References Aluminum with Food and Chemieals. 3d ed. 1964. Montreal: Aluminum Company of Canada, Ltd. Behrens, Dieter, Ed. 1987-1989. Dechema Corrosion Handbook. Frankfurt: Dechema. Bockris, John O'M. 1953. Electrochemical Constants. NBS Circular 524. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Bockris, John O'M. and Amulyn K. N. Reddy. 1970. Modern Electrochemistry. New York: Plenum Press. Brandes, Eric A., Ed. 1983. Smithells Metals Reference Book. 6th ed. London: Butterworths. Britton, S. C. 1952. The Corrosion Resistance of Tin and Tin Alloys. Greenford, Middlesex, England: Tin Research Institute. Carboline Protective Coatings Reference Handbook. (undated) st. Louis, MO: Car- boline Co. Craig, B. D., Ed. 1989. Handbook of Corrosion Data. Metals Park, OH: ASM International. Davis, Joseph R., Ed.1987. Metals Handbook. 9th ed. Vo1.13. Metals Park, OH: ASM International. De Renzo, D. J., Ed. 1985. Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbpok. 4th ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp. Dillon, C. P. 1986a. Corrosion control in the process industries with nickel-base and nickel-hearing alloys. In Proceedings of Materials Engineering Workshop. Refer- ence Book Series No. 11 001. Toronto, Canada: Nickel Development Institute. Dillon, C. P. 1986b. Corrosion Control in the Chemical Process Industries. New York: McGraw-Hill. Direct Calculation of Economic Appraisals of Corrosion Control Measures. NACE Standard RP-02-72. 1972. Houston: National Association of Corrosion Engi- neers. Douglass, D. L. 1971. Exfoliation and the mechanical behavior of scales. In Oxidation of Metals and Alloys. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. 330
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References
Aluminum with Food and Chemieals. 3d ed. 1964. Montreal: Aluminum Company of Canada, Ltd.
Craig, B. D., Ed. 1989. Handbook of Corrosion Data. Metals Park, OH: ASM International.
Davis, Joseph R., Ed.1987. Metals Handbook. 9th ed. Vo1.13. Metals Park, OH: ASM International.
De Renzo, D. J., Ed. 1985. Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbpok. 4th ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp.
Dillon, C. P. 1986a. Corrosion control in the process industries with nickel-base and nickel-hearing alloys. In Proceedings of Materials Engineering Workshop. Reference Book Series No. 11 001. Toronto, Canada: Nickel Development Institute.
Dillon, C. P. 1986b. Corrosion Control in the Chemical Process Industries. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Direct Calculation of Economic Appraisals of Corrosion Control Measures. NACE Standard RP-02-72. 1972. Houston: National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
Douglass, D. L. 1971. Exfoliation and the mechanical behavior of scales. In Oxidation of Metals and Alloys. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals.
Fontana, Mars G. 1987. Corrosion Engineering. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Graver, D. L. 1985. Corrosion Data Survey. 6th ed. Houston, TX: National Associa
tion of Corrosion Engineers. Hall, G. R. 1986. Cementitious coatings. In Encyclopedia of Materials Science and
Engineering, Michael B. Bever, Ed. pp. 1: 571-575. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kapusta, Sergio D. 1988. Inhibitors: corrosion. In Encyclopedia of Chemical Process
ing and Design. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Kubaschewski, O. and B. E. Hopkins. 1962. Oxidation of Metals and Alloys. 2d ed.
London: Butterworths. Miller, E. C. 1952. Liquid Metals Handbook. 2d ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern
ment Printing Office. Moses, A. J. 1978. The Practicing Scientist's Handbook. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co. Parker, Earl R. 1967. Materials Data Book for Engineers and Scientists. New York:
McGraw-Hill. Parsons, R. 1959. Handbook of Electrochemical Constants. London: Butterworths. Polar, 1. P. 1961. A Guide to Corrosion Resistance. New York: Climax Molybdenum
DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. Schweitzer, Philip A. 1986. Corrosion Resistance Tab/es. 2d ed. New York: Marcel
Dekker,Inc. Schweitzer, Philip A. 1990. Corrosion Resistance of Elastomers. New York: Marcel
Dekker,Inc. Seymour, R. B. 1982. Plastics vs. Corrosives. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Shreir, L. L., Ed. 1976. Corrosion. 2d ed. London: Newnes-Butterworths. Slunder, C. 1. and W. K. Boyd. 1983. Zinc: Its Corrosion Resistance. 2d ed. New York:
International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc. Treseder, R. S., Ed.1980. NACE Corrosion Engineer's Reference Book. Houston, TX:
National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Van Delinder, L. S., Ed. 1984. Corrosion Basics-An Introduction. Houston, TX:
National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Weast, R. c., Ed.1988. Reference Handbook ofChemistry and Physics. 69th ed. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press. Webster, Harry A. 1992. Economics of cathodic protection. Mater. Performance
31(3):25-30. West, J. M. 1970. Electrodeposition and Corrosion Processes. 2d ed. London: Van
Nostrand Reinhold. Wood, William G. coordinator 1982. Metals Handbook. 9th ed., Vol. 5. Metals Park,
OH: American Society for Metals.
Index
Acetic acid: corrosion rates in, 140 corrosivity, 139
Acid: acidity, see pR aerated,10 vs. cold-worked metal, 49 fluxing, 308 inhibitors for, 242 neutralizers, 246 oxidizing, 10 reduction at cathode, 9-10 vs. steel impurities, 47
Atmosphere, corrosion by, 131-133 vs. aluminum, 132, 198 classifications, 131 condensation in, 94 corrosive vapors in, 271 vs. Galvalume, 132 vs. galvanized steel, 132-133 vs. magnesium alloys, 199 rates, 132-133, 134 vs. weathering steels, 133 vs. zinc, 132-133
Cathode: activation polarization, 35-36 in anodic protection, 257-258 concentration polarization, 37-39 definition, 8 in electrochemical cell, 21 location,8 noble metal, 11 polarization, 33 potential of, 41 reduction at, 9 separated from anode, 43 in uniform attack, 20-21
Cathode reactions, 9-11 coupled with anode reaction, 11 slow step, 36 sluggish, 56 stimulated by cold work, 74
Cathodic contral: determined from potential, 42 in galvanic corrosion, 60
Cathodic polarization, electrochemical tests, 170
Cathodic protection, 249-256. See also Sacrificial protection
coatings used with, 256 cost calculations, 189 direct cost, 3 electrochemical theory, 260 hydrogen charging, 117 impressed current, 252-256
336 Index
Cathodic protection (Cont.) limitations, 249-250 for microbial corrosion, 92 not in organics, 19 polarization diagram, 43 from Pourbaix diagram, 26 for rebar in concrete, 155 resistance polarization, 40 shielding, 250 ships, 1 for stray current corrosion, 99
Caustic embrittlement, 120 Caustics, see Alkalies Cavitation, 108-109
design to avoid, 280 Cells, see Electrochemical cell Cement, see Concrete
coating problems, 232 coatings and linings, 232 inhibitor for, 237, 242
Ceramics, 207-209. See also Brick; Concrete; Glass; Porcelain
coatings, 322 properties, 207 service temperatures, 318
Chemical corrosion, 18-21 designing for, 265-266
Chemisorption, 239. See also Adsorption
Chloride: in concrete, 153-155 in crevice corrosion, 84-85 fused salts, 155-157, 158 in hot corrosion, 310 pitting aided by, 88 pitting prevented by inhibitors,
237 in sewage, 144 stress-corrosion cracking, 121,
122 water corrosivity effect, 135
Chlorine, in freshwater, 134 Chromate:
coatings, 222-223 ions as oxidizer, 78
Chromium: alloyed with iron, 317 carbide stability range, 67
chromized coatings, 220, 324 content of stainless steels, 189 depletion in sensitization, 65-66 electroplated coatings, 215-216 high-temperature alloys,
317-319,319-320 not recycled, 3 oxidation slow, 313 oxide coatings, 322
Citric acid, corrosion by, 139, 140 Cladding, 219-220 Clamshell marks, see Beach marks Clang and clunk test, 64 Clay, particle size, 137 Cleaning:
design to aIlow, 283 prevents crevice corrosion, 86 sampies for failure analysis, 183 of test coupons, 175
Coatings, 214-233. See also Paint ASTM tests, 5 on automobiles, 1 cathodic protection with, 256 cement coatings, 232, 233 conversion coatings, 220-224 differ from linings, 224 evaluation, see Testing field testing, 165 glass coatings, 229, 232 for high temperatures, 313 inhibitors in, 227, 242 metal coatings, 215-220 organic coatings, 224-229,
230-231 overlay, 324-326 oxide,322 oxidizable metal, 323-326 on rebar, 154, 155 requirements, 320-322 silicide, 323 vs. stray current, 99
Cobalt and cobalt alloys, see Medical materials
alloy oxidation, 313 for surgical implants, 142
Cold work, 49 stresses, 74
Columbium, see Niobium
Combustion: condensate, 94 gas reaction with metal, 304-306 products in hot corrosion, 306,
307 Concentration cells, see Oxygen
concentration cell in acids, 78 crevice corrosion, 83-86 distance effect in, 274 with oxidizers, 78 potential,15-16
Concentration of corrosive, polarization diagrams, 81-82
Dissimilar metal corrosion, see Galvanic corrosion
Distance effect, 56-58 in concentration cells, 77 examples, 274
Index 339
shielding similar, 251 Doping, to improve oxide, 313-315 Drainage, design, 266-268 Drawing of metals, see Cold work Drip skirt, 269 Drying, solutions, 270 Duriron, anodes, 254. See also Iron,
Electronic failures, 3 Electron probes, see Probes,
electronic Electroplating, 215-216 Embrittlement:
by hydrogen, see Hydrogen-induced cracking
by liquid metals, see Liquid-metal embrittlement
EMF (electromotive force) series, 11-13
as measure of corrodibility, 40-41 Enamel, porcelain, see Porcelain End-grain attack, 68-69 Energy, see Gibbs energy Environment, see Corrosives
atmosphere, 131-134 chemistry sometimes
unalterable, 188 corrosivity, see Oxidizing power damage to, 1,4 freshwater, 134-135 in laboratory tests, 166-168 metals compatible with, 132 natural,131-138 real or simulated, 164 sampling, 182 seawater, 135-136 soil,137-138 for stress-corrosion cracking,
120-121 Environmental cells, 21, 77-99
design to avoid, 275-279 Epitaxy, of oxide, 296 Epoxies, coatings on rebar, 154 Equilibrium:
oxidation, 320 Internaioxidation, 304, 320 lOB, see lron-oxidizing bacteria ipy, corrosion rate, 28 lron, see Cast irons; Steels
alloy oxidation, 313 alloys with chromium, 317 in caustics, 153
Index 343
hydrogen reduction on, 36 in nitric acid, 17 oxidation by steam, 305 oxide scale, 299 oxides, see Magnetite; Wustite scrap iron anodes, 254 silicon iron:
corrosion resistance, 197 for nitric acid, 149-151 for phosphoric acid, 153 resistance to
effect on limiting current, 39 in erosion-corrosion, 106
Laser, surface alloying with, 220 Layer corrosion, see Exfoliation Lead,201-202
in alkalies, 153 chemicallead, 202 corrosion fatigue, 113 hot dip coating, 202 for phosphoric acid, 151-152 pigments in paints, 202 in sulfuric acid, 144, 201
Limiting current: in concentration polarization, 38 flow rate, effect, 39
344 Index
Limiting current (Cont.) in polarization diagrams, 41 variables. controlling, 38-39
Linear polarization probes, 178-179 electrochemical theory, 179
Linings. see Coatings cement,232 differ from coatings. 224 glass. 229, 232 mill vs. field application, 224 organic, 224 protection principles, 226
Liquid: design to exclude, 271 flow, galvanic cell from, 275
Liquid-metal embrittlement, 126-127
by cadmium coatings, 216 dangerous combinations, 159
in cathode reactions, 10 concentration effect, 23 creating concentration cells, 78 inhibitors, 237 resisted by stainless steels, 189
Oxidizing povver: in cathodic polarization, 41 polarization curves, 44-45
Oxygen: in acid, 10, 11-13 design to avoid, 270 diffusion into alloy, 304 in freshvvater, 134 generation on anode, 44 lack of, danger, 9 mixture vvith carbon dioxide, 10
as oxidizer, 78 producing rust, 10 reduction:
at cathode, 9 in concentration cell, 77 concentration polarization, 38 poisoned, 243
removal by scavengers, 245 solubility, 39 in stability diagrams, 307-308
Oxygen concentration cell, 77-78 in microbial corrosion, 91 in soils, 137-138
Paint, 7. See also Coatings; Painting field testing, 165 formulation, 228 paint-over-rust types, 228 principles of protection, 226-228 thickness on steel, 226 zinc-rich,227-228
Painting: to avoid crevice corrosion, 276 cathode as weil as anode, 56, 272 design to allow, 284 direct cost, 3 shapes difficult to paint, 284 ships, 1 surface preparation, 225
Parabolic rate law, for oxidation, 298-299,300,304,313
Parting, see Dealloying Passivation, 17. See also Anodic
protection in air-saturated solution, 171 domains in Pourbaix diagrams, 25 ease of, metal series, 257 by galvanic corrosion, 60 polarization diagram, 44-45 temperature effect, 80-81
Passivators, 236-238. See also Oxidizers
direct passiva tors, 237 indirect passivators, 237-238 polarization, 243
Passive film: breakdown, see Pitting
Index 347
composition, 17 formation and damage, 44-45 rupture in SCC, 124 on stainless steel, 54
Pearlite, in metallurgical cells, 71 Peat, in soils, 137 Penetration depth, see Depth of
Polarization, 15, 33. See also Potentiodynamic polarization
cyclic, 171-172 inhibitors, effect of, 243-244
Polarization diagrams, 40-45 for anodic protection, 260-261 area effect, 60 for cathodic protection, 260 for concentration effects, 81-83 from electrochemical tests,
170-171 for galvanic corrosion, 59-60 hysteresis, 171-172
Polarization resistance probes, see Linear polarization probes
of soils, 137 Response time, of ER probes, 176 Ringworm corrosion, 72-73 Risk, decisions, 4 Rolling:
effect on grain shape, 52 of metals, see Cold work
Rossini's criterion, 174-175 Rust:
of automobiles, 1 converters, 223-224 corrosion slowed by, 16-17 definition, 2 from oxygen reduction, 10 volume of, 122, 154
Sacrificial protection, 251-252 Safety,4 Salt, see Chloride; Brines; Fused
salts; Sodium chloride; Sodium sulfate
acid and basic components, 308 deicing, on concrete, 153-154 moisture holder, 266-267 molten eutectics, 158
Sampling, for failure analysis, 182 Sand, particle size, 137 Sawing, sampies, 182 Scale, see Oxide
formation, 299 oxide, 298-304 porous, from hot corrosion, 308 protection of steel, 25 temperatures offormation, 317,
318 Scanning electron microscope, 183 Scavengers, 245 SCC, see Stress-corrosion cracking Schottky defects, in oxides, 291-292 Screening, see Shielding Season cracking, of brass, 119 Seawater, 135-136
corrosion rates in, 136 critical velocities of, 80 galvanic series in, 55 inhibitors for, 241 stainless steel in, 1 steel in, 1, 11, 53-54
Index 349
Sediment: moisture held by, 266, 268 pipes containing, 270
Selective leaching, see Dealloying SEM, see Scanning electron
production, 3 ringworm corrosion, 72-73 rust protection, 25, 272 in seawater, 11,53-54 in soils, 138 stress-corrosion cracking, 120, 123 in sulfuric acid, 144, 197
Stelcoloy, see Weathering steels Stepwise cracking, line-pipe steels,
117 Stern-Geary equation, 179 Stoneware, 208 Stray current corrosion, 96-99
with corrosive wear, 110 Stress:
from cold work, 74 compressive, prevents cracks, 283 from corrosion products, 282-283 design to move stress, 281-282 elastic strain, 74 in epitaxial oxides, 296 interaction with corrosion, 103 internal, affected by cold work,
49 in nitrides, 306 in oxides, 291 raisers, design to avoid, 282 relief in oxide, 302-303 in scale growth, 300-302 in stress-corrosion cracking,
121-122 thermal, 302 threshold, 117 from transformation, 302 triaxial, 116
Stress cells, 74 design to avoid, 281 from thermal expansion, 278
Stress-corrosion cracking, 118-126
Index 351
cold work effect, 49 from crevice corrosion, 84 from dealloying, 61 environments, 120-121 fracture mechanics tests, 172-173 metal-environment
combinations, 121 not from exfoliation, 69-70 in organics, 18-19 from sensitization, 65 SSRT (CERT) test for, 172 of stainless steels, 1, 121 stresses, 121-122 of test coupons, 175 und er thermal insulation, 271
Subscale, see Internaioxidation Sugaring, see Sensitization,
stainless steels Sulfates:
formed by sulfur dioxide, 305 hot corrosion by, 306-310 molten, 158
Sulfate-reducing bacteria, 91 corrosion of dental alloys, 144 corrosivity discovered, 91 graphitic corrosion by, 63-64 tests for, 92
Sulfidation, 305. See also Hot corrosion
Sulfide: catastrophic sulfidation, 305 compared with oxides, 305 from gas-metal reaction, 305 hot corrosion by, 308 internal, 310 source of, 115 in sulfur-induced corrosion, 310 surface poison, 115
Sulfide stress cracking, 117 testing, 173
Sulfite: formed by sulfur dioxide, 305 scavenger, 245
Sulfur: gases, coatings for, 326 hot corrosion by, 307 oxidation of metals, 305 sulfur-induced corrosion, 310
352 Index
Sulfur dioxide: air pollutant, 131 cathode reaction, 10 in condensate corrosion, 94-95 in humid air, 78-79 oxidation of metals, 305 on zinc in atmosphere, 132
Sulfuric acid, 10 anodic protection in, 259 inhibitors for, 242 lead compatibility, 201 met als suitable for, 144-147 as oxidizer, 78 steel compatibility, 197
effect on limiting current, 39 reduced by design, 279-280
Two-metal corrosion, see Galvanic corrosion
Ultrasonic inspection, 115 Uniform corrosion:
cathodic protection for, 249 as chemical corrosion, 18, 20-21 corrosion rate, 28 design allowance, 266 in organics, 18-19 prediction of corrosion for, 21 prevention by inhibitors, 235
Index 353
Units, conversion to S.I., 29
Vacancies: in metals, 48-49 in oxides, 291-292, 293, 295
Vapor: design to prevent corrosion by,
271 inhibitors for condensate, 242
Vapor deposition, metal coatings, 218
Vapor-phase inhibitors, 240, 242 Varnishes, 228 Velocity, see Flow
for copper and brass in seawater, 80
effect on: active metal, 79 concentration cells, 79 corrosion products, 80 passive metal, 79-80
erosion-corrosion, 105-106 polarization diagrams, 82 reduced by design, 278-280
Vibration, design to avoid, 282 Vinyls, 204, 205, 207 Voltage:
cell potential, 33 driving force, 7, 11 relationship to energy, 7 shift, see Polarization