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Slide 1
Slide 2
Reducing Criminal Opportunities Through Environmental
Manipulation
Slide 3
This chapter is concerned with environmental criminology What
is environmental criminology? Assumes there is little that can be
done to change criminals Focus is on what can be done about crime
Includes situational crime prevention Concerned with how settings
translate criminal inclinations into action Includes Crime
Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
Slide 4
What is the rational offender perspective? It is basically
deterrence theory Assumes offenders weigh costs/benefits of
violating the law What is the link to environmental criminology?
Environmental features may affect the cost/benefit decision process
Routine activities theory Motivated offenders Handlers and place
managers may discourage offenders from crime Suitable targets
Target for environmental manipulation Absence of guardians Need
more cops, security guards, etc.
Slide 5
Crime pattern theory is concerned with the places frequented by
criminals Key concepts Behavior space Locations offenders frequent
Awareness space Areas with which offenders are familiar The
interaction between behavior space and awareness space
Slide 6
Territorial functioning/defensible space perspective is
concerned with the attachment people have to the areas around them
Territorial cognition Defensible space How physical characteristics
of spaces affect behavior, criminal and noncriminal
Slide 7
Incivilities thesis Low-level offenses/breaches of community
standards that Increase fear Send a signal that an area is out of
control Lead to an increase in serious crime What is the link to
environmental manipulation? Minimize potential for incivilities and
crime may decline
Slide 8
Four methods of reducing criminal opportunity through
environmental manipulation have been identified Access control
Surveillance Activity support Motivation reinforcement
Slide 9
Most common method of discouraging crime at residences is
target hardening Does it work? Research from the U.K. suggests it
does, but little research has been conducted in U.S. Another
approach is property marking, but there is little research
suggesting this approach works
Slide 10
Much more researchers attention has been drawn to areas
surrounding residences Methods Restrict pedestrian access
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) Which method works best? Several
studies show restriction of pedestrian access is effective, but
there is little research on CCTV
Slide 11
Several environmental manipulations have been combined Examples
Combine apartment watch, target hardening, property marking,
lighting improvements, etc. Removal of coin-operated meters with
cocoon neighborhood watch Graduated surveillance Civil nuisance
abatement combined with other approaches Do comprehensive
approaches work? The evidence is more supportive of this method
than isolated approaches
Slide 12
Types of gated communities Fee-based No fee Reasons for living
in gated communities Safety Strong HOA Family Recreation Real
Benefits? Understudied (people feel safer; not clear about crime
differences) Downside? Siege mentality
Slide 13
With respect to convenience stores, researchers have looked at
Two clerks instead of one Security cameras Silent alarms Security
systems (for after hours) Barricades (for after hours) What works?
Very little research in this area Other crime concerns Shoplifting
EAS and ink tagseffective Employee theft Increased
inventoryingeffective
Slide 14
Several environmental manipulations have been implemented at
banks, including CCTV Security guards inside/outside the bank
Protective screens/bulletproof glass Time-lock safes Much research
shows these approaches are effective, but the research designs were
weak
Slide 15
What works at bars? Better management How is it accomplished?
Training for bouncers Crowd control Improved relationships with the
police Code of practice Dont serve alcohol to visibly intoxicated
people
Slide 16
Types of crimes of concern on public transit include Vandalism
Robberies and assaults of passengers/drivers Fare evasion Varieties
of environmental manipulations Graffiti cleanup Added law
enforcement CCTV Publicity Exact fare systems on buses Redesigned
ticket machines to prevent fare evasion Redesigned toll gates Does
it work? Evidence is encouraging
Slide 17
Pre 9/11 interventions Air marshals Improvements to doors on
planes Baggage screening Extradition treaties Metal detectors Do
these methods work? Some evaluations say yes 9/11 says no
Slide 18
Methods of dealing with crime at parking garages include
Addition of guards Addition of security attendants CCTV Access and
exit control Various combinations of each Which method works best?
It appears that guards and security attendants work better than
CCTV Access/exit control underresearched Question? Do the benefits
of environmental manipulation outweigh the costs?
Slide 19
Environmental manipulations in open spaces include Lighting
Street closures/traffic restrictions CCTV What works? Lighting in
open spaces appears effective, but it is not clear whether this
extends to private areas Street closures with added law enforcement
appear effective Red light cameras (a twist on CCTV) certainly
work!
Slide 20
Criminals sometimes target parking meters and public phones For
profit To avoid paying Effective methods of targeting public phones
include Design improvements Electronic monitoring of phone booths
Hardened coin boxes Rapid repair of broken phones Efforts to
prevent fraud Effective methods of targeting parking meters include
Installing slug-proof meters
Slide 21
Finally, some good news! Environmental manipulations appear
much more effective, on the whole, at reducing crime compared to
criminal justice system expansion
Slide 22
Reducing criminal opportunities through environmental
manipulation.