realities in an unequal world Globalisation and the university: Myths … · 2016. 2. 24. · CENTRES AND PERIPHERIES IN AN UNEQUAL ENVIRONMENT The world of globalised higher education

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Tertiary Education and Management

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Globalisation and the university: Myths andrealities in an unequal world

Philip G. Altbach

To cite this article: Philip G. Altbach (2004) Globalisation and the university: Myths and realitiesin an unequal world, Tertiary Education and Management, 10:1, 3-25

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13583883.2004.9967114

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PHILIP G.ALTBACH

GLOBALISATION AND THE UNIVERSITY: MYTHS ANDREALITIES IN AN UNEQUAL WORLD

ABSTRACT. Much has been said about the impact of globalisation on higher education.Some have argued that globalisation, the Internet and the scientific community will levelthe playing field in the new age of knowledge interdependence. Others claim that global-isation means both worldwide inequality and the McDonaldisation of the university. It isargued that all of the contemporary pressures on higher education, from the pressures ofmassification to the growth of the private sector, are the results of globalisation. There isa grain of truth in all of these hypotheses - and a good deal of misinterpretation as well.The purpose of this essay is to "unpack" the realities of globalisation and internationalisa-tion in higher education and to highlight some of the ways in which globalisation affectsthe university. Of special interest here is how globalisation is affecting higher educationin developing countries - the nations that will experience the bulk of higher educationexpansion in the coming decades.

Much has been said about the impact of globalisation on higher educa-tion. Some have argued that globalisation, the Internet and the scientificcommunity will level the playing field in the new age of knowledgeinterdependence. Others claim that globalisation means both worldwideinequality and the McDonaldisation of the university. It is argued that allof the contemporary pressures on higher education, from the pressuresof massification to the growth of the private sector, are the results ofglobalisation. There is a grain of truth in all of these hypotheses - anda good deal of misinterpretation as well. The purpose of this essay is to"unpack" the realities of globalisation and internationalisation in highereducation and to highlight some of the ways in which globalization affectsthe university. Academe around the world is affected differently by globaltrends. The countries of the European Union, for example, must adjustto new degree structures and other kinds of harmonisation that are partof the Bologna and related initiatives. Countries that use English benefitfrom the increasingly widespread use of that language for science andscholarship. Of special interest here is how globalisation is affecting highereducation in developing countries - the nations that will experience thebulk of higher education expansion in the coming decades (Task Force onHigher Education and Development 2000).

Tertiary Education and Management 10: 3-25, 2004.© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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Universities have always figured in the global environment and thusbeen affected by circumstances beyond the campus and across nationalborders. This reality is all too often forgotten in analyses of 21st centuryglobalisation. A long-term perspective is useful when considering theuniversity because of the deep historical roots and their ongoing impacton both the ethos and governance of universities. As Clark Kerr has noted,of the institutions that had been established in the Western world by 1520,85 still exist - the Roman Catholic church, the British Parliament, severalSwiss cantons and some 70 universities. Of these, perhaps the universitieshave experienced the least change (Kerr 2001, p. 115). From the beginning,universities represented global institutions - in that they functioned in acommon language, Latin, and served an international clientele of students.Professors, too, came from many countries, and the knowledge impartedreflected scholarly learning in the Western world at the time.

It is also the case that all of the universities in the world today, with theexception of the Al-Azhar in Cairo, stem from the same historical roots- the medieval European university and, especially, the faculty-dominatedUniversity of Paris. Much of the non-Western world had European univer-sity models imposed on them by colonial masters. Even those countriesnot colonised by Western powers - such as Japan, Thailand, Ethiopiaand a few others - adopted the Western academic model (Altbach &Selvaratnam 1989). This is the case even where, as in China, well-established indigenous academic traditions already existed. The basicstructure of the institution and the orientation to teaching, for example,characterise universities internationally and are derived from the medievalEuropean tradition.

The structure of the American university itself, so influential world-wide, constitutes an amalgam of international influences. The originalcolonial model, imported from England was combined with the Germanresearch university idea of the 19th century and the American concept ofservice to society to produce the modern American university. Foreignmodels were adapted to domestic realities in creative ways. As theEuropean Union moves toward the harmonisation of national higher educa-tion systems in the "common European space," foreign influences againemerge - degree structures, the course-credit system, and other elementsin modified form combined to produce evolving academic patterns. Just asJapan adapted German academic models and some American ideas as itbuilt its modern university system after 1868, the European Union looks to"best practices" worldwide.

Today's globalisation, at least for higher education, does not lackprecedents. From the beginning, universities have incorporated tensions

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between national realities and international trends. While English nowdominates as the language of research and scholarship, at one time Germanheld sway, as did Latin in an earlier era. Students have always traveledabroad to study, and scholars have always worked outside their home coun-tries. Globalisation in the 21st century is truly worldwide in reach - fewplaces can elude contemporary trends, and innovations and practices seemto spread ever faster due to modern technology. But, again, similar trendshave occurred in other periods as well.

Because of the centrality of the knowledge economy to 21st-centurydevelopment, higher education has assumed unprecedented importance,both within countries and internationally, because of its roles in educatingpeople for the new economy and in creating new knowledge (Altbach1998a). As evidence, the World Trade Organisation is now focusing onhigher education. The current debate concerning the General Agreementon Trade in Services (GATS) - an effort by multinational corporations andsome government agencies in the rich countries to integrate higher educa-tion into the legal structures of world trade through the WTO - indicateshow important universities and knowledge have become in the contem-porary world (Larsen, Martin & Morris 2002; Knight 2002; Altbach2002).

DEFINITIONS

It will be useful to define some of the terms in the current debateabout globalisation. For some, globalisation means everything. For others,it includes only the negative side of contemporary society. This essayconcentrates on the specific international context of higher education andthe effect of globalisation. Thus, the focus is not on the broader issues ofthe management of academic institutions - such as how universities havedealt with mass enrolments or privatisation, for example.

In this analysis, globalisation is defined as the broad economic, techno-logical, and scientific trends that directly affect higher education and arelargely inevitable. Politics and culture are also part of the new globalrealities. Academic systems and institutions may accommodate thesedevelopments in different ways, but they cannot ignore them. Thesephenomena include information technology in its various manifestations,the use of a common language for scientific communication, and theimperatives of both mass demand for higher education (massification) andsocietal needs for highly educated personnel. Academe is affected by, forexample, patterns in the ownership of multinational publishing and internetcompanies, the expenditure of R&D funds worldwide, and international

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patterns of cultural diffusion. All of these elements, and many more, areparts of a global environment that impacts higher education in differentways.

Intemationalisation includes specific policies and programmes under-taken by governments, academic systems and institutions, and even indi-vidual departments or institutions to cope with or exploit globalisation.Intemationalisation describes the voluntary and perhaps creative ways ofcoping. With much room for initiative, institutions and governments canchoose the ways in which they deal with the new environment. While theforces of globalisation cannot be held completely at bay, it is not inevitablethat countries or institutions will necessarily be overwhelmed by them orthat the terms of the encounter must be dictated from afar. Intemationalisa-tion accommodates a significant degree of autonomy and initiative (Knight1997; Scott 1998; De Wit 2002).

This analysis also focuses on a new higher education trend - multi-nationalisation, which is defined as academic programmes or institutionsfrom one country offered in other countries. Often, the programmes aresponsored in collaboration, but this is riot always the case. Joint-degreeofferings among institutions in two or more countries, often called "twin-ning", is an example of a multinational academic enterprise. Setting upoffshore institutions constitutes a variation on the trend - this may becarried out through franchising (sometimes referred to as "McDonaldisa-tion") or simply by opening a branch institution (Hayes & Wynyard 2002).Increasingly, the Internet is used in the delivery of multinational academicprogrammes.

Globalisation cannot be completely avoided. History shows that whenuniversities shut themselves off from economic and societal trends theybecome moribund and irrelevant. European universities, for example,ignored both the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution and ceasedto be relevant. Indeed, the French Revolution swept away the universitiesentirely, while von Humboldt had to reinvent the German university modelin 1809 in order to save the institutions (Ben-David & Zloczower 1962).At the same time, institutions and systems do possess great latitude in howthey deal with globalisation. Thus, those who argue that there is just onemodel for higher education in the 21st century are clearly wrong.

CENTRES AND PERIPHERIES IN AN UNEQUAL ENVIRONMENT

The world of globalised higher education is highly unequal. Concentratingon developing countries and on smaller academic systems immediatelyraises the spectre of inequality. While the Internet and other manifestations

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of globalisation are heralded as bringing knowledge equality to the world,the evidence is mixed. In some ways, globalisation opens access and makesit easier for students and scholars to study and work anywhere. But inmany respects, existing inequalities are only reinforced and new barrierserected. The debate in higher education mirrors analyses of globalisationgenerally. Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Dani Rodrik, among others, haveargued that in some respects globalisation works against the interests ofdeveloping countries in some ways reinforcing international inequalities(Stiglitz 2002; Rodrik 1997; Rodrik 1999). Neither is opposed to global-isation - and both in any case see it as inevitable - but their critiques revealproblems that must be addressed and that tend to be overlooked in thedominant perspectives on the topic.

The powerful universities have always dominated the production anddistribution of knowledge, while weaker institutions and systems withfewer resources and lower academic standards have tended to follow intheir wake. Academic centres provide leadership in all aspects of scienceand scholarship - such as research and teaching, the organisational patternsand directions of universities, and knowledge dissemination. The centrestend to be located in larger and wealthier countries and benefit from thefull array of resources - including funding and infrastructures such aslibraries and laboratories for research, academic staff with appropriatequalifications, traditions and legislation in support of academic freedom,and an orientation toward high achievement levels on the part of individualprofessors and students and by the institutions themselves. Typically, thesetop institutions use one of the major international languages for teachingand research, and they enjoy appropriate support from the state for theirwork.

The world of centres and peripheries grows ever more complex(Altbach 1998c). The major international academic centres - namely theleading research-oriented universities in the North, especially those thatuse one of the key world languages (particularly English) - occupy thetop tier. World-class universities do exist elsewhere - for example, inJapan and several smaller European countries. A number of universitiesin China, Singapore and South Korea are approaching the status of world-class research institutions. Even within countries at the centre of the worldacademic system in the early 21st century - the United States, Britain,Germany, France and, to some extent, Australia and Canada - there aremany peripheral institutions. For example, perhaps 100 of America's 3,200postsecondary institutions can be considered research universities. Theseinstitutions receive more than 80% of government research funds anddominate most aspects of American higher education. Much of the rest

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of the American higher education system lies on the periphery of theresearch centres - these segments, including the comprehensive univer-sities, community colleges, and others play important roles in both theacademic system and in society. Other countries exhibit similarly stratifiedacademic systems. There are also universities that play complex roles asregional centres, providing a conduit of knowledge and links to the topinstitutions. For example, the major universities in Egypt provide academicleadership for the Arabic-speaking world and conduits to the major centres,while contributing relatively little themselves. China's key universities aresignificant producers of research, mainly for internal consumption, whileat the same time serving as links to the wider world of higher education.

In many ways, it is now more difficult to become a major player in inter-national higher education - to achieve "centre" status (Altbach 1998b).The price of entry has risen. Top-tier research universities require vastresources, and in many fields scientific research involves a large investmentin laboratory facilities and equipment. Enabling institutions to remain fullynetworked for the Internet and information technology is also costly, asare library acquisitions - including access to relevant databases. Univer-sities in countries without deep financial resources will find it virtuallyimpossible to join the ranks of the top academic institutions. Indeed, anynew institution, regardless of location, will face similar challenges.

In some ways, academic institutions at the periphery and indeed theentire academic systems of developing or in some cases small industri-alised countries depend on the centres for research, the communicationof knowledge, and advanced training. The major journals and databasesare headquartered at the major universities - especially in the US andthe UK- -since international scholarly and research journals are largelypublished in English. Most of the world's universities are mainly teachinginstitutions - in developing countries virtually all are in this category - thatmust look elsewhere to obtain new knowledge and analysis. Many smallerdeveloping countries, for example, lack the facilities for research, do notprovide degrees beyond the bachelor's, and are unable to keep up withcurrent journals and databases due to the expense. Structural dependencyis endemic in much of the world's academic institutions.

Any discussion of globalisation cannot avoid the deep inequalities thatare part of the world system of higher education. Globalisation has added anew dimension to existing disparities in higher education. This essay willreturn to this context as it moves on to a discussion of some of the specificaspects of the global reality of higher education.

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A NEW NEOCOLONIALISM?

The era of the Cold War was characterised by the efforts of the majorpowers to dominate the "hearts and minds" of the peoples of the world.The Soviet Union, the United States, and others spent lavishly on studentexchanges, textbook subsidies, book translations, institution building andother activities to influence the world's academic leaders, intellectuals andpolicymakers. The goals were political and economic, and higher educa-tion was a key battlefield. The rationale was sometimes couched in theideological jargon of the Cold War but was often obscured by rhetoricabout cooperation.

The programmes included many that offered considerable benefit tothe recipients - including scholarships to study abroad, high-quality text-books to be used in universities, scientific equipment and other resources.Participation in programmes took place on an entirely voluntary basis, butin a context of scarcity assistance becomes difficult to decline. Acceptancemeant increased ties to the donor countries and institutions and long-termdependence on the countries providing the aid. Installation of laboratoryequipment or computers, for example, meant continuing reliance on thesupplier for spare parts, training and the like.

We are now in a new era of power and influence. Politics and ideologyhave taken a subordinate role to profits and market-driven policies. Now,multinational corporations, media conglomerates, and even a few leadinguniversities, can be seen as the new neocolonists - seeking to dominatenot for ideological or political reasons but rather for commercial gain.Governments are not entirely out of the picture - they seek to assistcompanies in their countries and have a residual interest in maintaininginfluence as well. As in the Cold War era, countries and universities are notcompelled to yield to the terms of those offering aid, fostering exchanges,or offering Internet products, but the pressures in favour of participationtend to prevail. Involvement in the larger world of science and scholarshipand obtaining perceived benefits not otherwise available present consider-able inducements. The result is the same - the loss of intellectual andcultural autonomy by those who are less powerful.

THE ROLE OF ENGLISH

English is the Latin of the 21st century. In the current period, the use ofEnglish is central for communicating knowledge worldwide, for instruc-tion even in countries where English is not the language of higher educa-tion, and for cross-border degree arrangements and other programmes. The

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dominance of English is not surprising, and it is a factor in globalisationthat deserves analysis if only because higher education worldwide mustgrapple with the role of English (Crystal 1997).

The most widely studied foreign language in the world, English isalso the most widely used second language. In many countries, it is therequired second language, and it is the second language of choice almostwithout exception. English is the medium of almost all of the internation-ally circulated scientific journals, and it also dominates other academicfields as well. Universities in many countries stress the importance oftheir professors' publishing in internationally circulated scientific journals,almost by definition in English, placing a further premium on the language.Internet websites devoted to science and scholarship function predomi-nantly in English. Indeed, English serves as the language of Internettransactions involving science and scholarship. The largest number ofinternational students go to universities in English-speaking countries.

English is the main medium of instruction in many of the most promi-nent academic systems - including those of the US, the UK, Australia,Canada and New Zealand - all of which enrol large numbers of over-seas students. Singapore, Ethiopia and much of Anglophone Africa useEnglish as the primary language of instruction as well. English often func-tions as a medium of instruction in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and SriLanka. Other countries are increasingly offering academic programmesin English - to attract international students unwilling to learn the locallanguage and to improve the English-language skills of domestic studentsand thus enable them to work in an international arena. English-mediumuniversities exist in many countries - from Azerbaijan and Bulgaria toKrgyzistan and Malaysia. In many countries - such as Japan, the Nether-lands, Germany, Mexico and others - universities offer English-mediumdegree programmes and courses at local universities. Many EuropeanUnion nations offer study in English as a way of attracting students fromelsewhere in the EU. English is clearly a ubiquitous language in highereducation worldwide.

What does this mean for globalisation? The role of English affectshigher education policy and the work of individual students and scholars.In many ways, the place of English at the pinnacle of scientific communi-cation gives a significant advantage to the US and the UK and tothe other wealthy English-speaking countries. As the country with theworld's largest academic system and most important user of English,the United States has a double advantage. For example, not surprisingly,many scientific journals are edited in the US. This gives an advantageto American authors - not only are they writing in their mother tongue

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but the peer review system is dominated by people accustomed to boththe language and methodology of US scholars. Others must communicatein a foreign language and conform to unfamiliar academic norms. Asmentioned earlier, in many places academics are pressured to publish ininternationally circulated journals - the sense being that publication inthe "best" scientific journals is a necessary validation of academic work.Increasingly, international and regional scientific meetings are exclusivelyin English, again placing a premium on fluency in the language.

English-language products of all kinds dominate the internationalacademic marketplace. This is especially true for journals and books. Forexample, textbooks written from a US or UK perspective are sold world-wide, influencing students and academics in many countries and providingprofits for publishers who function in English. The English-language data-bases in the various disciplines are the most widely used internationally.Universities must pay for these resources, which are priced to sell toAmerican or European buyers and are thus extraordinarily expensive tousers in developing or middle-income countries. Nevertheless, English-language programmes, testing materials, and all the other products find aready market in these countries.

Countries that use "small languages" may be tempted to change themedium of instruction at their universities entirely to English. A debatetook place in the Netherlands on this topic, and it was decided to keepDutch as the main language of instruction largely out of concern for thelong-term survival of the Dutch language - although degree programmesin English are flourishing in the Netherlands. Where collaborative degreeprogrammes are offered, such as in Malaysia, the language of instructionis almost always English and not the language of the country in which thejoint degree is being offered.

English is supplanting such languages as French, German and Spanishas the international medium of scholarship. These languages are in nodanger of disappearing in higher education, but their world role has shrunk.The use of English tends to orient those using it to the main English-speaking academic systems, and this further increases the influence ofthese countries. Regardless of the consequences, however, English is thepredominant academic language of the current period.

THE GLOBAL MARKETPLACE FOR STUDENTS AND SCHOLARS

Not since the medieval period has such a large proportion of the world'sstudents been studying outside their home countries - more than 1.5million students at any one time. Large numbers of scholars and scientists

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travel abroad temporarily for research or teaching. There is a substantialmigration abroad for academic work as well. Globalisation encouragesthese flows and will ensure that growth continues. As academic systemsbecome more similar and academic degrees more widely accepted interna-tionally, as immigration rules are tailored to people with high skill levels,and as universities themselves are more open to hiring the best talentworldwide, the global marketplace will expand.

The flow of academic talent at all levels is directed largely fromSouth to North - from the developing countries to the large metropolitanacademic systems. Perhaps 80% of the world's international students comefrom developing countries, and virtually all of them study in the North.Most of these students pursue master's, doctoral, and professional degrees.Many do not return to their countries of origin. Some 80% of studentsfrom China and India, two of the largest sending countries to the US, donot return after obtaining their degrees and take jobs in the US. Since thecollapse of the Soviet system, there has also been a flow of scientists fromRussia to Western Europe and North America. Students from industrialisedcountries who study abroad typically do not earn a degree but rather spenda year or two in the country to broaden their horizons, learn a language orgain knowledge that they could not acquire at home.

Most international students pay for their own studies, producing signifi-cant income for the host countries - and a drain on the economy ofthe developing world. According to estimates, the money spent abroadby students from some developing countries more than equals incomingforeign aid. These students not only acquire training in their fields butalso absorb the norms and values of the academic systems in which theystudied. They return home with a desire to transform their universitiesin ways that often prove to be both unrealistic and unattainable. Foreignstudents serve as carriers of an international academic culture - a culturethat reflects the norms and values of the major metropolitan universities.In many ways this culture lacks relevance to the developing world.

An increasingly robust international migration of academic talentexists, predominantly from South to North; large numbers of themost talented academics from developing countries work in the North.Numerous visiting scholars travel across international borders to take uptemporary teaching positions or to undertake research. In 2000, univer-sities in the United States hosted almost 80,000 visiting scholars. Althoughthe statistics do not exist, it is estimated that visiting scholars number200,000 worldwide. The predominant South-North flow notwithstanding,there is a significant movement of academics among the industrialisedcountries and to some extent within other regions, such as Latin America.

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Most visiting scholars return home after their sojourns abroad, althougha certain number use their assignments as springboards to permanentemigration.

A much larger number of academics migrate in order to take jobs inother countries. Again, the flow is predominantly from South to North. Asnoted, significant numbers of international students do not return home,taking jobs in the countries in which they have obtained their degrees.Others compete for positions abroad from home. Although accurate inter-national statistics are unavailable, the impact on many developing coun-tries is quite substantial. For example, more Ethiopian holders of doctoraldegrees work outside of Ethiopia than at home, and 30% of all highlyeducated Ghanaians and Sierra Leoneans live and work abroad (OutwardBound 2002, p. 24). This phenomenon is common for many African coun-tries. South Africa is losing many of its most talented academics to theNorth, while at the same time it is recruiting from elsewhere in Africa.This migration has seriously weakened the academic institutions of manydeveloping countries.

Migration is not limited to developing countries. Academics will takejobs in countries with more attractive opportunities, salaries and workingconditions. At present, a small but significant exodus continues from theUK to the US and Canada because of the low salaries and deterioratingworking conditions at home. To combat this trend, UK authorities haveprovided funds to entice their best professors to remain at home. Scholarsfrom small but well-endowed academic systems, such as in Denmark orFinland, are sometimes lured to the metropoles by the prospect of beingat the centre of research activity and having access to the latest scientificequipment. In some fields, such as engineering specialties and computerscience, the percentage of professors from other countries working inUS universities is very high - reflecting the fact that almost half thedoctoral enrolments in these fields are foreign. Academic migration takesplace at all levels of the academic system, especially in the sciences,engineering, information technology and some management areas. Suchmigration may occur more at the top of the system, with some world-famous scholars being attracted abroad by high salaries at top universities,and at the bottom, where modest salaries are able to lure foreigners but areunappealing to local applicants.

Academic migration follows complex routes. Many Egyptian, Jordan-ian and Palestinian academics work at Arabian Gulf universities, attractedby higher salaries and better working conditions than are available at home.Indians and Pakistanis are similarly drawn to the Gulf as well as to South-east Asia. Singapore and Hong Kong attract academics worldwide. Mexico

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and Brazil employ scholars from elsewhere in Latin America. SouthAfrica, Namibia and Botswana currently recruit Africans from elsewhereon the continent. Some of the best scholars and scientists from Russia anda number of Central European countries have taken positions in WesternEurope and North America. The existing traffic among European Unionmember states will likely grow significantly as EU policies to harmoniseacademic systems are implemented.

The most significant "pull" factors include better salaries and workingconditions and the opportunity to be at the centres of world science andscholarship (Altbach, forthcomiong). The discrepancies in salaries andconditions between North and South mean that in most developing coun-tries academics cannot aspire to live in a middle-class lifestyle or expect tohave access to the necessary tools of research and scholarship - includingthe ability to obtain the most current knowledge and to connect with theinternational community of scholars. Among the many "push" factors, thelimited extent of academic freedom in many developing countries meansthat academics are sometimes subject to restrictions and even arrest ifthey stray from officially approved themes. Favouritism or even corruptionin academic appointments, promotions and other areas further erode theenvironment of the university. In some places, job security or stability areunattainable. In some ways, conditions at Third World universities steminevitably from the scarcity of resources and the pressure of increasedstudent numbers on overburdened academic institutions and systems. The"pull" factors at the centres cannot be altered much, but the "push" factorscan be moderated. Overall, however, the migration of academic talent willcontinue in the current globalised environment.

At one time, the migration of talent was perceived as a brain drainbecause those who left were considered to be permanently lost, retainingnegligible or zero academic links with their home countries. The situationin this respect has undergone change (Choi 1995). Many academics whohave migrated keep in close contact with their countries of origin, oftenmaintaining scientific and academic relationships with colleagues andinstitutions at home. Some have even returned after establishing careersabroad as academic conditions at home have improved - some academicsfrom South Korea and Taiwan, for example, returned from the UnitedStates or other countries to accept senior academic appointments in theirhome countries once academic working conditions, salaries and respectfor academic freedom had improved. More commonly, academics returnhome for lectures or consulting, collaborate on research with colleaguesin their country of origin, or accept visiting professorships. Facilitatedby the Internet, these links are increasingly accepted as appropriate and

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GLOBALISATION AND THE UNIVERSITY 1 5

useful. Such trends are especially strong in countries with well-developedacademic systems, such as China, India and South Africa, among others.

The migration of academic talent is in many ways promoted by theindustrialised countries, which have much to gain. Immigration policiesare in some cases designed to encourage talented personnel to migrateand establish residency. In many countries, academic institutions makeit easy for foreigners to fit into the career structure. Countries that placebarriers to foreign participation in academe, such as Japan, suffer as aresult. In general, however, the industrialised countries benefit from a largepool of well-educated scientists and scholars - people educated by devel-oping countries - who choose to take their talents and skills to the highestbidder. In this way, the developing world has helped the North to maintainits already overwhelming lead in science and scholarship. The renewalof links between academics who migrate and their countries of originmitigates this situation somewhat, but the fact remains that developingcountries find themselves at a disadvantage in the the global academiclabour market. The same applies as well to smaller and more peripheralnations worldwide.

THE INTERNATIONALISATION OF THE CURRICULUM

The field of business and management studies illustrates the global domi-nance of ideas from the major English-speaking academic systems. Inmost countries, business administration is a new field, established overthe past several decades to prepare professionals for work in multinationalcorporations or in firms engaged in international commerce. The dominantpattern of professional studies is the MBA degree - the American-stylemaster's of business administration. This degree originated as the way toprepare American students for work in US business, based on Americancurricular ideas and American business practices. A key part of manyMBA programmes is the case study, again developed in the US context.The MBA model has been widely copied in other countries, in most casesby local institutions but also by American academic institutions workingwith local partners or setting up their own campuses overseas. While theprogrammes sometimes are modified in keeping with the local context, thebasic degree structure and curriculum remain American.

A number of countries are contemplating including some generaleducation in the first-degree curriculum. Part of the US undergraduatecurriculum for centuries, general education provides a broad backgroundin the disciplines along with skills in critical thinking. Higher Education inDeveloping Countries: Peril and Promise, an influential report sponsored

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16 PHILIP G. ALTBACH

by the World Bank and UNESCO, recommends general education, andit is being considered as an alternative to the existing largely specialisedcurriculum in higher education (Task Force on Higher Education 2000).

As stated earlier, instructional materials go into international circula-tion. There is an increasing use of common textbooks, course materialsand syllabi worldwide, stimulated by the expanding influence of multina-tional publishers, the Internet, and databases, as well as the growingcadre of professors who return home after their studies abroad with ideasconcerning curriculum and instructional materials in their fields. Thesematerials originate mainly in the large academic systems of the North -especially the US, the UK and France. An examination of the textbooksused, the patterns of translations from one language to another, and thedatabases used reveals a similar pattern.

Disciplines and fields vary in terms of how globally homogenous theyhave become. Such fields as business studies, information technology,and biotechnology are almost entirely dominated by the major academiccenters. Other fields - such as history, language studies and many areas inthe humanities - are largely nationally based, although foreign influencesare felt in methodology and approaches to research and interpretation. Theinternationalisation of the curriculum, like other aspects of globalisation,proceeds largely from North to South.

THE MULTINATIONALISATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The emergence of a global education marketplace exhibits itself inthe form of a variety of multinational higher education initiatives -ranging from "twinning" programmes linking academic institutions orprogrammes in one country with counterparts in another to universitiesin one country setting up branch campuses in another. The differentkinds of cross-border higher education ventures include many that use theInternet and other distance education means to deliver their programmes.Many for-profit companies and institutions have invested in multinationaleducational initiatives, as have a range of traditional higher educationinstitutions.

The multinationalisation of higher education has historical roots.During the colonial period, universities in the metropole frequently set upbranch institutions or sponsored new schools in the colonies. The mainexamples include the British in Africa and Asia, Dutch institutions inwhat is now Indonesia, and French initiatives in Africa and Asia. RomanCatholic universities set up new institutions in Latin America and thePhilippines; religious orders such as the Jesuits undertook what might now

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be referred to as multinational higher education initiatives. In the 19thcentury, American Protestant missionaries set up universities based on theUS model in Lebanon, Egypt and Turkey, among other places. This is thehistorical background, for example, of the American University of Beirut.Some new institutions were established using foreign models, often withdirect links to universities in the metropole (Ashby 1964).

History shows that the export of educational institutions and the linkingof institutions from different countries generally represented a union ofunequals. In almost all cases, the institution from the outside dominatedthe local institution, or the new institution was based on foreign ideas andnonindigenous values. The same is true in the 21st century. When institu-tions or initiatives are exported from one country to another, academicmodels, curricula and programmes from the more powerful academicsystem prevail. Thus, linkages between Australian and Malaysianinstitutions aimed at setting up new academic institutions in Malaysia arealways designed by Australian institutions. Rarely, if ever, do academicinnovations emanate from the periphery to the centre.

Multiple models of multinational initiatives exist in higher educa-tion. The export of academic institutions from one country to anotheris a growing but not entirely new phenomenon. Of course, both tradi-tional colonialism and the government-sponsored foreign assistanceprogrammes of the Cold War era exported institutional models, practices,and curriculum from the metropole to developing countries. In the pastdecade, institutional exports based on non-governmental initiatives haverisen, usually on the initiative of the exporting country. In the 1980s,for example, American colleges and universities were quite interested inJapan, seeing a market there. Several hundred US institutions explored theJapanese "market," and more than a dozen established campuses there -usually in cooperation with a Japanese institution or company (Chambers& Cummings 1990). A small number of Japanese institutions looked intothe feasibility of a US connection, and a few even set up branch campuses.However, most Japanese programmes were aimed at bringing Japanesestudents to the US for study, while US programmes focused on educatingJapanese students in Japan. With few exceptions, the institutions engagingin export activities were not the most prestigious schools on either side.By 2000, very few of the branches were still operating. In Japan, the diffi-culty of obtaining Ministry of Education certification for US programmesproved overwhelming, and the initiatives on both sides were affected by theprotracted economic slowdown in Japan. The US -Japan initiatives wereunusual in that both sides were industrialised countries.

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Some of the export initiatives taking place today are indicative ofglobal trends. A small number of prestigious American universities areestablishing campuses worldwide, usually in popular professional fieldssuch as business administration. The University of Chicago's businessschool now has a campus in Spain. The programme offers Chicago degreesto students from Spain and other European countries, using the standardChicago curriculum - taught mostly by Chicago faculty members - withan international focus. It includes a period of study at the home campusas well. Some other US universities have developed similar programmes.An unusual but interesting model of multinationalisation is being under-taken by Singapore, which is inviting a number of prestigious foreignuniversities, such as the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School,to start programmes in Singapore. The institutions, which are carefullyselected by the Singapore government, are given incentives to come toSingapore. In a related trend, a number of US-sponsored universities havebeen established in Kyrgyzstan, Qatar and Bulgaria, among other places.These schools typically originate through local initiative, with strong linksto American universities, and are generally supervised by the US partnersand accredited in the US. The language of instruction is English and thecurriculum US based.

In keeping with the more standard export model, a university in anindustrialised country will set up a programme abroad, often but not alwaysin a developing country, at the invitation of a host institution. The host maybe a corporation without any link to education, an educational institution,or some combination of the two. Malaysia provides many examples of sucharrangements, set up to satisfy unmet demand by local students. Univer-sities from Australia and the UK are most active in Malaysia, and the newprogrammes have generated complaints of low quality, poor supervision orinadequate communication between the providers and the hosts. In Israel,a number of small American colleges and universities (some of lesserquality) began to offer academic degrees when the market was opened upby the Israeli government. After considerable criticism, restrictions werelater placed on the programmes - many of which have ceased to exist.

Sometimes foreign academic degree programmes are simply "fran-chised" by local institutions. The foreign university lends its name andcurriculum, providing some (often quite limited) supervision and qualitycontrol to a local academic institution or perhaps business firm. The newinstitution is given the right to grant a degree of the foreign institution tolocal students. These franchising arrangements have led to many abusesand much criticism. Many highly critical articles have appeared in theBritish press charging that UK institutions, mostly the less prestigious

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ones, involved in overseas programmes are damaging the "good name"of British higher education. Meanwhile, "buyers" - fee-paying students- overseas think that they are getting a standard British degree, when inreality they are receiving the degree but not the level of education providedin the UK.

There are a large number of "twinning" programmes worldwide. Thisconcept links an academic institution in one country with a partner schoolin another country. Typically, the links are between North and South, withthe university in the North providing the basic curriculum and orientation.In such arrangements, academic degrees are often jointly awarded. Twin-ning has the advantage of aiding institutions in the South in developing newcurricular offerings, with the stamp of approval of a foreign university.

As can be seen in this brief discussion, there are many facets to thenew multinationalisation of higher education. However, some commonperspectives and motivations can be identified. With few exceptions, acentral goal for all of the stakeholders, especially those in the North, isto earn a profit. Institutions in the South that are attracted to multina-tional initiatives may also be interested in making money and theyare also concerned with meeting growing demand for access to highereducation and providing new degree programmes that may not be avail-able in local schools. As with other aspects of globalisation in highereducation, multinational arrangements between institutions are marked byinequality.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND GLOBALISATION

The information age carries the potential of introducing significantlychange in higher education, although it is unlikely that the basic functionsof traditional academic institutions will be transformed. The elements ofthe revolution in information technology (IT) with the power to trans-form higher education include the communication, storage and retrievalof knowledge (Castells 2000). Libraries, once the repositories of booksand journals, are now equally involved in providing access to databases,websites and a range of IT-based products (Hawkins & Battin 1998).Scholars are increasingly dependent on the Internet both to undertakeresearch and analysis and to disseminate their own work. Academic institu-tions are beginning to use IT to deliver degree programmes and othercurricula to students outside the campus. Distance education is rapidlygrowing both within countries and internationally. IT is beginning toshape teaching and learning and is affeccting the management of academicinstitutions.

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IT and globalisation go hand in hand. Indeed, the Internet serves asthe primary vehicle for the globalisation of knowledge and communica-tions. As with the other aspects of globalisation, significant inequalitiesexist. Inevitably, the information and knowledge base available throughthe Internet reflects the realities of the knowledge system worldwide.The databases and retrieval mechanisms probably make it easier toaccess well-archived and electronically sophisticated scientific systems ofthe advanced industrialised countries than the less networked academiccommunities of the developing countries.

The Internet simplifies the obtaining of information for scholars andscientists at universities and other institutions that lack good libraries. Thischange has had a democratising effect on scientific communication andaccess to information. At the same time, however, many people in devel-oping countries have only limited access to the Internet (Teferra, forth-coming). Africa, for example, has only recently achieved full connectivityto the Internet.

The Internet and the databases on it are dominated by the major univer-sities in the North. The Internet functions largely in English, and much ofthe material carried on it is in English. These realities also affect accessand usage of information. Multinational knowledge corporations havebecome key players, the owners of many of the databases, journals andother sources of information. Academic institutions and countries unableto pay for access to these information sources find it difficult to participatefully in the networks. Tightening copyright and other ownership restric-tions through international treaties and regulations will further consolidateownership and limit access (Correa 2000).

Distance education comprises another element of higher educationprofoundly affected by IT. Distance education is not, however, a newphenomenon - the University of South Africa, for example, has beenoffering academic degrees through correspondence for many decades.The Open University in the UK has effectively used a combination ofdistance methods to deliver its highly regarded programmes. IT has greatlyexpanded the reach and methodological sophistication of distance educa-tion, in the process contributing to the growth of distance educationinstitutions. Of the 10 largest distance education institutions in the world,7 are located in developing countries, and all use IT for at least partof their programs. Universities and other providers in the industrialisednations are beginning to employ IT to offer academic programmes world-wide, a significant portion of which are aimed at developing countries.Entire degree programmes in fields such as business administration canbe found on the Internet, and most providers see the international market

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as critical for the success of their programmes. These providers includecorporations - such as some of the major multinational publishers - for-profit educational providers like Sylvan Learning Systems, and others.Some universities now offer degree and certificate programmes through theInternet to international audiences. Firms such as Microsoft, Motorola andothers are offering competency certificates and other training programmesin fields relating to their areas of expertise.

As with the other aspects of globalisation discussed in this analysis -the leading providers of IT consist of multinational corporations, academicinstitutions, and other organisations in the industrialized nations. TheInternet today combines a public service - e-mail and the range of websitesto which access is free - with a commercial enterprise. Many databases,electronic journals, e-books and related knowledge products are owned byprofit-making companies who market them, often at prices that precludeaccess by those in developing countries.

Nevertheless, at the same time, developing countries have been able totake advantage of IT. For example, the largest universities using distanceeducation are mostly located in developing countries. The African VirtualUniversity is an innovative effort by a number of African nations to harnessthe Internet and other distance techniques to meet their needs. E-mail iswidely used to improve communication among scientists and scholars andto create networks in the developing world. While the information revolu-tion with neither transform higher education generally, nor will it providea panacea for developing countries, it is of great importance and one of thecentral elements of globaliation in higher education.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND FRAMEWORKS

In many ways, we are moving into a new era of globalisation in highereducation, characterised by the new international agreements and arrange-ments drawn up to manage global interactions. The arrangements betweencountries range from bilateral agreements relating to student and facultyexchanges to the mutual recognition of degrees - for example, the manybinational commissions governing the American Fulbright scholarshipand exchange programmes. Of the current set of international agree-ments in higher education, perhaps the most comprehensive are theEuropean Union's: the comprehensive Bologna framework designed tointroduce changes to harmonise the higher education systems of all EUmember states, to specific exchange and scholarship programmes such asERASMUS and SOCRATES. NAFTA, the North American Free TradeAgreement, in contrast, has few implications for higher education.

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22 PHILIP G.ALTBACH

An indication of the potential impact of globalisation is the debate overthe inclusion of higher education in particular and knowledge industrieswithin the framework of the WTO through the GATS proposal. WhileGATS has not yet been fully formulated and is not part of the WTOframework, it is relevant not only because of its influence but also forwhat it reveals about the reality of globalisation. GATS seeks to establish"open markets" for knowledge products of all kinds - including highereducation. The idea behind GATS and, for that matter, the concept ofglobalisation is that knowledge is a commodity like any other and shouldbe freely traded around the world. The proponents argue that free trade willbenefit everyone by permitting competition in the marketplace of ideas andknowledge products.

GATS and related arrangements also seek to provide a legally bindingframework for the circulation of educational services and for the protec-tion of intellectual property. Thus, GATS and the WTO are very muchrelated to TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property) arrangements andcopyright regulations. The motivating force behind all of these regulatoryframeworks is to rationalise the global trade in knowledge and to ensureopen markets and protections for the owners of knowledge products.The WTO and its related agreements, as well as international copyright,have the force of law - they are international treaties supported by alegal enforcement regime. These arrangements were created to protectthe sellers and the providers, not the buyers and users, and as a resultthey have negative implications for developing countries (Raikhy 2002).For example, copyright laws have been further strengthened to protectthe owners of knowledge, while failing to open access through "fair use"provisions or meaningful special arrangements for developing countries.

Those favoring GATS and the regulatory framework in general are thesellers and owners - multinational knowledge companies, governmentsfocusing on exports and others (OECD 2002). Testing companies such asthe US-based Educational Testing Service, multinational publishers, infor-mation technology and computer firms, for-profit educational providerssuch as Sylvan Learning Systems, and others are examples of businessesinvolved in global education that see GATS as benefiting their interests.In many countries, government agencies most focused on GATS includenot the ministries of education but rather departments concerned withtrade and export promotion. In the US, it is the Department of Commercethat has taken the lead and not the Department of Education. In the UK,the Department of Trade and Industry has been in the forefront. Educa-tion groups in the US, Canada and a number of other countries havebeen skeptical or opposed to the GATS proposal. The American Council

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on Education, which represents most university presidents in the UnitedStates, for example, has spoken out against GATS. Developing countrieshave generally not yet taken a position on the concept of free trade ineducation and knowledge products.

While the complicated details of a GATS treaty have not been workedout, the basic issues are straightforward. Should education in all of itsmanifestations be considered as a commodity to be traded in the market-place, regulated in the same fashion as are automobiles or bananas?As Lawrence Summers, the former US Treasury Secretary and currentPresident of Harvard University put it in a recent interview,

I'm skeptical as to whether bringing educational issues under the auspices of trade negoti-ations would be helpful To start with, many educational institutions are nonprofit, theirmotivations are different from the motivations of commercial firms that we think of in atrade context. There may be some egregious practices that should be addressed, but I wouldbe skeptical about treating education in a way that had any parallels with financial services,with insurance, or with foreign investments (The World According to Larry 2002, p. 38).

While GATS would bring developing countries into a global frameworkof commerce and exchange in higher education, it would remove aspectsof autonomy from decision making concerning education. Extending theprinciple of free trade to education would open national markets in coun-tries that sign on to GATS to testing companies, providers of distanceeducation, and many others. Regulation or control of these entities wouldprove difficult if not impossible to achieve. Institutions or companiescould, in principle, count on having access to foreign education markets.Since developing countries typically import rather than export their educa-tional products or institutions, it is unlikely that GATS would promotetheir exports. Developing countries represent the markets that sellers fromthe industrialised world are eager to target. Most developing countries,having few educational "products" to export, would be at the mercy ofthe multinational providers.

Current arrangements - in which all countries retain authority overeducational imports and exports, subject to some regulatory arrangementsuch as international copyright, patent treaties and the like - nonethe-less permit a great deal of international higher education exchange, asthis essay illustrates. It can be argued that additional regulations arenot needed. Cross-border educational transactions of all kinds are beingactively pursued worldwide. At present, the developing countries are themain importers of products and services from the abroad.

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CONCLUSION

Globalisation in higher education and science is inevitable. Historically,academe has always been international in scope, and it has alwaysbeen characterised by inequalities. Modern technology, the Internet, theincreasing ease of communication and the flow of students and highlyeducated personnel across borders enhances globalisation. No academicsystem can exist by itself in the world of the 21st century.

The challenge is to recognise the complexities and nuances of themodern context and then seek to create a global academic environmentthat recognises the need to ensure that academic relationships are as equalas possible. Recognising inequality is the first step. The second is to createa world that ameliorates these inequalities. These tasks, in the context ofmarketisation and the pressures of mass higher education, are not easyones. Yet, it is important to ensure that globalisation does not turn into theneocolonialism of the 21st century.

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