REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF CAPITALISM A new era in the history of mankind began when the newly invented machines began to produce consumer goods in abundance in England since the second half of the eighteenth century. This transformation in the method of production from man-made to machinemade is called the industrial Revolution. In the last two centuries the Industrial Revolution had undergone some phases. The earliest phase began in England around the middle of the eighteenth century. Reasons For The Revolution Many factors were responsible for the birth of industrial revolution in England. It may be remembered that England was principally an agricultural country before the advent of this revolution. However, she had all the infrastructure necessary to set the country on the road to industrialization. Some of them were the availability of raw materials, scarcity of labour, a fully developed banking systems the birth of entrepreneurial class, and great inventors. Fortunately, the British goods enjoyed good reputation in international markets. Over a period of hundred years the industrial revolution changed the countryside so much as to cause much anguish to nature poets of England. Britain had large amounts of coal and iron deposits. Also it had a large force of semi-skilled workers who were always eager to take up extra work. Raw materials were available cheaply. The Royal Society of London encouraged scientific discoveries and inventions. With potential markets at its disposal England went ahead with the new mnethods of production. The early phase of the industrial revolution was marked by d gradual change. It was confined to the textile industry to start with. The industrial Revolution was a silent one. In 1733 John invented the “Flying Shuttle” which, when operated by hand, increased the speed of weaving of cloth. It was followed by another invention in 1767 called “The spinning Jenny” by James Hargreaves. This machinc spun eight threads simultaneously. Hargreaves kept his invention a secret for some time because he thought that it would cause retrenchment of workers if used. Two years later Richard Arkwright RAY by AvadhOjha.com
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Microsoft Word - Industrial Revolution.docxREVOLUTION AND THE RISE
OF CAPITALISM A new era in the history of mankind began when the
newly invented machines began to produce consumer goods in
abundance in England since the second half of the eighteenth
century. This transformation in the method of production from
man-made to machinemade is called the industrial Revolution. In the
last two centuries the Industrial Revolution had undergone some
phases. The earliest phase began in England around the middle of
the eighteenth century.
Reasons For The Revolution
Many factors were responsible for the birth of industrial revolution in England. It may be remembered that England was principally an agricultural country before the advent of this revolution. However, she had all the infrastructure necessary to set the country on the road to industrialization. Some of them were the availability of raw materials, scarcity of labour, a fully developed banking systems the birth of entrepreneurial class, and great inventors. Fortunately, the British goods enjoyed good reputation in international markets. Over a period of hundred years the industrial revolution changed the countryside so much as to cause much anguish to nature poets of England. Britain had large amounts of coal and iron deposits. Also it had a large force of semi-skilled workers who were always eager to take up extra work. Raw materials were available cheaply. The Royal Society of London encouraged scientific discoveries and inventions. With potential markets at its disposal England went ahead with the new mnethods of production. The early phase of the industrial revolution was marked by d gradual change. It was confined to the textile industry to start with. The industrial Revolution was a silent one. In 1733 John invented the “Flying Shuttle” which, when operated by hand, increased the speed of weaving of cloth. It was followed by another invention in 1767 called “The spinning Jenny” by James Hargreaves. This machinc spun eight threads simultaneously. Hargreaves kept his invention a secret for some time because he thought that it would cause retrenchment of workers if used. Two years later Richard Arkwright
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invented a spinning frame called “Waterframe” which used water power in place of manpower. As waterframe was too big to be run at home and since it required too much water a factory had to be built. In 1779 Samuel Cromptoll invented his “Spinning Mule” which included good combination of both the “Spinning Jenny and the “Waterframe”. It Spun hundreds of threads at one and the same time and produced either fine or coarse thread. In the course of’ time the new inventors were Paying attention to the method of’ weaving which was not keeping pace with the manufacture of threads. Reverend Edmund Cartwright invented j I 755 the Powerloom’ which wove cloth very quickly. This invention was run by a big water-wheel. Subsequently, Eli Whitney invented the ‘Cotton gin’, a machine which was used to separate the seeds from the hand-picked cotton from the fields. Over a span of fifty years the textile- manufacturing industry in Britain witnessed a transformation in the method of production—from handmade to machine-made and the newly invented machines enabled the factory owners to produce textile goods in large quantity. What hundreds of workers did in the course of a day in a textile mill a machine accomplished it within a few hours. During the first half of nineteenth century cloth with different colours was made since the new methods of bleaching, dyeing and printing were discovered. An American named Elias Howe invented the “sewing machine” in 1846 to stitch clothes. For making sturdy machines iron and steel were required. So the iron and steel industry had to make progress. In the olden days people were in the habit of smelting the iron ore in brick furnaces and used charcoal as fuel. The dross of’ the iron was separated and iron was produced. But the iron produced through this process was brittle. So it had to be smelted again. Finally coke was used to produce iron. The blacksmiths hammered it into required shapes for their convenience. But this process was both laborious and costly. Finally Henry Bessemer discovered a faster and cheaper method of producing steel in 1856. In the course of time iron and steel came to be used in making all machines. Textile and metal industries were started in British town like Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and London. Thus the factory system came to stay.
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Earlier, wood was used as a fuel in the place of coal. When coal was required in abundant quantity to he used as fuel, coal mining industry necessary. Fortunately, Britain had large reserves of coal deposits. When coal was mined and made available in plenty people used it for domestic purpose. Large industries used them as fuel. So coal replaced wood as fuel material. The story of the invention of steam engine is interesting. In the eighteenth century British mine-owners were faced with the problem of water seeping into the mines. This water had to be removed if work undertaken had to make progress. So they employed labourers at a great to pump the water out. it was at this time a British Engineer named Thomas Newcomen invented the first steam engine which was used to pump the water out of the mines. However, this engine consumed too much fuel. A few years later a young Scottish inventor named James Watt redesigned the steam-engine which produced more power with less fuel. His invention was a great success and it was patented in 1769. This steam engine was used in the steel and textile industries. Thus steam power replaced water-power. The new factory system In Britain the household industry in towns and villages was replaced by the new factory system. Wealthy capitalists bought machines and large buildings and turned them into mills. Many workers were needed to operate the machines and they were recruited. They were paid meagre wages. People without jobs in the villages began to drift towards cities in search of factory jobs. They started living in huts or one tenement apartments near the factories where they worked. The factory system totally replaced the guild system in the course of time. Towns, where big factories were located, became cities and their population increased. The factories produced far more goods than was necessary for mass consumption. So they had to be transported to other cities and towns for distribution. So came the age of steam-engine rail transport. An English engineer George Stephenson built the first public railway line, and with his son Robert Stephenson designed an advanced steam Locomotive called Rocket. In 1830 it completed forty miles of journey from Manchester to Liverpool within an
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hour and half. During the next forty years Britain built a network of railway lines measuring 13,500 miles. In the united states of America Robert Fulton invented a steamboat called ‘Clermont’ in 1807. It covered a distance of nearly one hundred fifty miles from New York to Albany on the Hudson river in about thirty two hours. After a few years steamboats carrying cargo appeared shuttlilg on the rivers and coastlines. A trans_oceanic steamboat ‘Sirius’ crossed the Atlantic in eighteen days in 1838. In the construction of roads and canals, France led the other countries. in U.S.A. canals were dug to link important rivers and lakes. There river transport assumed great importance in the course of time. A British engineer named Mc Adam showed how smooth and hard-surfaced roads could he built on which vehicles moved without jerks and jolts. Such roads built according to his method were called macadamised roads. It after the construction of these roads, stage- coaches carrying a few passengers were seen on the roads. They covered a distance of fourteen miles within an hour. Automobiles appeared much later. Improvement in the means of communication The means of communication also improved much along with the quicker means of transport. An American named Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and sent a message in 1844. Messages were sent by means of telegraph wires connecting one station to the other. Alexander graham bell invented the telephone in 1876. This new instrument carried human voice on wire from one end to the other. Cyrus w. Field laid the Trans-Atlantic undersea cable connecting the American continent with Europe in 1866. Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896, and he succeeded in sending signals across the Atlantic for the first time in 1901. It was on the basis of this invention that and subsequently television came into being. Spread of industrial revolution
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The industrial revolution spread from England to other eur0pe countries during the nineteenth century. France also witnessed this revolution till Napoleonic wars interrupted its progress briefly. However, after the defeat of Napoleon in the battle of waterloo, it was resumed with renewed vigour. Other countries which were affected by it Germany, the Netherlands and Austria. During the latter half of nineteenth century Germany made rapid strides of progress and by the end of the century it had become a global power. India too made some progress since the advent of Dalhousie. British capital investment for the starting of railways and telegraphs. The earliest industry which made some progress was the cotton textile industry in Bombay and Ahmadabad. It not until the 1920s that the British government thought of industrialisation of this country. Jamshedji Tata opened a steel factory to make india self-sufficient in iron and steel in 1907. A few other industries like the jutes paper and glass made their appearance gradually. But colonial economy with its worst features impoverished this country despite some industrialisation. India sub-served the interests of the capitalists of England. Among the Asian countries Japan made marvellous progress in the field of industrialisation during the last few decades of the nineteenth century. Commodore perry’s visit and subsequent treaties Japan was forced to sign with western countries made her realise that the real strength 0f the country lay in rapid industrialisation. The key to west’s superiority d dominance lay in their industrial, technological and scientific progress. So Japan chose to industrialise herself with the assistance of Western countries. Today it has surpassed them in her march towards rapid industrialisation ship building, electronics, automobile and textile industries have made remarkable progress in that country. General effects of industrial revolution General the industrial revolution produced both good and bad effects. Consumer goods were available in plenty and at reasonable rates. Factories provided employment to many. The general standard of living of the people improved. However, these good effects faded when some ugly aspects became manifest. The capitalists and entrepreneurs invested their capital. Purchased raw materials and machines, and ran the factories. They paid meagre wages to the
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workers and earned huge profits. They enjoyed all the luxuries of life and neglected the conditions of their employees. Men, women and children worked in factories for long hours. Work in mines was difficult. They could not complain of their difficulties for fear they would be retrenched. They lived in squalor. Charles Dickens has given a picturesque description of the pitiable conditions of the people affected by the industrial revolution. In villages, cottage industries suffered due to competition from machine-made goods. Many of them became unemployed and they had to go to cities in search of jobs in mills. The middle-class (often described as bourgeoisie class) became wealthy due to Capital investment in trade and industries. The Government of the day were easily influenced by them since they constituted the majority of voting public. They had levers power. All legislations safeguarded their vested interests. The labours were not permitted to form trade unions. It was in these circumstances that socialism took its birth in Europe. Socialism advocated the bridging of the Gulf between the rich and the poor by means of nationalization of the factors of production. However, it was not until Karl Marx, the German philosopher came on the scene that doctrine of scientific socialism were enunciated in the program of militant action by workers was undertaken to overthrow the bourgeoisie government. Social consequences of industrial revolution The industrial revolution in Britain and subsequently elsewhere in Europe during the early nineteenth century had great impact on society over a span of nearly seventy years (1830-1900). The traditionally agricultural countries like Britain were transformed into a predominantly industrial nation during this period. England became the workshop of the world. In the wake of industrial revolution this nation witnessed a great increase in population, new inventions, swift transport and communication, factories with labour saving machines belching out smoke and overcrowded towns and cities. To some extent there was decline in agriculture. There was flow of population from villages to industrial towns.
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One of the conspicuous results of the industrial revolution was the growth of population in England. In 1760 it was six and three quarter millions, in 1800 nine million, in 1830 fourteen million, in 1870 twenty two million, and in 1900 thirty-six million. Similarly, the population of Europe increased from around 187 million in 1800 to 305 million in 1870, and increased further to 440 million in 1910. Obviously there was decline of mortality rate with the discovery of life-saving drugs and practice of modern medicine and surgery, As the population grew enormously even the rapid explosion of agriculture was unable to absorb the unemployed. So unemployment on the land led to the migration of a number of families to industrial towns and cities. In England for example thirty two per cent of the workers were employed in agriculture in 1801, and after one hundred years was reduced to six per cent. Economic circumstances compelled the rural population to drift towards industrial town and city in search of job in factories. With the constant flow of population from the rural parts old cities like Glasgow and Bristol grew enormous in size and population. New towns like Liverpool, Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds became thickly populated since many industries were located in these areas. European cities such as Paris, Brussels, Milan, Tille and Berlin grew beyond recognition. In 1800 there were only 14 European towns with a population of more than 1 million but at the end of the century they rose to more than 100. Middlesbrough was a tiny village with 25 inhabitants in 1801 but by 1901 it had a population of more than 90000 after the opening of iron and steel industries. By the end of 19th century the city of London was receiving 8000 to 12000 immigrant annually. Industrial revolution in England disturbed the structure of English society. Agriculture and village handicraft declined. The village artisans and lost their job. In the place of tenant-farmer the rich landlords became more influential. The landless laborers flocked to towns and cities in search of job. In urban towns and cities two new classes emerged namely the industrial capitalist and the industrial working classes. Conditions in Industrial Towns During the early stage of industrial revolution in England the lot of the worker was miserable. The employer hardly bothered about his housing and living
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conditions. He was simply a wage earner and his job remained uncertain. Therefore he left his family in the village to fend for themselves. He lived in a tenanted apartment which was anything but clean. The close tenements lacked water and toilet facilities. He could not breathe fresh air due to the cramped “back to back” housing. At least in his village he had a home, freedom and some friendly people surrounding him. Here in the city he was living in the midst of penury and without friends. In the factory or a mill or in a mine he worked for nearly 12 to 15 hours with danger lurking at the corner. Accidents were common in factories, mills and mines. If he worked in a mine he hardly saw the sunlight. Often his employer would dispense with his service and preferred to employ his wife and children because he would get more work done at less expense. So women and children were mostly employed in textile mills. Children below the age of 12 clothed in rags were found working in factories in measurable conditions. Since the workers’ families were crowded in cheap lodgings which Lacked water and sanitation, young children often fell sick and died. Many a worker wanted his wife to work to supplement his meagre income. Due to the absence of parents children became delinquents as their education was neglected. Juvenile delinquency became a common feature urban societies. Cholera epidemics broke out in 1831-33, 1847-48, and 1865 -66. It was unfortunate that the English parliament did not pay attention to the miserable conditions of the working classes during the early stage of the industrial revolution. This was due to its aristocratic composition. Rural consequences of industrialization The pre-Victorian period in England did not witness much industrial industrialization in agriculture. However, afterwards machines began to replace manual labour on agricultural lands. Seed drills and threshing machines were introduced. Later there came the use of traction engines for ploughing. Gradually machines on farms did all the chores of farmers on the land. It aroused resentment among the farmers and led to disturbances of 1830-32. Even though there was expansion in agriculture, it was unable to absorb the
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growing population. So, economic conditions began to worsen leading to rural families migrating to industrial towns. Rural unemployment became a common feature and it led to lowering of farm- wage levels to subsistence level. The spread of industrial revolution to rural countryside marred its beauty and a few English poets lamented this. Labour unrest and movement: it was during the early decades of the nineteenth century that some labour unrest manifested itself due to extreme hardships. Luddite disturbances were an expression of protest against the apathy of the government to the worsening conditions. But they were suppressed. Combination laws of 1799 prevented the workers from forming any association. They were repealed in 1824 due to untiring efforts of Francis Place. Unions were allowed but efforts to form one single national union failed. When the reform bill of 1832 failed to give vote to the workers there began the chartist movement which remained popular till 1848. The chartists incited violence and disorder to get their demands fulfilled. It was only in 1867 that a Royal Commission on labour was set up on trade union. It recommended “putting trade unions upon a firm legal basis and allowing them to secure their funds”. The Trades Union Congress was founded in Manchester in 1868.
In the United States there were series of conflicts between the industrial capitalists and workers during the last three decades of the nineteenth century. They led to the formation of two trade unions, namely, the Noble Order of the Knights of 1ihor and the American Federation of Labour. The latter was a bigger union organised by Samuel Gompers. An organised labour movement in india was started by humanists and social workers during the late nineteenth centur. After some time some philanthropists and political workers joined to make the movement a success. In india, Narayan Meghaji Lokhanday associated himself with SathyaSamaj of Jyotiba Phule and worked for the uplift of the labour class during the late nineteenth century.
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Legislative remedies factory Acts were passed in England in 1833, 1844, 1847 and 1850 which nostly regulated the working hours of female and child labour. In 1842 the Mines Act prohibited women and children from working in mines. Letislaton on housing began during the second half of the nineteenth century. Free elementary education was provided under Forster’s EduCatlOfl Act. In the early twentieth century state’s responsibility towards social welfare measures was recognised. Old-age Pensions Act and National Health Insurance Acts were passed in 1908 and 1911 respectively. Rise of socialism Despite the above ameliorative measures the lot of workers in many countries n Europe remained far from satisfactory. The pitiable conditions of the working class attracted the attention of not only the novelists (Charles Dickens) and social reformers (Lord Shaftesbury) but also philosophers like Karl Marx and Engels. They were aghast at the way the Industrial Revolution widened the gulf between the rich and the poor, it stimulated their thoughts which led to the birth of revolutionary Socialism. They said that to put an end to social and economic inequalities in the existing society the working class should bring about a revolution. The writings of Karl Marx had a greater impact on the minds of the workers and intellectuals than the suggestions ot other famous socialists like Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Proudhon and Bakunin. Lenin, a great admirer of Karl Marx, was able to build a socialist state after the Russian Revolution (1917).
Rise of Modern Capitalism By far the greatest outcome of the Industrial Revolution was the rise of modern capitalism. Capitalism had existed even before Industrial Revolution but it did not bring about far reaching changes. By modern capitalism we mean industrial
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capitalism, an offshoot industrial revolution. It is an economic system “in which all or the most of the means of production and distribution, as lands, factories and railroads are privately owned and operated for profit”. The profit derived out of early capitalism was spent on building of churches, donations and charities. But profit derived out of industrial capitalism was reinvested to bring about manifold profit. Wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few captains of industries. It gave them unlimited power, prestige and status in society. One may as well remember that not many had wealth to buy expensive machines which required spacious rooms to install them. The factory system gradually replaced the old ‘domestic system’. Wealthy industrialists established partnerships and ran factories. They employed workers to operate the machines which produced mass consumer goods. After paying meagre wages to the workers they derived huge profits. in the course of time the evils of capitalism became manifest. Modern capitalism grew out of rents received from vast agricultural and urban lands, interests from money-lending, profits from trade, and huge profits derived from joint stock companies and banking institutions. Profits derived out of the sales of factory manufactures added to the accumulation of capital. Growth of industrial capitalism Industrial enterprises expanded to a great extent in UK and the USA during the second half of nineteenth century. They managed railways, mines, textile and other mills. Sometimes joint stock companies or corporations undertook great industrial ventures including foreign investments. The stock and shareholders remained idle after investment but the salaried employees did everything for them. The profits went into the hands of stock and shareholders. Between the years 1870 and 1910 capital investment increased in Great Britain from 35 to 70 billion dollars, in France from 28 to 55 billion (dollars), and in Germany from 1 7 to 70 billion (dollars).During the same years British foreign investments rose from 5 to 20 billion dollars, French from 2 to 8 billion (dollars), and German from none to five billion (dollars). A growing proportion of the increasing profits in Germany and the United States were apportioned by great
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industrial combinations called “Cartels” or “Trusts.” They were formed by industrial magnates to eliminate competition, reduce overhead expenses and establish a practical monopoly. In the USA monopolies were set up in the oil and steel industries. Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller made fortunes by eliminating most of their business rivals. The directors and stock holders of big business companies were called “industrial barons” or “robber barons”. Reputed bankers demanded control over corporations in return for granting them loans. Thus Morgan-Rockefeller Empires held “in all 341 directorships in 112 corporations”. Industrial capitalism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries brought about many evils. Concentration of wealth in the hands of few ruthless individuals led to a number of abuses. They influenced state Policies to promote their vested interests, exploited the weakness of the Workers, dictated prices in the market and did not act in the interests of the nation. Therefore, they and their power had to be curbed by the state. President Theodore Roosevelt of the USA acted in a free and fearless manner in persecuting the monopolists under antitrust laws.
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Reasons For The Revolution
Many factors were responsible for the birth of industrial revolution in England. It may be remembered that England was principally an agricultural country before the advent of this revolution. However, she had all the infrastructure necessary to set the country on the road to industrialization. Some of them were the availability of raw materials, scarcity of labour, a fully developed banking systems the birth of entrepreneurial class, and great inventors. Fortunately, the British goods enjoyed good reputation in international markets. Over a period of hundred years the industrial revolution changed the countryside so much as to cause much anguish to nature poets of England. Britain had large amounts of coal and iron deposits. Also it had a large force of semi-skilled workers who were always eager to take up extra work. Raw materials were available cheaply. The Royal Society of London encouraged scientific discoveries and inventions. With potential markets at its disposal England went ahead with the new mnethods of production. The early phase of the industrial revolution was marked by d gradual change. It was confined to the textile industry to start with. The industrial Revolution was a silent one. In 1733 John invented the “Flying Shuttle” which, when operated by hand, increased the speed of weaving of cloth. It was followed by another invention in 1767 called “The spinning Jenny” by James Hargreaves. This machinc spun eight threads simultaneously. Hargreaves kept his invention a secret for some time because he thought that it would cause retrenchment of workers if used. Two years later Richard Arkwright
RAY by A
m
invented a spinning frame called “Waterframe” which used water power in place of manpower. As waterframe was too big to be run at home and since it required too much water a factory had to be built. In 1779 Samuel Cromptoll invented his “Spinning Mule” which included good combination of both the “Spinning Jenny and the “Waterframe”. It Spun hundreds of threads at one and the same time and produced either fine or coarse thread. In the course of’ time the new inventors were Paying attention to the method of’ weaving which was not keeping pace with the manufacture of threads. Reverend Edmund Cartwright invented j I 755 the Powerloom’ which wove cloth very quickly. This invention was run by a big water-wheel. Subsequently, Eli Whitney invented the ‘Cotton gin’, a machine which was used to separate the seeds from the hand-picked cotton from the fields. Over a span of fifty years the textile- manufacturing industry in Britain witnessed a transformation in the method of production—from handmade to machine-made and the newly invented machines enabled the factory owners to produce textile goods in large quantity. What hundreds of workers did in the course of a day in a textile mill a machine accomplished it within a few hours. During the first half of nineteenth century cloth with different colours was made since the new methods of bleaching, dyeing and printing were discovered. An American named Elias Howe invented the “sewing machine” in 1846 to stitch clothes. For making sturdy machines iron and steel were required. So the iron and steel industry had to make progress. In the olden days people were in the habit of smelting the iron ore in brick furnaces and used charcoal as fuel. The dross of’ the iron was separated and iron was produced. But the iron produced through this process was brittle. So it had to be smelted again. Finally coke was used to produce iron. The blacksmiths hammered it into required shapes for their convenience. But this process was both laborious and costly. Finally Henry Bessemer discovered a faster and cheaper method of producing steel in 1856. In the course of time iron and steel came to be used in making all machines. Textile and metal industries were started in British town like Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and London. Thus the factory system came to stay.
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Earlier, wood was used as a fuel in the place of coal. When coal was required in abundant quantity to he used as fuel, coal mining industry necessary. Fortunately, Britain had large reserves of coal deposits. When coal was mined and made available in plenty people used it for domestic purpose. Large industries used them as fuel. So coal replaced wood as fuel material. The story of the invention of steam engine is interesting. In the eighteenth century British mine-owners were faced with the problem of water seeping into the mines. This water had to be removed if work undertaken had to make progress. So they employed labourers at a great to pump the water out. it was at this time a British Engineer named Thomas Newcomen invented the first steam engine which was used to pump the water out of the mines. However, this engine consumed too much fuel. A few years later a young Scottish inventor named James Watt redesigned the steam-engine which produced more power with less fuel. His invention was a great success and it was patented in 1769. This steam engine was used in the steel and textile industries. Thus steam power replaced water-power. The new factory system In Britain the household industry in towns and villages was replaced by the new factory system. Wealthy capitalists bought machines and large buildings and turned them into mills. Many workers were needed to operate the machines and they were recruited. They were paid meagre wages. People without jobs in the villages began to drift towards cities in search of factory jobs. They started living in huts or one tenement apartments near the factories where they worked. The factory system totally replaced the guild system in the course of time. Towns, where big factories were located, became cities and their population increased. The factories produced far more goods than was necessary for mass consumption. So they had to be transported to other cities and towns for distribution. So came the age of steam-engine rail transport. An English engineer George Stephenson built the first public railway line, and with his son Robert Stephenson designed an advanced steam Locomotive called Rocket. In 1830 it completed forty miles of journey from Manchester to Liverpool within an
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hour and half. During the next forty years Britain built a network of railway lines measuring 13,500 miles. In the united states of America Robert Fulton invented a steamboat called ‘Clermont’ in 1807. It covered a distance of nearly one hundred fifty miles from New York to Albany on the Hudson river in about thirty two hours. After a few years steamboats carrying cargo appeared shuttlilg on the rivers and coastlines. A trans_oceanic steamboat ‘Sirius’ crossed the Atlantic in eighteen days in 1838. In the construction of roads and canals, France led the other countries. in U.S.A. canals were dug to link important rivers and lakes. There river transport assumed great importance in the course of time. A British engineer named Mc Adam showed how smooth and hard-surfaced roads could he built on which vehicles moved without jerks and jolts. Such roads built according to his method were called macadamised roads. It after the construction of these roads, stage- coaches carrying a few passengers were seen on the roads. They covered a distance of fourteen miles within an hour. Automobiles appeared much later. Improvement in the means of communication The means of communication also improved much along with the quicker means of transport. An American named Samuel Morse invented the telegraph and sent a message in 1844. Messages were sent by means of telegraph wires connecting one station to the other. Alexander graham bell invented the telephone in 1876. This new instrument carried human voice on wire from one end to the other. Cyrus w. Field laid the Trans-Atlantic undersea cable connecting the American continent with Europe in 1866. Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896, and he succeeded in sending signals across the Atlantic for the first time in 1901. It was on the basis of this invention that and subsequently television came into being. Spread of industrial revolution
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The industrial revolution spread from England to other eur0pe countries during the nineteenth century. France also witnessed this revolution till Napoleonic wars interrupted its progress briefly. However, after the defeat of Napoleon in the battle of waterloo, it was resumed with renewed vigour. Other countries which were affected by it Germany, the Netherlands and Austria. During the latter half of nineteenth century Germany made rapid strides of progress and by the end of the century it had become a global power. India too made some progress since the advent of Dalhousie. British capital investment for the starting of railways and telegraphs. The earliest industry which made some progress was the cotton textile industry in Bombay and Ahmadabad. It not until the 1920s that the British government thought of industrialisation of this country. Jamshedji Tata opened a steel factory to make india self-sufficient in iron and steel in 1907. A few other industries like the jutes paper and glass made their appearance gradually. But colonial economy with its worst features impoverished this country despite some industrialisation. India sub-served the interests of the capitalists of England. Among the Asian countries Japan made marvellous progress in the field of industrialisation during the last few decades of the nineteenth century. Commodore perry’s visit and subsequent treaties Japan was forced to sign with western countries made her realise that the real strength 0f the country lay in rapid industrialisation. The key to west’s superiority d dominance lay in their industrial, technological and scientific progress. So Japan chose to industrialise herself with the assistance of Western countries. Today it has surpassed them in her march towards rapid industrialisation ship building, electronics, automobile and textile industries have made remarkable progress in that country. General effects of industrial revolution General the industrial revolution produced both good and bad effects. Consumer goods were available in plenty and at reasonable rates. Factories provided employment to many. The general standard of living of the people improved. However, these good effects faded when some ugly aspects became manifest. The capitalists and entrepreneurs invested their capital. Purchased raw materials and machines, and ran the factories. They paid meagre wages to the
RAY by A
m
workers and earned huge profits. They enjoyed all the luxuries of life and neglected the conditions of their employees. Men, women and children worked in factories for long hours. Work in mines was difficult. They could not complain of their difficulties for fear they would be retrenched. They lived in squalor. Charles Dickens has given a picturesque description of the pitiable conditions of the people affected by the industrial revolution. In villages, cottage industries suffered due to competition from machine-made goods. Many of them became unemployed and they had to go to cities in search of jobs in mills. The middle-class (often described as bourgeoisie class) became wealthy due to Capital investment in trade and industries. The Government of the day were easily influenced by them since they constituted the majority of voting public. They had levers power. All legislations safeguarded their vested interests. The labours were not permitted to form trade unions. It was in these circumstances that socialism took its birth in Europe. Socialism advocated the bridging of the Gulf between the rich and the poor by means of nationalization of the factors of production. However, it was not until Karl Marx, the German philosopher came on the scene that doctrine of scientific socialism were enunciated in the program of militant action by workers was undertaken to overthrow the bourgeoisie government. Social consequences of industrial revolution The industrial revolution in Britain and subsequently elsewhere in Europe during the early nineteenth century had great impact on society over a span of nearly seventy years (1830-1900). The traditionally agricultural countries like Britain were transformed into a predominantly industrial nation during this period. England became the workshop of the world. In the wake of industrial revolution this nation witnessed a great increase in population, new inventions, swift transport and communication, factories with labour saving machines belching out smoke and overcrowded towns and cities. To some extent there was decline in agriculture. There was flow of population from villages to industrial towns.
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One of the conspicuous results of the industrial revolution was the growth of population in England. In 1760 it was six and three quarter millions, in 1800 nine million, in 1830 fourteen million, in 1870 twenty two million, and in 1900 thirty-six million. Similarly, the population of Europe increased from around 187 million in 1800 to 305 million in 1870, and increased further to 440 million in 1910. Obviously there was decline of mortality rate with the discovery of life-saving drugs and practice of modern medicine and surgery, As the population grew enormously even the rapid explosion of agriculture was unable to absorb the unemployed. So unemployment on the land led to the migration of a number of families to industrial towns and cities. In England for example thirty two per cent of the workers were employed in agriculture in 1801, and after one hundred years was reduced to six per cent. Economic circumstances compelled the rural population to drift towards industrial town and city in search of job in factories. With the constant flow of population from the rural parts old cities like Glasgow and Bristol grew enormous in size and population. New towns like Liverpool, Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds became thickly populated since many industries were located in these areas. European cities such as Paris, Brussels, Milan, Tille and Berlin grew beyond recognition. In 1800 there were only 14 European towns with a population of more than 1 million but at the end of the century they rose to more than 100. Middlesbrough was a tiny village with 25 inhabitants in 1801 but by 1901 it had a population of more than 90000 after the opening of iron and steel industries. By the end of 19th century the city of London was receiving 8000 to 12000 immigrant annually. Industrial revolution in England disturbed the structure of English society. Agriculture and village handicraft declined. The village artisans and lost their job. In the place of tenant-farmer the rich landlords became more influential. The landless laborers flocked to towns and cities in search of job. In urban towns and cities two new classes emerged namely the industrial capitalist and the industrial working classes. Conditions in Industrial Towns During the early stage of industrial revolution in England the lot of the worker was miserable. The employer hardly bothered about his housing and living
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conditions. He was simply a wage earner and his job remained uncertain. Therefore he left his family in the village to fend for themselves. He lived in a tenanted apartment which was anything but clean. The close tenements lacked water and toilet facilities. He could not breathe fresh air due to the cramped “back to back” housing. At least in his village he had a home, freedom and some friendly people surrounding him. Here in the city he was living in the midst of penury and without friends. In the factory or a mill or in a mine he worked for nearly 12 to 15 hours with danger lurking at the corner. Accidents were common in factories, mills and mines. If he worked in a mine he hardly saw the sunlight. Often his employer would dispense with his service and preferred to employ his wife and children because he would get more work done at less expense. So women and children were mostly employed in textile mills. Children below the age of 12 clothed in rags were found working in factories in measurable conditions. Since the workers’ families were crowded in cheap lodgings which Lacked water and sanitation, young children often fell sick and died. Many a worker wanted his wife to work to supplement his meagre income. Due to the absence of parents children became delinquents as their education was neglected. Juvenile delinquency became a common feature urban societies. Cholera epidemics broke out in 1831-33, 1847-48, and 1865 -66. It was unfortunate that the English parliament did not pay attention to the miserable conditions of the working classes during the early stage of the industrial revolution. This was due to its aristocratic composition. Rural consequences of industrialization The pre-Victorian period in England did not witness much industrial industrialization in agriculture. However, afterwards machines began to replace manual labour on agricultural lands. Seed drills and threshing machines were introduced. Later there came the use of traction engines for ploughing. Gradually machines on farms did all the chores of farmers on the land. It aroused resentment among the farmers and led to disturbances of 1830-32. Even though there was expansion in agriculture, it was unable to absorb the
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growing population. So, economic conditions began to worsen leading to rural families migrating to industrial towns. Rural unemployment became a common feature and it led to lowering of farm- wage levels to subsistence level. The spread of industrial revolution to rural countryside marred its beauty and a few English poets lamented this. Labour unrest and movement: it was during the early decades of the nineteenth century that some labour unrest manifested itself due to extreme hardships. Luddite disturbances were an expression of protest against the apathy of the government to the worsening conditions. But they were suppressed. Combination laws of 1799 prevented the workers from forming any association. They were repealed in 1824 due to untiring efforts of Francis Place. Unions were allowed but efforts to form one single national union failed. When the reform bill of 1832 failed to give vote to the workers there began the chartist movement which remained popular till 1848. The chartists incited violence and disorder to get their demands fulfilled. It was only in 1867 that a Royal Commission on labour was set up on trade union. It recommended “putting trade unions upon a firm legal basis and allowing them to secure their funds”. The Trades Union Congress was founded in Manchester in 1868.
In the United States there were series of conflicts between the industrial capitalists and workers during the last three decades of the nineteenth century. They led to the formation of two trade unions, namely, the Noble Order of the Knights of 1ihor and the American Federation of Labour. The latter was a bigger union organised by Samuel Gompers. An organised labour movement in india was started by humanists and social workers during the late nineteenth centur. After some time some philanthropists and political workers joined to make the movement a success. In india, Narayan Meghaji Lokhanday associated himself with SathyaSamaj of Jyotiba Phule and worked for the uplift of the labour class during the late nineteenth century.
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Legislative remedies factory Acts were passed in England in 1833, 1844, 1847 and 1850 which nostly regulated the working hours of female and child labour. In 1842 the Mines Act prohibited women and children from working in mines. Letislaton on housing began during the second half of the nineteenth century. Free elementary education was provided under Forster’s EduCatlOfl Act. In the early twentieth century state’s responsibility towards social welfare measures was recognised. Old-age Pensions Act and National Health Insurance Acts were passed in 1908 and 1911 respectively. Rise of socialism Despite the above ameliorative measures the lot of workers in many countries n Europe remained far from satisfactory. The pitiable conditions of the working class attracted the attention of not only the novelists (Charles Dickens) and social reformers (Lord Shaftesbury) but also philosophers like Karl Marx and Engels. They were aghast at the way the Industrial Revolution widened the gulf between the rich and the poor, it stimulated their thoughts which led to the birth of revolutionary Socialism. They said that to put an end to social and economic inequalities in the existing society the working class should bring about a revolution. The writings of Karl Marx had a greater impact on the minds of the workers and intellectuals than the suggestions ot other famous socialists like Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Proudhon and Bakunin. Lenin, a great admirer of Karl Marx, was able to build a socialist state after the Russian Revolution (1917).
Rise of Modern Capitalism By far the greatest outcome of the Industrial Revolution was the rise of modern capitalism. Capitalism had existed even before Industrial Revolution but it did not bring about far reaching changes. By modern capitalism we mean industrial
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capitalism, an offshoot industrial revolution. It is an economic system “in which all or the most of the means of production and distribution, as lands, factories and railroads are privately owned and operated for profit”. The profit derived out of early capitalism was spent on building of churches, donations and charities. But profit derived out of industrial capitalism was reinvested to bring about manifold profit. Wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few captains of industries. It gave them unlimited power, prestige and status in society. One may as well remember that not many had wealth to buy expensive machines which required spacious rooms to install them. The factory system gradually replaced the old ‘domestic system’. Wealthy industrialists established partnerships and ran factories. They employed workers to operate the machines which produced mass consumer goods. After paying meagre wages to the workers they derived huge profits. in the course of time the evils of capitalism became manifest. Modern capitalism grew out of rents received from vast agricultural and urban lands, interests from money-lending, profits from trade, and huge profits derived from joint stock companies and banking institutions. Profits derived out of the sales of factory manufactures added to the accumulation of capital. Growth of industrial capitalism Industrial enterprises expanded to a great extent in UK and the USA during the second half of nineteenth century. They managed railways, mines, textile and other mills. Sometimes joint stock companies or corporations undertook great industrial ventures including foreign investments. The stock and shareholders remained idle after investment but the salaried employees did everything for them. The profits went into the hands of stock and shareholders. Between the years 1870 and 1910 capital investment increased in Great Britain from 35 to 70 billion dollars, in France from 28 to 55 billion (dollars), and in Germany from 1 7 to 70 billion (dollars).During the same years British foreign investments rose from 5 to 20 billion dollars, French from 2 to 8 billion (dollars), and German from none to five billion (dollars). A growing proportion of the increasing profits in Germany and the United States were apportioned by great
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industrial combinations called “Cartels” or “Trusts.” They were formed by industrial magnates to eliminate competition, reduce overhead expenses and establish a practical monopoly. In the USA monopolies were set up in the oil and steel industries. Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller made fortunes by eliminating most of their business rivals. The directors and stock holders of big business companies were called “industrial barons” or “robber barons”. Reputed bankers demanded control over corporations in return for granting them loans. Thus Morgan-Rockefeller Empires held “in all 341 directorships in 112 corporations”. Industrial capitalism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries brought about many evils. Concentration of wealth in the hands of few ruthless individuals led to a number of abuses. They influenced state Policies to promote their vested interests, exploited the weakness of the Workers, dictated prices in the market and did not act in the interests of the nation. Therefore, they and their power had to be curbed by the state. President Theodore Roosevelt of the USA acted in a free and fearless manner in persecuting the monopolists under antitrust laws.
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