandlords hayrick)

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Swing Riots

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Repression

1799-80: Combination Acts: against unions;repealed 1824-25

1817: suspension ofHabeas Corpus Act (1679)

1819: Six Acts: (1) Meetings over 50 peopleprohibitedin force 5yrs; (2) Magistratesempowered to search private houses2yrs; (3)Military training by civilians prohibitedtoday;(4) Libel laws strengthenedtoday; (5) Right to

adjournment of trial limited; (6) Stamp duties onprinted matter increasedreduced & abolished

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Reform (Harvie:495) Representation in

Parliament

Franchise (right to vote) House ofLords

(hereditary to 1999)

House ofCommons

(rotten boroughs,pocket

boroughs + property

qualifications)

Reform of Parliament:Whigs & Radicals

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Reform (M-W)

Represent/ation: to serve in a legislative

body by delegated authority resulting from

election.

Vote: a usu. formal expression of opinion

or will = Ballot ( + secret voting).

Franchise:right to vote.

Suffrage = franchise + the exercise of

such right

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England & Wales

before 1832

Counties returning 1member ea

Counties returning 2members ea

County of Yorkshirereturning 4 members ofwhom 2 were returnedby the West Riding

City of London

returned 4 members &the U of Oxford &Cambridge 2 membersea.

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Reform Act 1832

1st Reform Bill 1831

Reform Act 1832

1. Rotten boroughs abolished; small villagesnot represented; new towns represented

2. Franchise: 10 yr in rent = merchants,

businessmen, doctors, lawyers,shopkeepers 200thou.men enfranchised

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England & Wales after 1832Counties returning 1 mmbr ea

Counties returning 2 mmbrs e

Counties returning 3 mmbrs eaCounties subdivided into 2

constituencies and returning 4members ea

County of Yorkshire subdivided into3 constituencies returning 6mmbrs

Boroughs returning1 memberea

Boroughs returning 2 membersea

City of London returned 4 mmbrs & U.of Oxford & Cambridge 2 mmbrs

eaBoroughs of New Shoreham, East

Retford, Cricklade, & Aylesburyincluded surrounding

districts.

S t f t ti H f C b f & ft

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System of representation House of Commons before & after

1832Borough returning two members before

1832, disfranchised 1832

Borough returning one member before1832, disfranchised 1832Borough that had representation

reduced 1832

Borough enfranchised 1832, returningtwo members

Borough enfranchised 1832, returningone member

Borough returning two members before& after 1832

Borough returning one member before& after 1832

County returning three members after1832

County returning two members after

1832Division of county returning two

members after 1832

Before 1832 ea. county in Englandreturned 2 members, & ea. county inWales one member;

After 1832 ,9 counties in Wales, only,

returned one member.

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Chartism 1838-48

The Peoples Charter: 1. Universal

manhood suffrage; 2. Secret Ballot; 3.

Abolition of property qualification for

MPs; 4. Payment of MPs; 5. Annual

Parliaments.

Movement disappeared by 1848 (end of age

of revolution abroad) but not aims.

h l h

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The Peoples Charter

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Chartist Riots

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Evolution of Franchise

1832 First Reform Act: upper (middle)

classes

1867 Second Reform Act: townhouseholders paying rents & one-year

residence lodgers ( 10)

Reform and Redistribution Acts 1884-

85: agricultural workers & tenants.

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Evolution of Franchise

1872 Ballot Act: secret ballot

1918 Representation of the People Act: all men

over 21; women over 30 (ratepayers or wives of)

1928 Representation of the People (Equal

Franchise) Act: all women over 21

1948 Representation of the People Act: abolition

of plural voting in two places in constituency 1969 Representation of the People Act:

minimum voting age 18

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The Abolition of

Slavery, 1833 Ports: Triangular trade: 3

Passages: Outward: EnglandW. Africa:

brandy, cloth, muskets,gunpowder, & bar iron.Handcuffs & leg-irons(restraints) Beans for theMiddle Passage

Middle: W. AfricaW.Indies/America: slaves

Inward: W. Indies/AmericaEngland cotton, sugar, coffee,

tobacco, molasses:manufactured and re-shipped:Continent, colonies, rest ofworld

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Triangular trade + UK

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Triangular Trade + 13 colonies

Plan of the Brookes overcrowded

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Plan of theBrookes, overcrowded

slave ship

O i i Sl D S l

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Opposition to Slavery: Dr. Samuel

Johnson (1709-84)

Many countries have had part of their inhabitants in astate of slavery; yet it may be doubted whether slaverycan be the natural condition of man

Men in their original state were equal; [it is] difficult toimagine how one would be subjected to another but by

violent compulsion. An individual may forfeit hisliberty by a crime; but he cannot forfeit the liberty ofhis children.

What is true of a criminal seems true of a captive. Aman may accept life from a conquering enemy on

condition of perpetual servitude; but it is doubtfulwhether he can entail that servitude on his descendants

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Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-84)

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JohnsonsDictionary 1755

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Opposition to Slavery: Quakers (Society of

Friends, 1650s)

1688: Protest Against Slavery by Quakers inGermantown, Pennsylvania

Though they are black, we cannot conceive

there is more liberty to have them slaves,as it is to have other white ones.

There is a saying, that we shall do to allmen like as will be done ourselves; makingno difference of what generation, descentor colour they are.

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Quakers

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Opposition to Slavery: Quakers

And those who steal or rob men, and those whobuy or purchase them, are they not all alike? Hereis liberty of conscience, which is right andreasonable; here ought to be likewise liberty of

the body, except of evil-doers, which is an othercase.

But to bring men hither, or to rob and sell themagainst their will, we stand against.

In Europe there are many oppressed forconscience sake; and here there are thoseoppressed who are of a black colour.

Abolition of Slavery: William

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Abolition of Slavery: William

Wilberforce (1759-1833)

A Letter on the Abolition of the Slave Trade Addressed

to the Inhabitants of Yorkshire, 1807.

Where there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor

uncircumcision, Barbarian, Scythian, bond norfree: but

Christ is all, and in all. Put on, therefore, as the elect of

God bowels of mercies, kindness (Colossians 3.11-

12)

And [God] hath made of one blood all nations of men for

to dwell on all the face of the earth (Acts 17.26)

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Abolition of Slavery, 1833

1807: Slave Trade Bill

1824: Slave Trade Act

1833: Slavery Abolition Act

1836: Boers trek to Transvaal

T l

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Transvaal

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The Great Trek (1835)

Industrial Revolution

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Industrial RevolutionMarx & Engels,Manifesto

Relations of production :concentrated workplace, employedhundreds of men, women, childrenfactory: integral feature ofemployment.

New labour relations: workforcecreated (attraction into + controlwithin factories)

definition factory system (Encarta:working arrangement whereby anumber of persons cooperate toproduce articles of consumption(Revolution: 32).

But, what is a factory? (Revolution:

37)

Factory/mill = textile factories =cotton mills

Industry (manufacturing) = mill(textiles) = factory ({collection of}buildings w/ manufacturingmachinery) to c. 1840

I d t i l R l ti

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Industrial RevolutionMarx & Engels,Manifesto

Disciplining of workforce: punctuality

(long hours), regularity (long term

contracts, bonuses, compulsory fund),accuracy (fines, schools) (Revolution: 49-50).

Labour communities created:Derbyshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire

New Communities

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New Communities

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Factory Reform, only e.g.

Factory Act, 1833:No child under 9 to work incotton, woollen, flax mill; no child under 13 to work over

48hs/w; no one under 18 over 69hs/w.

1842: Mines Act:forbade women & childrens work 1847: Ten Hours Act: women & persons 13-18 to

10hs/d- 8hs/S.

1840: Act to abolish child chimney sweeping, only

effective 1875 (licensing of sweeps). 1901: Factory & Workshops Act:Minimum working

age 12

Child L b

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Child Labour

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Child Labour

Child L b + l i

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Child Labour + coal mines

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Child Labour + coal pits

Ed ti P i i

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Education Provisions

1833 Factory Act: children

working in textile mills;

1st gvmt. Grant

1844:Ragged schools (photo)

1870 Education Act: increased grants, moreschools

1880 Education Act: compulsory schooling 5-10

1918 Education Act: school leaving age 141936 Education Act: school leaving age 15

(enforced 1944)

1973: school leaving age 16 (announced 1964)

Consequences: Engels The Condition of the

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Consequences: Engels. The Condition of the

Working Class in England in 1844.

Such is the Old Town ofManchester, and on

re-reading my description, I am forced to admit

that instead of being exaggerated, it is far from

blackenough to convey a true impression of thefilth, ruin, and uninhabitableness, the defiance of

all considerations ofcleanliness, ventilation, and

health which characterise the construction of this

single district, containing at least twenty to thirtythousand inhabitants.

Manchester

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Manchester

Consequences: Engels The Condition of the

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Consequences: Engels. The Condition of the

Working Class in England in 1844.

And such a district existsin the heart of the second

city of England, the first

manufacturing city of the

world. If any one wishes tosee in how little space a

human being can move,

how little airand such

air!he can breathe, how

little of civilisation he may

share and yet live, it is only

necessary to travel hither.

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Consequences

No governmentcontrol.

Slums {denselypopulated usually urbanarea marked bycrowding, dirty run-down housing, poverty,and social

disorganization}(Lancashire, BlackCountry, S.Yorkshire).

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Consequences

Coke towns/wastelands: soot{black substance formed bycombustion}, grime {dirt

adhering to/ embedded in asurface}, fog {vaporcondensed to fine particles ofwater suspended in the lower

atmosphere}, sulfurous{burning sulfur}

emissions, chemicalwaste

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Urban landscpae

Consequences

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Consequences Factory accidents;industrial diseases {caused by

working conditions: affecting people as result of workthey do}; infectious (feverous) diseases:

Diphtheria {false membrane esp. in throat, caused by bacteriumproducing toxin causing inflammation of heart & nervous system}tuberculosis {bacillus that affects esp. lungs but might spread to

kidneys or spinal column} Typhoid fever {diarrhea, prostration, headache, & intestinal

inflammation, caused by bacterium}

Typhus {bacterial disease transmitted esp. by body lice, high fever,stupor alternating with delirium, intense headache, & dark red rash}

scarlet fever {streptococci, inflammation of nose, throat, & mouth,generalized toxemia, & red rash}

cholera {acute diarrheal disease},

Black Country (W Midlands)

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Black Country (W. Midlands)

P bli H l h

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Public Health

1848: Public Health Act:Boards + medical officers

1871: Local Gvmt Board:supervision

1872: Public Health Act:

compulsorymedicalofficers & sanitaryauthorities appointed bylocal authorities

1875: Public Health Act:drainage {photo top},sanitation, water supplies{photo bottom communal waterpump}

1875 P bli H l h A

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1875 Public Health Act

PLANS FOR MAIN SEWERAGE, DRAINAGE, And WATER SUPPLY..Explanation of the Terms used

Sewage: The fluid and feculent {fecal} refuse of dwellings.

Sewer: The main conduit {channel}for sewage.

Drain: The tributary conduit for sewage from houses to sewers.

Sewerage: A system of sewers.Raw or Crude Sewage: Sewage as it flows untreated from a sewer.

Clarified Sewage: Sewage deprived of solids and flocculent{fluffly/flakes}matters.

Purified Sewage: Sewage filtered through land sufficiently to have neutralizedthe salts.

Sludge: The crude refuse from sewage-tanks.Sewage-manure: Sludge dried or manipulated to make it more portable, andwhether mixed with chemicals or not.

Excreta: Faeces and urine combined.

Dust: The ashes and other dry refuse from houses.

Sewerage

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Sewerage

Ludgate Hill

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Ludgate Hill

H i

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Housing

1868 Artisans & Labourers Dwellings

Act: compulsory demolition/repair

1875 Artisans & Labourers Dwellings

Improvement Act: compulsory purchase of

unfit areas

1890 Housing of the Working Classes Act:

council houses

Housing

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Housing

H i

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Housing

Housing

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101

g

tema/nudo/problema/cuestin de su inters

Housing

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Housing

Reform 2012

Documents