Recursion Chapter 7 Chapter 7: Recursion2 Chapter Objectives To understand how to think recursively To learn how to trace a recursive method Show how.

Recursion

Chapter 7

Chapter 7: Recursion 2

Chapter Objectives

• To understand how to think recursively• To learn how to trace a recursive method• Show how recursion is used in math formulas• To learn how to write recursive algorithms and methods

for searching arrays• To learn about recursive data structures and recursive

methods for a LinkedList class• To understand how to use recursion to solve the Towers

of Hanoi problem


Chapter Objectives (continued)

• To understand how to use recursion to process two-dimensional images

• To learn how to apply backtracking to solve search problems such as finding a path through a maze


Recursive Thinking

• Recursion is a problem-solving approach that can be used to generate simple solutions to certain kinds of problems that would be difficult to solve in other ways

• Recursion splits a problem into one or more simpler versions of itself


Recursive Thinking


Recursive Algorithm

• A given problem is a candidate for recursive solution if you can define a base case and a recursive case • Base case: There is at least one case, for a small

value of n, that can be solved directly• Recursive case: A problem of a given size n can be

split into one or more smaller versions of the same problem


Steps to Design a Recursive Algorithm

• Recognize the base case and provide a solution to it• Devise a strategy to

• Split the problem into smaller versions of itself• Smaller versions must progress toward base case

• Then to solve the original problem…• …combine the solutions of the smaller (or smallest)

problems in such a way as to solve the problem


Recursive Algorithm to Search Array

• Given: Array of n elements, sorted in increasing order• Replace problem of searching n elements by problem of

searching n/2 elements• To find target element…

• Look at element in the middle• If middle element equals target, then done• Else if target is less than middle element

• Repeat search on first half

• Else (target is greater than middle element)• Repeat search on second half



• Suppose we search for “7” in this array of 25 elements:2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,61,67,71,73,79,83,89,97

• Middle element is 41• Since 7 is less than 41, repeat search using 1st half:

2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37

• Middle element is 13• Since 7 is less then 13, repeat using 1st half:

2,3,5,7,11

• Middle element is 5• Since 7 is greater than 5, repeat using 2nd half

7,11

• And so on…



• If array is empty• Return -1

• Else if middle element matches target• Return subscript of element

• Else if target is less than middle element• Recursively search first half of array

• Else• Recursively search second half of array


General Recursive algorithm

• If the problem can be solved for current value of n• Solve it (base case)

• Else• Recursively apply the algorithm to one or more

problems with smaller value(s) of n (recursive case)


Steps to Design Recursive Algorithm

• In general…• A base case (small n) that can be solved directly• Problem of size n can be split into smaller version(s)

of the same problem (recursive case)• To design a recursive algorithm, we must

• Recognize base case, and provide solution to it• Devise a strategy to split problem into smaller

versions of itself• Combine solutions to smaller problems so that large

problem is solved correctly


Recursive String Length Algorithm

• How to find length of a string?• Lots of ways to do this• How about a recursive solution?

• Length of empty string is 0• Length of non-empty string is length of first character

plus length of the “rest of the string”• That is, 1 + length of rest of the string

• For example, length of “abcd” is 1 + length of “bcd”• And so on…





• In Java

public static int length(String str) {if (str == null || str.equals(""))

return 0;else

return 1 + length(str.substring(1));}


Run-Time Stack and Activation Frames

• “Activation frame” pushed onto run-time stack• Run-time stack is like “scratch paper”• OS can save information (keep state)

• For later use


Tracing Recursive String Length Method

1


Proving that a Recursive Method is Correct

• Proof by induction• Prove the theorem is true for the base case• Show that if the theorem is assumed true for n, then

it must be true for n+1• Proof of recursion is similar to induction

• Verify that the base case is solved correctly• Verify that each recursive case progresses towards

the base case• Verify that if all smaller problems are solved correctly,

then the original problem is also solved correctly


Prove Recursive String Length is Correct

• Base case?• Empty string is of length 0

• Recursive case makes progress towards base case?• String gets smaller by 1 each time

• Show that if smaller problem solved correctly, then original problem is solved correctly• Smaller problem: length(str.substring(1))• If small problem correct, then length of original string

is correct: 1 + length(str.substring(1))


Recursive Math Formulas

• Mathematics has many naturally recursive formulas• Examples include:

• Factorial• Powers• Greatest common divisor

• Note that if recursive problem is too big, a stack overflow error will occur• Space available for run-time stack is limited


Factorial

• How do you pronounce “n!” ?• As you know, n! = n (n-1) (n-2) … 1

• And 0! = 1• Recursive definition?• We have: n! = n (n-1)!• Can easily write a recursive method for factorial…


Recursive Factorial Method


Exponentiation

• If n is a non-negative integer, xn is x times itself, n times• And x0 = 1

• For example, 27 = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 128• Recursive definition?• We have: xn = x xn-1

• Can easily write recursive method…


Recursive Exponentiation Method


Recursion Versus Iteration

• What is iteration?• A loop repetition condition determines whether to

repeat the loop body or exit from the loop• In recursion, the condition tests for a base case • There are similarities between recursion and iteration

• You can always write an iterative solution to a problem that is solvable by recursion

• You are probably more familiar with iteration• So, why bother with recursion?

• Recursive code often simpler than an iterative algorithm and thus easier to write, read, and debug


Tail Recursion

• “Tail recursion” or “last-line recursion”• Single recursive call, and it is last line of the method

• All of the examples we have considered so far are examples of tail recursion

• Easy to convert tail recursive method to iterative method• Example on the next slide…


Iterative Factorial Method


Efficiency of Recursion

• Is recursion more or less efficient than iteration? • Recursive methods often slower than iteration: Why?• The overhead for loop repetition is smaller than the

overhead for a method call and return• Recall, run-time stack

• If it is easier to conceptualize an algorithm using recursion, then you should code it as a recursive method• The reduction in efficiency does not outweigh the

advantage of readable code that is easy to debug


Fibonacci Numbers

• Fibonacci numbers developed to model rabbit population• Defined as

fib1 = 1, fib2 = 1, fibn = fibn-1 + fibn-2

• The first several Fibonacci numbers are

1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,… • Easy to write a recursive method for Fibonacci numbers

• See next slide…


Inefficient Recursive Fibonacci Method


Inefficient Recursive Fibonacci Method

• Why is the obvious Fibonacci recursion inefficient?• Consider fibonacci(7)

• Compute fibonacci(6) and fibonacci(5)• Then fibonacci(5), fibonacci(4), fibonacci(4)

fibonacci(3) • Then fibonacci(4), fibonacci(3), fibonacci(3),

fibonacci(2), fibonacci(3), fibonacci(2), fibonacci(2), fibonacci(1)

• And so on…• Why is this inefficient?


Inefficient Recursive Fibonacci

• How inefficient is this?• Exponential time!!!

• If n = 100, need about 2100 activation frames


Efficient Recursive Fibonacci Method

• An O(n) Fibonacci algorithm… • If we know current and previous Fibonacci numbers

• Then next Fibonacci number is current + previous• Method fibo

• 1st argument is current Fibonacci (fibCurrent)• 2nd argument is previous Fibonacci (fibPrevious)• 3rd argument is n

• When n = 1, base case, so return fibCurrent• Otherwise, return

fibo(fibCurrent + fibPrevious, fibCurrent, n - 1)

• Start by computing: fibo(1, 0, n)





How efficient?


Dynamic Programming

• We want to find “best” stagecoach route from A to J• Where ”best” == shortest distance


Dynamic Programming

• Let F(X) be shortest distance from A to X• Note that, for example,

F(J) = min{F(H) + 3, F(I) + 4}• This provides a recursive method to find F(J)…


Dynamic Programming

• F(A) = 0

0


Dynamic Programming

• F(B) = 2

2

4

3

0

• F(C) = 4

• F(D) = 3


Dynamic Programming

• F(E) = min{F(B) + 7, F(C) + 3, F(D) + 4} = min{9,7,7} = 7

2

4

3

7

4

8

0

• F(F) = min{F(B) + 4, F(C) + 2, F(D) + 1} = min{6,6,4} = 4

• F(G) = min{F(B) + 6, F(C) + 4, F(D) + 5} = min{8,8,8} = 8


Dynamic Programming

• F(H) = min{F(E) + 1, F(F) + 6, F(G) + 3} = min{8,10,11} = 8

2

4

3

4

8

8

7

7

0

• F(I) = min{F(E) + 4, F(F) + 3, F(G) + 3} = min{11,7,11} = 7


Dynamic Programming

• F(J) = min{F(H) + 3, F(I) + 4} = min{11,11} = 11

2

4

3

7

4

8

8

7

0 11


Dynamic Programming

• The shortest path(s) from A to J have distance 11• In this example, the shortest path is not unique

• How to find best path?• As opposed to shortest distance

2

4

3

7

4

8

8

7

110


Recursive Array Search

• Searching an array can be accomplished using recursion• Simplest way to search is a linear search

• Examine one element at a time starting with the first element and ending with the last

• Base case for recursive search is an empty array• Result is negative one

• Another base case would be when the array element being examined matches the target

• Recursive step is to search the rest of the array, excluding the element just examined


Algorithm for Recursive Linear Array Search


Implementation of Recursive Linear Search


Design of a Binary Search Algorithm

• Binary search can be performed only on an array that has been sorted• We assume array is in increasing order

• Stop cases• The array is empty• Element being examined matches the target

• Check the middle element for a match with the target• Throw away the half of the array

• Throw away the half that the target cannot be in


Binary Search Algorithm


Binary Search Example


Implementation of Binary Search


Implementation of Binary Search


Efficiency of Binary Search

• At each recursive call we eliminate half the array elements from consideration

• O(log2n)


Comparable Interface

• Classes that implement the Comparable interface must define a compareTo method that enables its objects to be compared in a standard way• CompareTo allows you to define ordering of elements


Method Arrays.binarySearch

• Java API class Arrays contains a binarySearch method• Can be called with sorted arrays of primitive types or

with sorted arrays of objects• If the objects in the array are not mutually comparable

or if the array is not sorted, the results are undefined• If there are multiple copies of the target value in the

array, there is no guarantee which one will be found• Throws ClassCastException if the target is not

comparable to the array elements


Recursive Data Structures

• Computer scientists often encounter data structures that are defined recursively• Trees (Chapter 8) are defined recursively

• Linked list can be described as a recursive data structure• Recursive methods useful for processing recursive data

structures• The first language developed for artificial intelligence

research was a recursive language called LISP• “LISt Processing” language


Recursive Definition of a Linked List

• A non-empty linked list is a collection of nodes where each node references another linked list consisting of the nodes that follow it in the list

• The last node references an empty list• A linked list is empty, or it contains a node, called the list

head, that stores data and a reference to a linked list


Recursive Size Method


Recursive toString Method


Recursive Replace Method


Recursive Add Method


Recursive Remove Method


Recursive Remove Method


Problem Solving with Recursion

• Will look at two problems• Towers of Hanoi• Counting cells in a blob


Towers of Hanoi

• Goal: Move stack of disks to one of the empty pegs• Rules:

• Only the top disk on a peg can be moved• A larger disk cannot be placed on top of a smaller disk


• Suppose we can get top 2 disks onto middle peg• Then we have smaller version of original problem

Towers of Hanoi


Towers of Hanoi


Algorithm for Towers of Hanoi






Recursive Algorithm for Towers of Hanoi


Recursive Towers of Hanoi


Counting Cells in a Blob

• Consider how we might process an image that is presented as a two-dimensional array of color values

• Information in the image may come from• X-Ray• MRI• Satellite imagery• Etc.

• Goal is to determine the size of any area in the image that is considered abnormal because of its color values


Counting Cells in a Blob (continued)




Implementation


Implementation (continued)




Backtracking

• Backtracking is an approach to implementing systematic trial and error in a search for a solution• An example is finding a path through a maze

• If you are attempting to walk through a maze, you will probably walk down a path as far as you can go

• Eventually, you will reach your destination or you won’t be able to go any farther

• If you can’t go any farther, you will need to retrace your steps

• Backtracking is a systematic approach to trying alternative paths and eliminating them if they don’t work


Backtracking

• Never try the exact same path more than once, and you will eventually find a solution path if one exists

• Problems that are solved by backtracking can be described as a set of choices made by some method

• Recursion allows us to implement backtracking in a relatively straightforward manner• Each activation frame is used to remember the choice

that was made at that particular decision point• A program that plays chess may involve some kind of

backtracking algorithm


Backtracking


Recursive Algorithm for Finding Maze Path


Maze Path Implementation






Recursion Java Code

• http://www.cs.sjsu.edu/~stamp/CS46B/other/recursion/


Chapter Review

• A recursive method has a standard form• To prove that a recursive algorithm is correct, you must

• Verify that the base case is recognized and solved correctly

• Verify that each recursive case makes progress toward the base case

• Verify that if all smaller problems are solved correctly, then the original problem must also be solved correctly

• The run-time stack uses activation frames to keep track of argument values and return points during recursive method calls


Chapter Review

• Mathematical Sequences and formulas that are defined recursively can be implemented naturally as recursive methods

• Recursive data structures are data structures that have a component that is the same data structure

• Towers of Hanoi and counting cells in a blob can both be solved with recursion

• Backtracking is a technique that enables you to write programs that can be used to explore different alternative paths in a search for a solution

Recursion Chapter 7 Chapter 7: Recursion2 Chapter Objectives To understand how to think recursively To learn how to trace a recursive method Show how.

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