Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum in South Africa: A Systems Theory Approach

Bester, P. C., de Waal, P. H. J., Ehmke, A., Lochner, D, J., & van Zyl, C. J. (2005). The case of Reduced Vertical Separation Minimumin South Africa: A systems theory approach. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Public Management, Tshwane University ofTechnology, Pretoria, South Africa.

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THE CASE OF REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMUM IN SOUTH

AFRICA: A SYSTEMS THEORY APPROACH

P.C. Bester, P.H.J. de Waal, A. Ehmke, D.J. Lochner and C.J. van Zyl

Senior Management Programme: Tshwane University of Technology

Abstract

Globalisation caused an increase in air transport (passenger and cargo) that placed demands on air traffic

planners that exceeded the available capacity of the air navigation system. Reduced Vertical Separation

Minimum (RVSM) was introduced to add an additional six flight levels in the most economical flight band. This

was implemented globally and Africa, including South Africa, is the last piece in the RVSM puzzle that needs

to be completed. Based on a broad theoretical overview of systems theory and more specifically the Biomatrix

theory, the implementation of RVSM in the South African airspace is discussed. This discussion is based on

the assumption that the South African airspace is a system that is part of various other systems.

People around the globe are more connected to each other than ever before, goods and

services produced in one part of the world are increasingly available in all parts of the

world. Information and money flow more quickly than ever and international

communication and travel are commonplace. This trend is called globalisation (Anon,

2005a), a term that entered popular discourse in the late 1980s and describes the

internationalisation of economies and societies. Within this global evolution, air transport is

an important facilitator of international exchanges between countries and continents and

the reliability and speed of these exchanges (passengers and goods) are important factors

of integration and economic development (African Union, 2005).

The last two decades saw an annual growth of 7,4% in air transport in Europe alone and it

is predicted that 1996’s figures will double by 2015 (Sultana, no date). This increase is

also reflected globally in the past five years’ air transport (passengers and cargo) statistics.

The International Air Traffic Association’s (2005) International Traffic Statistics for the

period January 2004 to January 2005 saw an annual global growth of 10,4% in air


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transport, compared to the 22,9% growth that was measured for the period January 2000

to January 2005 (International Air Traffic Association, 2005).

Such an increase often places demands on air traffic planners that exceed the available

capacity of the air navigation system to accommodate air traffic, necessitating major

changes to air traffic management systems to cope with the continued growth. This

continued growth in civil aviation across the globe as well as in South Africa (RVSM News,

2000) created the need for solutions that would ensure a safe, secure, efficient and

environmentally friendly air navigation system at the global, regional and national levels. If

not addressed, this may have negative consequences not only for the South African

aviation industry, but also for the general economic health of the country.

One of the emerging challenges for air traffic planners globally was to accommodate the

ever-increasing number of aircraft in the air without hampering flights in any way. Planners

thus had to create solutions that would increase airspace capacity. As a result it was

decided to increase the flight levels in the most economical flight band (between FL 2901

and FL 410 inclusive), thus creating more airspace and consequently minimising delays

and increasing savings on fuel (EUROCONTROL, no date a; RVSM News, 2002). See

figure 1 for a graphic representation of these flight levels.

Figure 1. Map illustrating RVSM Airspace (EUROCONTROL Navigation Domain, 2005).

Subsequently a new concept was introduced, namely Reduced Vertical Separation

1 The flight level that starts at approximately 29 000 feet above sea level.


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Minimum (RVSM) which added an additional six flight levels (EUROCONTROL, no date a;

RVSM News, 2000) to the band FL 290-FL 410 (inclusive).

Mr Kevin Ewels, the RVSM Project Manager of Air Traffic Navigation Services in South

Africa (Ewels, 2005) states that the African airspace is currently the only area in the world

that does not use RVSM: “…the last piece of the RVSM puzzle that needs to be

completed…” (Ewels, 2005). Provision is, however, made to ensure smooth transition

between RVSM and non-RVSM airspace by means of transition areas2. Ewels (2005) has

indicated that this procedure is not an option for South Africa internally because of safety

implications, but there is transition airspace between RVSM and non-RVSM countries.

This has the implication that airliners and business jet aircraft that are non-RVSM will not

be allowed to fly between FL 290 and FL 410 in countries that use RVSM. They have to

route at or below FL 280 (Ewels, 2005). This could be costly to a number of operators in

terms of fuel burn, perhaps making some long-range flights impractical or even impossible.

Under certain conditions some exceptions3 are made. It is thus possible that aircraft

without RVSM-approved equipment will have priority over those that do, although it would

be the exception rather than the rule.

Ewels (2005) further points out that the situation in Africa is worsening. Intercontinental

flights are steadily increasing, thus placing added demands on effective global airspace

management to facilitate safe and efficient flight to benefit all stakeholders. It is specifically

in the RVSM band of flight levels where most congestion is experienced during these

flights, especially during the so-called peak hours. South Africa is also affected by the

worldwide increase in air transport, especially when taking into consideration that it is

becoming increasingly competitive in the global market. The additional six flight levels

provided by RVSM airspace will alleviate this problem.

2 Within transition airspace special procedures allow air traffic controllers to transit both RVSM and non-RVSM civil and state aircraft. Flight crews may expect to change from conventional flight levels to RVSMflight levels and vice versa (International Civil Aviation Organisation, no date). Within transition airspace airtraffic controllers will continue to provide 2 000 feet vertical separation minimum (VSM) between a non-RVSM approved aircraft and any other aircraft.3Exceptions are made for state and military, police and customs aircraft (White Paper for Defence, 2000).After special coordination provision can also be made for aircraft on initial delivery, aircraft that have RVSMcertification but are in need of maintenance for those systems, aircraft on humanitarian or mercy flights,aircraft engaged in aerial photography (note this only applies while in the area of the photography, not theflight to and from the area), aircraft conducting flight checks of navigational aids (same note as photo surveyaircraft), and aircraft conducting an RVSM monitoring flight with a geographic positioning monitoring system.These aircraft will be allowed to operate within RVSM airspace, and will be given 2 000 feet of verticalseparation from all other aircraft (RVSM News, 2000).


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From the above it is clear that Europe’s problem of congested airspace has become

Africa’s and more specifically South Africa’s challenge to remain internationally competitive

in the global community. This is the central issue in this paper and the implementation of

RVSM in South Africa is used to understand this problem in relation to the systems theory

(cf Higgs & Smith, 2002:33). A brief discussion of systems theory is followed by a brief

overview of the Biomatrix as a contextual model of systems theory. This model is then

applied to illustrate the implementation of RVSM in South African airspace with specific

reference to what has been done internationally concerning RVSM and how it affects

Africa and South Africa specifically. Possible solutions to the problem are proposed.

Although various authors define systems theory and systems thinking differently (Higgs &

Smith, 2002:33-34; Irving, 1999; Pegasus Communications Inc., 2005) the concepts of

systems theory and systems theory approach are used interchangeably in this discussion.

What is systems theory?

A considerable body of literature deals with the concept of systems and systems theory.

The term systems is etymologically related to the classical Greek term σύστημα (systema)

which, depending on context, can be translated with “…that which is put together, a

composite whole; a composition; a college, assembly…” (cf Liddel and Scott, 1974:683). A

more comprehensive definition is offered by Bertalanffy (1961:38), who defines a system

as sets of elements standing in interrelation. From a philosophical perspective Schmidt

(1978:661) defines a system as a grouping of a complex into a single and well-organised

whole, in which each part takes its fixed place in relation to the whole and other parts.

Another description is offered by Robertshaw, Mecca and Rerick (1978:13), who refer to a

system as a time-varying configuration of people, hardware and procedures organised for

the purpose of accomplishing certain functions. Yet another comprehensive definition is

provided by the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995:1482), which defines

the term “system” as “…a set of connected items or devices that operate together...” In a

more recent discussion of systems theory Pegasus Communications Inc. (2005) refers to a

system as a group of interacting, interrelated and interdependent components that form a


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complex and unified whole. Common to the suggested definitions (lexicographical,

historical and philosophical) is therefore the notion of wholeness.

Thus the essential tenet of systems theory, as opposed to preceding scientific

paradigmata, is that it sees things as a whole. The antecedent paradigm, known as

“atomism” (Higgs & Smith, 2002:33), “…tried to explain observable phenomena by

reducing them to an interplay of elementary units investigable independently of each

other…” (Bertalanffy:37f). Thus, the essence of systems theory is summarised by Higgs

and Smith (2002:33) when they define systems theory as a general science of

organisation and wholeness, which can also be regarded as a philosophy that claims that

life is a system of which we are part. The key assumption behind this theory is therefore

that everything, including human beings, is a system of some kind.

Various examples of such systems are identified in literature (Higgs & Smith, 2003:32-38;

Pegasus Communications Inc., 2005; Robertshaw, Mecca & Rerick, 1978:13-14), for

instance the human body, the circulatory system in man’s body, predator/prey

relationships in nature, the ignition system of a car. Thus everything, including living and

nonliving systems, is seen as a whole and no entity of any description whatsoever can be

properly understood unless one takes into account its total system. An entity cannot be

understood outside the bigger system of which it forms a part, such as an individual

human being who cannot be understood outside his or her social and cultural system

(Higgs & Smith 2002:33; Pegasus Communications Inc., 2005). This confirms the

interacting, interrelated and interdependent components of the complex and unified whole.

Accordingly, the implementation of RVSM in South Africa cannot be understood properly

unless viewed as part of the global air traffic management system. Thus, in this paper the

assumption is made that South African airspace is viewed as part of South Africa as a

system, which is part of a larger system, namely the global world, of which the global air

traffic management system is part.

Higgs and Smith (2002:34) refer to modern systems theory according to which the

following is essential to all systems: the parts of the system work together in some way;

the system is a whole; all systems have goals or purposes; all systems have input and

output; all systems take inputs and turn them into outputs; all systems absorb and


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generate some form of energy; systems need to be controlled; systems work in a certain

order and systems are specialised. Burger (2005) refers to the essence of systems

thinking as the whole being more than the sum of its parts; new properties develop at the

level of the whole and systems are co-produced, which means that something that

happens in one area also influences the other areas. In support Pegasus Communications

Inc. (2005) has identified various characteristics of systems such as that every system has

a purpose within a larger system; all the parts of a system must be present for the system

to carry out its purpose optimally; the parts must be arranged in a specific way for the

system to carry out its purpose; systems change in response to feedback and systems

maintain their stability by making adjustments based on feedback.

Biomatrix theory as a contextualisation of systems theory

A further contribution to the field of systems thinking was made by Jaros, Cloete, Dostal,

Edwards, Horváth and Muller (Biomatrix Web, 2005). From a multidisciplinary perspective

(biomedical engineering, medicine, public health, technology development, education, art,

psychology, futurism and business management) they developed the Biomatrix theory,

which is also a meta-systems theory since it integrates the key concepts of other systems

approaches into a coherent theory, adding some unique systems concepts and providing a

meta-systems theory through the coherent and synergistic integration of these concepts.

This is almost an eclectic theory developed from other views of systems theory.

According to the Biomatrix Web (2005) the term biomatrix is derived from the words bios

(life) and matrix (mould) that literally means pattern of life, or how life is organised. Burger

(2005) confirms that the Biomatrix theory is a form of systems theory when he refers to the

definition and essence of systems thinking. The Biomatrix Web (2005) highlights the

unique contribution of Biomatrix theory to the field of systems thinking. In essence the

Biomatrix is viewed as an interacting web of systems, consisting of thread-like activity

systems and knot-like entity systems (Biomatrix Web, 2005). These entities display activity

and move through time and space with a specific purpose across system boundaries.

Burger (2005) emphasises that the Biomatrix consists of three sub-webs, namely the

naturosphere (nature), psycho-sociosphere (humans) and techno-sphere (technology).

The naturosphere consists of ecological dimensions (e.g. air, water, soil, flora, fauna),


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physiological dimensions (e.g. sensory, motor, respiratory, circulatory, immune, neural),

biological dimensions (e.g. cells) and physical dimensions (e.g. molecules, atoms,

particles). The psycho-sociosphere has psychological dimensions (e.g. cognitive,

emotional, self-transcending and self-referring), cultural dimensions (e.g. ethics, aesthetics

and knowledge), economic dimensions (e.g. production and exchange) and political

dimensions (e.g. governance, relationships). The dimensions of the techno-sphere are the

technological components (artefacts) as well as the technological processing of material,

energy and information.

The Biomatrix Web (2005) emphasises the importance of distinguishing between these

sub-webs. It is important for understanding the differences in the functioning of systems

within these three webs, specifically with respect to problem solving, since each sphere

requires different methods for the analysis and solving of problems. Furthermore, the

distinction is important to manage the interface between the three spheres, which

according to Biomatrix Web (2005) is a key issue in for example sustainable development.

The concept of telentropy (stress) and its flow through the Biomatrix is emphasised by

Biomatrix Web (2005), focusing on its importance for managing change and optimising

systems functioning across system boundaries. The system is further described in terms of

seven aspects or forces consisting of ethos, aims, process, structure, governance,

substance and environmental interaction. Change in one aspect of the system has a

rippling effect on the other aspects of the system. Thus, from a systems theory perspective

changes in the global airspace would cause stress in the South African airspace, hence

the telentropy currently experienced. It can be postulated that if the telentropy is not

addressed it will have a rippling effect on other aspects, such as the South African

economy. Telentropy in the South African economy in turn will have an effect on the

political situation in South Africa, confirming the linkage between all aspects of a system.

Various authors (Bertalanffy, 1961:11; Higgs & Smith, 2002:36-37; Irving, 1999; Pegasus

Inc., 2005; Schmidt, 1978:661f) suggest advantages and disadvantages of systems,

thinking both on the conceptual level and the level of its application. Thus, when analysing

and solving problems such as the implementation of RVSM in the South African airspace,

these aspects need to be kept in mind. Subsequently the pros and cons of systems theory


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will be discussed briefly.

Pros and cons of systems theory

Advantages include the simplicity of the theory (despite its emphasis on complexity)

according to which everything can be described in terms of a system and a function; its

encouragement of the breaking down of artificial barriers, hence encouragement of

openness, the fact that it can be applied to anything and everything, that it incorporates the

role of the environment, can assist in bringing together and understanding seemingly

disparate functions and operations, considers the satisfaction of needs for survival and the

notion that needs of a sub-system should be satisfied within the overall system, and in the

end can help with the design of smart, enduring solutions to problems.

Systems theory is not without any limitations, however, and it has also received its share

of criticism. According to Smith and Higgs (2002:37-38) it is mainly political and social

analysts who claim that it supports the status quo and is “blind” to social injustice and

ignores the real problem, which is the misuse of power. Critics also claim that systems

theory fails in discovering the truth, tends to ignore problems that arise from specific

contexts, and is not good at dealing with human and social issues. Smith and Higgs (2002:

36-39) warn that persons using systems theory should also be careful of over-analysis.

Irving (1999), on the other hand, raises another key issue and that is that it views the

organisation and environment as concrete items, that functional unity and harmony are not

always possible and that the metaphor of an organism becomes an ideology. Schmidt

(1978:661f) also warns against the latter when he notes that the phenomenology of

Husserl served to highlight the dangers of so-called “systems thought” as a mode of

practising a discipline such as philosophy. It is also applicable to other disciplines, as it

attempts a priori to posit systems and is therefore prone to construct and shape reality,

rather than to interpret it. According to Schmidt (1978:661f) even great thinkers such as

Kant, Hegel and Marx fell victim to this danger and it has been claimed that the main

contribution of these systematists lies in the things that did not fit into their systems.

The above-mentioned, however, does not limit the use of systems theory to understand


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problems such as the challenges faced by the Republic of South Africa in implementing

RVSM in its airspace. The utility of systems theory to analyse and solve problems is

supported by Higgs and Smith (2002:34), who postulate that in many ways systems theory

is problem-centred, as it sees the world and human activity largely as a process of

problem solving. As mentioned above, the systems approach to solving problems

distinguishes itself from the more traditional analytic approaches by emphasising the

interactions and connectedness of the different components of a system. In support the

Biomatrix Web (2005) states that the Biomatrix as a multileveled and multidimensional

framework is ideal for problem analysis and systems redesign. It is also ideal for the

tackling of pervasive and “messy” problems such as poverty, unsustainable development,

pandemics and infrastructure problems.

It is Higgs and Smith’s (2002:33) conclusion that the fact that systems thinkers are good at

analysing and solving problems, as well as the indication that they are good at dealing with

issues rather than people, that makes this an applicable approach to understand the

solving of problems associated with the implementation of RVSM in South Africa as a case

for analysis. In that case the Biomatrix as a form of systems theory can be used to analyse

the case.

Before the implementation of RVSM in South African airspace is used as a case study, it is

important to gain a common understanding of what a case is. Mitchell (1999:180-200)

develops a working definition of a case study when he characterises it as a detailed

examination of an event (or series of related events) that the analyst believes exhibits the

operation of some identified general theoretical principle. Stake (2000:435-454), however,

cautions that not everything is a case. He defines a case as both a process of inquiry

about the case and the product of that inquiry. He also says that the more the object of

study is a specific, unique, bound system, the greater the usefulness of the

epistemological rationales of the case study as such. Thus, the implementation of RVSM

in South African airspace can be viewed as a case, as this study is both a process of

inquiry as well as the product (outcome) of that process. Lastly, the South African airspace

can also be viewed as a specific, unique bound system that forms part of various other

systems, which in turn also form part of other systems.


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When addressing the implementation of RVSM in the South African airspace it is important

to keep in mind the ideal systems design steps identified by Burger (2005). The first step in

ideal systems design is to identify problems, the second to brainstorm ideals, the third to

create design, the fourth to design an implementation process, the fifth to make an

implementation design and the last to implement the design.

As mentioned above, the implementation of RVSM in South Africa cannot be discussed in

isolation and it will therefore be discussed as part of the global air traffic management

system. Thus, Africa, more specifically South Africa, is facing challenges to align its

airspace with global airspace.

Background to the case of RVSM in South Africa

The search for possible solutions for congested airspace did not start recently, but already

when another technical problem was identified. The European Air Traffic Control

Harmonisation and Integration Programme (2001) indicates that it dates back to the late

1950s when the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) recognised that as a

result of the reduction in accuracy of pressure-sensing of barometric altimeters with

increasing altitude, there was a need above a certain flight level to increase the prescribed

vertical separation minimum (VSM) of 1 000 ft between aircraft in flight. Initially it was a

problem identified within the dimensions of the techno-sphere, which is a technological

component.

In 1960, an increased VSM of 2 000 ft was established for use between aircraft operating

above FL 290, except where a lower flight level was prescribed. The selection of FL 290

was not so much an empirically based decision as a function of the operational ceiling of

aircraft at that time (European Air Traffic Control Harmonisation and Integration

Programme, 2001; International Civil Aviation Organisation, 2002). Thus the decision was

based on limitations in the techno-sphere and it took place in the ecological dimension of

the naturosphere.

In 1966, this changeover level was established at FL 290 globally. At the same time, it

was considered that the application of a reduced VSM above FL 290 was a distinct


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possibility in the not too far distant future. Accordingly, the ICAO provisions stated that

such a reduced VSM could be applied under specified conditions within designated

portions of airspace on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, thus confirming the

interrelatedness of systems.

In the late 1970s, faced with rising fuel costs and growing demands for more efficient

utilisation of the available airspace, the ICAO initiated a comprehensive programme of

studies to examine the feasibility of reducing the 2 000 ft VSM applied above FL 290, to

the same 1 000 ft VSM as applied below FL 290 (European Air Traffic Control

Harmonisation and Integration Programme, 2001). This confirms the interrelatedness

between the various webs as pressure or stress (telentropy) in the psycho-social sphere

(economic dimensions) placed pressure on the techno-sphere to search for solutions in

order to decrease the telentropy due to rising fuel costs; the resultant technology would be

used in the naturosphere’s ecological dimension (airspace). Thus, technology could

enable more economic use of airspace, confirming the interface between the three

spheres as postulated by the Biomatrix Web (2005). This is part of the first step in system

design (Burger, 2005) that is the identification of the problem.

Throughout the 1980s, under the overall guidance of the ICAO’s Review of the General

Concept of Separation Panel (RGCSP), various studies were conducted by Canada,

Japan, member states of EUROCONTROL4 (France, Germany, the Kingdom of the

Netherlands, and the United Kingdom - in an extensive cooperative venture, which was

coordinated by the EUROCONTROL Agency), the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and

the United States under the auspices of the ICAO. The primary objectives of these studies

were to decide whether global implementation of the RVSM would satisfy predetermined

safety standards, be technically and operationally feasible and provide a positive benefit-

to-cost ratio. In December 1988 the results of these exhaustive studies were considered

(International Civil Aviation Organisation, 2002). This phase is similar to Step 2 of ideal

system design that refers to the brainstorming of ideals. The involvement of so many

countries in the process confirms Pegasus Communications Inc.’s (2005) statement that

all the system’s parts must be present for the system to carry out its purpose optimally.

4 Europe Aviation Control


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These studies employed quantitative methods of risk assessment to support operational

decisions concerning the feasibility of reducing the VSM. The risk assessment consisted of

two elements: firstly, risk estimation, which concerns the development and use of methods

and techniques with which the actual level of risk of an activity can be estimated, and

secondly, risk evaluation, which concerns the level of risk considered to be the maximum

tolerable value for a safe system (International Civil Aviation Organisation, no date:5-6;

International Civil Aviation Authority, 2002). The level of risk that is deemed acceptable is

termed the target level of safety (TLS). The basis of the process of risk estimation was the

determination of the accuracy of height keeping performance of the aircraft population

operating at/above FL 290. This was achieved through the use of high precision radar to

determine the actual geometric height of aircraft in straight and level flight. This height was

then compared with the geometric height of the flight level to which the aircraft had been

assigned to determine the total vertical error of the aircraft in question. Given this

knowledge, it was possible to estimate the risk of collision solely as a consequence of

vertical navigation errors of aircraft to which procedural vertical separation had been

applied correctly. The RGCSP then employed an assessment TLS (2.5 x 10-9 fatal

accidents per aircraft flight hour) to assess the technical feasibility of a 300 m (1 000 ft)

vertical separation minimum above FL 290 and also for developing aircraft height keeping

capability requirements for operating with a 300 m (1 000 ft) VSM.

This assessment concluded that a 300 m (1 000 ft) VSM above FL 290 was technically

feasible without imposing unreasonably demanding technical requirements on the

equipment and that it would provide significant benefits in terms of economy and en-route

airspace capacity. The technical feasibility referred to the fundamental capability of aircraft

height keeping systems, which could be built, maintained, and operated in such a way that

the expected, or typical, height keeping performance would be consistent with the safe

implementation and use of a 300 m (1 000 ft) VSM above FL 290. In reaching this

conclusion on technical feasibility, the panel identified the need to establish airworthiness

performance requirements in the form of a comprehensive Minimum Aircraft Systems

Performance Specification for all aircraft that would be operated in RVSM airspace, new

operational procedures and a comprehensive means of monitoring for safe operation (cf

European Air Traffic Control Harmonisation Programme, 2001; International Civil Aviation

Organisation, no date). Consequently, of the various measures identified for the flight level


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band most affected, the implementation of RVSM was considered to be the most cost-

effective technological means of meeting this need.

It was thus clear that accurate aircraft altimeter systems are essential to the introduction of

a 1 000 ft VSM. Altimeters must be accurate to 20 m to satisfy ICAO Document 9574

(International Civil Aviation Organisation, 2002) for the implementation of RVSM. All

operators that operate in RVSM airspace need to ensure that their aircraft are suitably

equipped. Hence, the results demonstrated that the reduction of vertical separation was

safe, cost-beneficial and feasible without the imposition of unduly demanding technical

requirements. Once again the above-mentioned confirms the interaction between the

naturosphere, techno-sphere and the psycho-sociosphere. It can thus be concluded that

this is part of the third step in ideal system design, namely to create a design.

The additional six flight levels introduced resulted in various advantages (International Civil

Aviation Organisation, 2002). Additional airspace capacity offers more operational

flexibility for air traffic controllers, meaning that they have the potential to handle up to 20%

more aircraft in some areas, en route sector capacity increases reduce in-flight delays and

economic benefits derive from fuel savings for airlines. Furthermore, aircraft operators are

able to use optimum height profiles and carry more payload, thus more passengers, and

environmental benefits result from reduced fuel burn. The environmental benefits refer

specifically to the naturosphere. Thus confirming that changes in one part of the system

have an effect on other parts of the system.

Studies showed that the types of aircraft and the essentially unidirectional flow of air traffic

in the North Atlantic (NAT) Minimum Navigation Performance Specification airspace made

this region an ideal candidate for the first implementation of RVSM. Planning for

implementation of RVSM commenced in 1990, suggesting the fourth and fifth step in ideal

system design by referring to the design of the implementation process and the making of

an implementation design. Part of the fifth step was the first stage, which was called the

operational evaluation phase, using the 1 000 ft RVSM. This commenced on 27 March

1997 at and between FL 330 and FL 370 inclusive. A second stage, which extended the

use of RVSM between FL 310 and FL 390 inclusive, began in October 1998. RVSM was

introduced fully in the European airspace on 24 January 2002, which is the sixth step in


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ideal system design, namely the implementation of the design. From a global perspective

the implementation of RVSM in Africa and more specifically South Africa is part of the sixth

step that still has to be completed.

Implementing RVSM in the South African airspace

A comprehensive implementation plan for RVSM in the South African airspace though, will

require a critical assessment of South Africa’s specific needs in this regard. To this effect

Burger (2005) states that systematic problem solving, in this case applicable to the

implementation of RVSM in the South African airspace, would require the creation of

synergies that balance the factors and elements between the different spheres,

“…mediated by technological and societal development and respecting the carrying

capacity of nature...” (Burger, 2005). However, in the (as yet) absence of specific

implementation plans and assessments, South Africa is probably only at Step 1 of an ideal

system design (Burger, 2005), that is, the identification of problems. Step 6, the

implementation of a design, seems to be a distant ideal at this point.

As far as Step 1 is concerned, South Africa is experiencing telentropy in the naturosphere,

which has a rippling effect on the other two spheres, hence confirming the specific

interrelationship between the three levels in the entity system, namely the naturosphere,

psycho-sociosphere and techno-sphere as postulated by the Biomatrix theory. Concerning

the naturosphere, the relationship between the RVSM problem and the physical dimension

specifically is quite clear, as the introduction of additional flight levels between FL 290 and

FL 410 are directly related to atmospheric pressure, the accurate measurement of it within

the factor altimetry and radar guidance equipment. However, from a systems theory

perspective the problem is wider than only the naturosphere, for South Africa not only

faces the challenge of congested airspace during peak hours, but it also has to stay

internationally competitive in the global community and is furthermore confronted with

technological advances in the field of air traffic management that might have a negative

economic effect on the country if not managed properly.

Besides the global benefits with respect to additional airspace capacity, reduced in-flight

delays, economic and environmental benefits, implementation of RVSM will have various

other benefits for South Africa: the increase in airspace capacity will ensure that South


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Africa will become and remain more competitive in the global market with specific

reference to a foreseen increase in international conferences, political gatherings and

sport ventures, particularly the preparations for the 2010 World Cup Soccer event that will

place additional demands on South Africa’s air transport capacity. Against this background

schedule delays have a severe impact on the economy, technology, society and

productivity. In providing an effective air traffic and navigational system, South Africa will

merge with ease in globalisation and networking, which will have a positive effect that will

cascade down and create possibilities in every organisational arena, including that of job

creation. This once again confirms the interrelation between the various elements of the

system (Bertalanffy, 1961:11; Higgs & Smith, 2002: 36-37; Irving, 1999; Pegasus Inc.,

2005; Schmidt, 1978:661f). Continuous change in an ever-changing international market

and competitive local environment is important to survive in order to stay abreast of

technology and information.

The above-mentioned confirms that the various elements are also in a transactional

relationship to the techno-sphere level as the technological processing of matter, energy

and information. Data and technological components are critical factors to system

analyses and systems design as part of a possible solution to the South African airspace

and the RVSM problem. The economic dimension is very prominent concerning both

impact and/or effect on the psycho-sociosphere. While non-implementation of RVSM in

the South African airspace will hamper long-term national economic growth, the initial

implementation of RVSM will have negative financial effects for airline budgets, both non-

RVSM national carriers and private airlines. As such, a transactional relationship is also

established between the psycho-sociosphere and the techno-sphere.

The second step in ideal system design (to brainstorm ideals) is followed by a third step,

the creation of a design. As far as South Africa is concerned it is not necessary to go

through these two steps, as it has already been done globally. Solving the problem of

RVSM in the South African airspace will require intervention in all three spheres or levels

in the entity systems. Burger (2005) states that intervention in the naturosphere requires

“working within the laws of nature,” that intervention in the techno-sphere requires the

design of new systems, or the “fixing” of old systems and that intervention in the psycho-

sociosphere requires ideal systems redesign. As could be deduced from its


16

implementation elsewhere (NAT and European regions), RVSM is a tested system in this

regard.

South Africa thus only has to “fine-tune” the design that was implemented globally in order

to contextualise it for the unique South African situation. A typical example of this is, as

indicated by Ewels (2005) that for safety reasons South Africa will not implement transition

airspace within its own airspace. However, South Africa also has to cooperate regionally

because if one of its neighbouring states or for that matter any of the other African states

do not want to implement RVSM then it has no utility for South Africa to implement RVSM

in its own airspace. RVSM News (2002) indicates that a particular feature of the RVSM

programme has been the strong collaborative way of working both within the

EUROCONTROL Agency and also externally between the agency and the various

stakeholders (countries), thus confirming that “working together” is essential as postulated

by the proponents of systems theory who refer to a system’s

interconnectedness/wholeness/interrelationship/collaborativeness. This confirms Burger’s

(2005) statement that the essence of systems thinking is that the whole is more than the

sum of its parts. This will be followed by the fourth step, which is the design of an

implementation process.

During the design of an implementation plan for RVSM in the South African airspace the

problem solvers need to take cognisance of the fact that interventions would have a

specific impact or effect on the different spheres or levels in the entity systems, which in

turn can cause telentropy in other parts of the system. This view is confirmed by the

implementation documents (RVSM News, 2002), which indicate that the process has an

impact on and demands changes in various systems in order to ensure an effective

international aviation system. This confirms the interdependency, interrelatedness and

wholeness of a system such as international airspace as postulated in the literature

(Bertalanffy, 1961:38; Burger, 2005; Higgs & Smith, 2002:34; Pegasus Communications

Inc., 2005; Schmidt, 1978:661; Scott, 1974:683). A detailed analysis should thus be done

to create possible scenarios of the effects on adjacent or related systems.

There will also be an impact on the seven aspects of the system as listed by Burger (2005)

and the Biomatrix Web (2005). Based on the assumptions behind systems theory the


17

implementation of RVSM in South Africa will necessitate interventions in the processes

and structure of the local system necessitating changes in pilot training, procedural

adjustments and new publications, changes in air traffic controller training and adjustments

to air traffic controller procedures; changes in the radial navigation routes in order to fit in

with adjacent neighbouring countries to avoid level step-up and step-down (transition

airspace), adjustment to new flight schedules due to increased air space capacity and

finally, newly developed airspace structures to accommodate non-RVSM-equipped military

aircraft to keep their autonomy of freedom (Republic of South Africa, 2000). These

interventions into the governance (Biomatrix Web 2005) aspect of the Biomatrix confirm

the necessity for the development of policies and procedures that will guide the

implementation of RVSM.

Furthermore the RVSM News (2002) indicates that preparations should be made for the

installation of approved equipment in aircraft and that this equipment will need to be

calibrated annually. International airfields and logistical support should be geared for an

increase in traffic on the ground. Thus, the more people can fly, the more will transit

through the aircraft. In analysing this situation it can even be said that more toilet paper

and coffee will be needed at the airport. This, however, is the “over-analysis” that Higgs

and Smith (2002:36-38) warns against when they refer to criticism against systems theory.

Although this might seem like over-analysis, it confirms the interaction and connectedness

between the elements of the system, thus confirming that these aspects should be taken

into consideration when implementing RVSM in South Africa. This is followed by the

making of an implementation design and finally the implementation of this design.

Non-compliance with international standards when implementing RVSM in South African

airspace increases the likelihood that there will be more in-flight delays due to the

transition areas that aircraft have to go through, that it would be less economical because

of less fuel saving, since optimal flight levels cannot be used by all airlines and aircraft

operators and that the environment would not be able to benefit from reduced fuel burn. It

is foreseen that the use of South African airspace would not be seen as economically

feasible and fewer airlines will travel to South Africa or it would be more costly to travel to

South Africa. This might have another implication, namely that fewer tourists might visit

South Africa, which would have a negative impact on the South African economy. The


18

above-mentioned confirms the interconnectedness and relatedness of various issues with

the South African airspace as a system (Bertalanffy, 1961:11; Higgs & Smith, 2002:36-37;

Irving, 1999; Pegasus Inc., 2005; Schmidt, 1978:661f).

There are not only positive aspects to the implementation of RVSM; it is like a two-sided

coin that also has a negative side to it. Firstly, RVSM equipment is expensive and

calibrations need to be done annually to keep flight operators RVSM-certified in order to

allow operations above FL 290. This implies that some of the smaller flight operators

would not be able to compete with the bigger companies and might even lead to a loss of

jobs in the domain of air transport. Older version aircraft without RVSM equipment will

have to fly below FL 290, which will have serious economic implications for the particular

operator owing to an increase in fuel consumption. This will also influence the environment

as a result of an increase in pollution arising from increased fuel consumption. At present

state aircraft are exempted from having RVSM equipment. This could lead to possible

delays for military aircraft and will place an additional burden on air traffic controllers who

need to be specialised to accommodate military and non-RVSM-equipped aircraft with

traditional 2 000 ft separation. Thus, this will also have an impact on the South African

National Defence Force’s (SANDF) autonomous flight and freedom of flight.

In order to prevent any flight delays the SANDF, as a system within a system, has to

implement very specialised air traffic control services, sufficient air traffic control training

and procedures to accommodate these aircraft. Restricted airspace reserved for military

operations will also be affected. This airspace needs to remain reserved to provide

required airspace for daily operational, autonomous and unrestricted flight. The concept of

flexible use of airspace5 will continue to provide portions of airspace as required daily on a

temporary basis.

The impact of incongruence in one part of the system in the aviation community can be

demonstrated by the recent seven-day labour action against South African Airways (SAA).

According to the Pretoria Beeld 23 July 2005 (Pelser, 2005:1), 75 out of 95 flights were

cancelled on the first day of the strike. The SABC 2 News (South African Broadcasting

5 Flexible use of airspace is a concept inherited from EUROCONTROL and entails the shared use of allavailable airspace by all stakeholders, thus making previously restricted airspace available to all airspaceusers.


19

Corporation, 2005) at 19:00 on 25 July 2005 indicated an estimated daily loss of 25 million

rand. The strike had serious implications internationally and left thousands of very

frustrated people stranded at airports all over the globe. Jacaranda 94.2 (Anon, 2005b)

indicated on the 08:00 news on Tuesday 26 July 2005 that the Johannesburg International

airport had run out of luggage trolleys because of all the stranded passengers. Other

airlines, such as British Airways-Comair, had to charter several additional flights in an

attempt to compensate for the SAA crisis. This example clearly illustrates the impact of a

non-compliant component in the aviation system and it serves as a case that confirms that

all these elements are part of a bigger system. The same results can therefore be

expected in an over-saturated airspace dilemma that South Africa is already experiencing

with an international influx of aircraft during major national events.

Conclusion

The above-mentioned confirms the necessity of implementing RVSM in the South African

airspace. In this process South Africa is faced with various challenges, one of which is the

process to be followed in implementing RVSM. From the discussion above it can be

concluded that systems theory and more specifically the Biomatrix theory has definite

utility for air traffic planners in solving this problem. The Biomatrix can thus be used as an

effective tool to facilitate the implementation of RVSM in South African airspace. It is clear

that the worldwide implementation of RVSM has a global impact on various systems and

also on South Africa, not only on the air traffic management system but also economically,

confirming the interrelatedness of the various components of the system. Problem solvers

should take cognisance that telentropy in one part of a system might have a rippling effect

on other parts of the system. In order to solve a problem in one part of a system it might be

necessary to implement an intervention in another part of the system.

Biomatrix theory provides a new way of looking at the problem of congested airspace and

the development of possible solutions. It furthermore provides a theoretically profound yet

practical methodology for solving problems in smaller and larger systems such as

business organisations, governments and international bodies. It can be concluded that

Biomatrix is a comprehensive approach suitable for solving and understanding problems.

Other challenges or problems can be addressed by using the systems theory approach


20

because it will ensure that all aspects relevant to the problem or all aspects that might be

influenced by interventions are considered.

List of References

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Anon. 2005a. New era replaces Cold War and Space Age. Retrieved 8 August 2005,

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2005, from the World Wide Web: http://www.ecacnav.com/RVSM/default.htm.


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European Air Traffic Control Harmonisation and Integration Programme. 2001. ATC

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Irving A. 1999. Systems Theory. Global Research Business Comm. Retrieved 19 July

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stheory.php.


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Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum in South Africa: A Systems Theory Approach

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