Reading Material 1 - For MIDTERM exam

READING MATERIALS

HIST 1000

1 This file is the reading materials for HIST 1000 and intellectual properties ofstudents of section 5 under the supervision of Mdm. Wiwin Oktasari

2 The contents:

- Lesson Outlines- Students’ Presentation Slides- Summaries of the HIST 1000 textbook

3 Usage:

- Reading material and preparation for exams.- Using this file for presentation or assignment is prohibited without

putting the reference.

4 For more detail explanation of the topics, please refer to the textbook and pleaseread your notes taken from the series of lectures in the class!

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied, ortransmitted in any form or by any mean without prior proper citation andreference to the writers and compilers.

Wiwin Oktasari, MHSc, Lc

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After learning, the students should be able to answer these questions both briefly and indetail:

1. Define history from an Islamic perspective!2. Define history from a Western perspective!3. What is the time frame and subject matter of history?4. What are the natures of history?5. What is pseudo-history? Give examples!6. What is historiography?7. What are the fields of history? What is Political History? Diplomatic History?

Economic History? Social History? Cultural history? Intellectual History?8. What is historical periodization? What is the importance of periodization?9. What are the natures of historical periodization?10. Mention the criteria of periodization and mention the examples!11. Explain the commonly used historical periodization (ancient, medieval and

modern)!12. What CE, BCE, AH, AD stands for?13. Mention the importance of studying history!

a. History provides identity. Explain!b. History helps us understand people and societies. Explain!c. Studying history is essential for good citizenship. Explain!d. History is teaching by example. History contributes to moral

understanding. Explain!e. Historical literacy helps us to plan for the future. Explain!

14. What skills does a student of history develop?15. Problems that student have to face are these. Explain!

1. Causes-and-Effect Relationships2. Time perspective3. Objectivity and tolerance.4. Philosophy of history5. A value system6. A unique discipline

16. History is the queen or the mother of social sciences. Explain!

17. What are the misconceptions of history? Explain!



After learning, the students should be able to answer these questions both briefly and indetail:

1. Explain the history of history (the origin of history)! History comes from theGreek word. What does it mean?

2. Explain the contributions of these following men to history:a. Homer b. Herodotus c. Thucydides d. az-Zuhri

e. Ibn Ishaq f. al-Tabari g. Ibn Khaldun h. Leopold von Ranke

3. Explain what do you know about Muqaddimah! What are the contents of it?

4. What is ‘Ilm al-‘Umran (the science of human culture)? Explain!

5. What is asabiyyah? Explain!

6. Define the primary sources of history and describe its various forms!

7. How would you determine the reliability of primary sources? (Test of reliability)

8. What are Muslim sources of history? (quran, hadith, sirah, isnads, etc). Explain!

9. Define the secondary sources!

10. Define tertiary sources!

11. What is Ibn Khaldun ideas of history?



HISTORY OF HISTORY

History can be said to have originated with man himself. History was tradition. It could

be hard to different between stories and fables. Stories and fables will not hold the interest of

human for long. There are three historians that used factual narration of such event which are

Herodotus, Thucydides and Leopold Von Ranke. Firstly, Herodotus is Greek historian in 5th

century B.C and popular with his Persians wars. His include all the event and took great pain

to reveal the truth and untruth. He is the father of historian because he was the first to approach

the reporting of history in a logical way, unbiased and separate event from myth. Secondly,

Thucydides is Greek scholars in 5th century B.C. He set standard of historical reliability and

make history next step towards science. He is not only collected authentic information and try

to answer why of the event. Thirdly, Leopold Von Ranke is famous German historian in 19th

century. He is also political history and German teacher. He gave scientific method of dealing

of history. He also emphasized the important of primary sources and studied scientifically and

objectively. He gathered all the evidences so, the reader can make his own conclusion.

In 20th century, history become as the true science of society. History is called science

of science because history studies all aspect. History is interconnection with other sciences- for

everything, there is a history. All aspects have the past including sociology, psychology,

accountant and all other sciences. Sociology and psychology are study about development of

man.

MUSLIM HISTORIANS

There are two Muslim historian which are At-Tabari and Ibn Khaldun.

At-Tabari

Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Jarir At-Tabari. He is a muhaddith, mufassir and historian.

His major works are Qur’an Commentary and History of Prophets and Kings.

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His major works are began with Qur’an commentary and history of prophets and kings.

His history became popular with the Semanid prince Mansur ibn Nuh. His method of

composition are follow the Qur’an text, juxtaposing juridical, lexicographical and historical

explanation. The sources for At-Tabari’s history were short monographs which are covering

the years from the prophet’s death to the fall Umayyad dynasty.

View of history, Tabari could not sustain his preference report originating the prophet

and pious scholars of early community known as-Salaf. His judgement of the report’s reliability

based on theoretical criterion. For at-Tabari, history was the divine will teaching by example.

THE ‘IMAM OF HADITH HISTORIOGRAPHY

History of prophet and Kings is combine the history of creation and prophecy with

the history of ancient nations. Tabari is the most explicit defence of the Hadith method in

historical writing, while his annalistic arrangement enshrined a style. Knowledge of the past

only be transmitted. Erudition, author’s mastery over a wide spectrum of subjects and

argumentation. The elaborate scheme of interpretation in the Qur’anic commentary is fairly

rigidly demarcated. History stretching from the creation of the world to the Last Hour and it

vary enormously in import and veracity.

History is made up of akhbar and it derivative nature of historical reports. His surface

report on his own akhbar whether it true or false his transmitted contain some comment which

are two broad principles. First principle is appeal to the majority view of early scholars and

second principle: Appeal to experts. Tabari also has to say on the validation status and

evaluation of historical reports in the pre-Islamic portion of his History. Besides, there are two

great historiographical traditions which are biblical and Persian. These long historical traditions

had added advantages of overlapping and merge into one another for Tabari. He also illustrate

origin, structure and ultimate destiny of world history. Some of the events and the

consequences towards Muslims community is difficult to explain. The three centuries or so of

Islamic history, Tabari record the dotted with events that had grievous political and theological

consequences. Lastly, Tabari attempt to minimize the damage of the report that have moral

repugnant.

Ibn Khaldun

Wali al-Din ‘Abd Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abi Bkr al-Hasan Ibn Khaldun. A

historian and historiographer. Known as father of historiography. His major work is



Muqaddimah (1377), the preface of his work on world history ‘Kitab al-‘Ibar’. In Muqaddimah,

he strongly criticized the mistakes regularly committed by historians and mentioned the

difficulties faced by historians in writing historical works. He also highlighted on the methods

of historical writing. Three part of Muqaddimah by Ibn Khaldun are an account of

historiography, an account of the science of human culture and an account of Islamic

institutions and sciences.

The first part of Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun take the first step which is he criticized

the historians of his own and the previous generations. It is becaiuse their works are mixture of

myth and polemic. Ibn Khaldun said, the primary task for historians is to adapt with the various

human culture so that the historian will not make any error when they reported the historical

reports.

Second part of Muqaddimah is about the science of human culture. It is the

methodology that Ibn Khaldun has declared that he invented it. His science of culture continues

with two traditions which are philosophical historiography and philosophy. Ibn Khaldun also

make a project which is history must be rescued and purified. Then, he moved to second step,

to an examination of history (stuff of history). Ibn Khaldun said events can be explained from

two points of view, particular (Did it happen?) and general (Can it happen?). General is more

important than particular. The third step that Ibn Khaldun take is transforming the event into

law, transforming history into lessons and rules. There are several ways distinguishing between

possible and impossible. One of the way is the event that take place in nature. It is shaped by

natural conditions. Another way is the cause of events itself. It is balanced to the size of events.

The greater of the events, the more likely it is have major causes. Then, Ibn Khaldun said

human societies divided by two, Bedouin/nomadic and sedentary/urban.

The last part which is the most succinct history of Islamic institutions and sciences tobe found. In this part, Ibn Khaldun tells about the deals with the evolution of Islamicinstitutions and sciences. And then, Ibn Khaldun answer the question about what happens tothe art and science after one state falls and another arise? Ibn Khaldun answered that manyscience destroyed, but many science also been added because the people will discovered anew science and replaced the destroyed science.



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. HISTORY OF HISTORY.HISTORY AND OTHER SCIENCES

.MUSLIM HISTORIANS

-NURFARAHIN BINTIKAMARUZAMAN-NUR FATINI-MAWADDAH BINTIMOKHTAR AL-ATHORID

HISTORY OF HISTORY

.Originated with man himself.

.Herodotus, Thucydides, Leopold Von Ranke

.AT-Tabari and Ibnu Khaldun

HERODOTUS

.Greek Historian (5th century B.C.)

.Father of history

.moved away from Greek myths

THUCYDIDES

.Greek scholar (5th century B.C)

.Peloponessian war

.Analyse the cause and effect relationship

LEOPOLD VON RANKE

.Famous German historian-19th century AD.

.Founder of scientific history

HISTORY AND OTHERS SCIENCES

•History studies all aspect

•Interconnection

•Historians work closely with specialist in allaspect



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MUSLIM HISTORIANS

AT-TABARI

•Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Jarir At-Tabari

•A muhaddith, mufassir and historian

•Qu’ran Commentary and History of Prophetsand Kings

.

AT-TABARI

Major Works

•Semanid prince Mansur ibn Nuh

•Follow the Qur’an text, juxtaposing juridical,lexicographical and historical explanation.

•Shorts monograph

VIEWS OF HISTORY

•Al-Salaf

•Judgement of report based on theoreticalcriterion

•Divine will teaching by example

TABARI: THE ‘IMAM’ OF HADITHHISTORIOGRAPHY

•History of prophet and Kings- combine the history ofcreation and prophecy with the history of ancientnations

•Tabari, the most explicit defence of the Hadithmethod in historical writing, while his annalisticarrangement enshrined a style

•Knowledge of the past only be transmitted

•Erudition, author’s mastery over a wide spectrum ofsubjects and argumentation

•Elaborate scheme of interpretation in the Qur’aniccommentary is fairly rigidly demarcated

•Stretching from the creation of the world to the Last

•History is made up of akhbar

•Derivative nature of historical reports

•First principle: Appeal to the majority view ofaerly scholars

•Second principle: Appeal to experts

•Tabari has to say on the epistemic status,evaluation of historical reports in the pre-Islamic portion of his History

•Two great historiographical traditions:-

v Biblical

v Persian



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Name Wali Al-Din ‘Abd Rahman Ibn Muhammad IbnAbi Bakr Al-Hasan Ibn Khaldun

Birth 27 May 1332 in Tunis

Death 17 March 1406 in Cairo

MainInterests

History, Historiography, Philosophy of History,Sociology, Economics, Demography

NotableIdeas

Asabiyah"I had taken refuge at Qal‘at ibn Salamah… and was staying in the castlebelonging to Abu Bakr ibn ‘Arif, a well-built and most welcoming place. I hadbeen there for a long time…working on the composition of the Kitab al-‘Ibarto the exclusion of all else. I had already finished drafting it, from theIntroduction to the history of the Arabs, Berbers and the Zanatah, when I feltthe need to consult books and archives such as are only to be found in largetowns, in order to check and correct the numerous citations that I had setdown from memory. Then I fell ill…. Because of all this, I felt a great wish tobe reconciled with the Sultan Abu al-‘Abbas and to go back to Tunis, the landof my forefathers, whose houses and tombs are still standing and wheretraces of them are still to be found" (tr. Caroline Stone).

Book 1/ Chapter1:

Human Society(Sociology)

Book 3/ Chapter3:

Forms ofGovernments &Institutions (ASociology of

Politics)

Book 5/ Chapter5:

Economic Facts(A sociology of

Economics)

Book 2/Chapter 2:

RuralCivilization

(A Sociology ofPolitics)

Book 6/ Chapter6:

Science &Humanity (ASociology ofKnowledge)

Book4/ Chapter4: Society of

Urban Civilization(A sociology of

Urban Life)

This science then… has its own subject, viz. humansociety, and its own problems, viz. the social phenomenaand the transformations that succeed each other in thenature of society.

-Ibn Khaldun ;

“A philosophy of history which is undoubtedly thegreatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created byany mind in any time or place”.

-Arnold Toynbee. (British Historian)

“As a theorist of history he had no equal in any age orcountry until Vico appeared, more than three hundredyears later. Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine were not hispeers, and all others were unworthy of being evenmentioned along with him".

–Robert Flint (British Philosopher)



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1. An Account ofHISTORIOGRAPHY

2. An Account ofTHE SCIENCE ofHUMAN CULTURE(‘Ilm Al-‘Umran Al-

Bashari)

3. An Account ofIslamic Institutions

1ST PART OF MUQADDIMA

•First step Ibn Khaldun takes

•Ibn Khaldun criticizes the historians

2ND PART OF MUQADDIMA•Science of human culture

•Continues 2 traditions:-

v Philosophy historiography

v Philosohpy

•Project of Ibn Khaldun

•2nd step, to move to an examination of events (stuff ofhistory)

•3rd step, transforming the event into law, transforminghistory into lessons and rules

•Human societies divided into 2:-

v Bedouin/nomadic

v Sedentary/civilized

3RD PART OF MUQADDIMA

•Last part

•Deals with the evolution of Islamic institutionsand sciences

•What happens to the art and science if onestate falls and another rises?

•Many sciences destroyed, but the new scienceswill be discovered



HISTORY OF HISTORY

It was develop as a discipline during ancient Greek civilization in Greece. It is alsointroduced and developed by the historian at that time. Further, historians divided bytwo; Western and Muslim historian.In this summary will touch four of many western historian, which are three historianfrom Greece and one of others are from Germany.

WESTERN HISTORIANS

First, Homer lived before Herodotus around 850 BCE; however when andwhere he was born are still debating by others. Some sources said that Homes wasborn on the Chios Island of Chios and others claimed in one of the Ionian City. He isa blind people but well-known and also believed as the first and the greatest epicpoet. Some of his work that famous to everybody which are Iliad and Odyssey. Inaddition, because of those he was claim as a Greek Historian.Iliad and Odyssey is not really historical work because of the emphasis on gods’intervention during Trojan War (13th and 12th cent. BC). Further, to many peoplebelieved the Trojan War was a Greek myth or legend. After several century, Homer’swork actually just re-written. Iliad and odyssey, including two of the oldest literallyworks delivered orally from generation to generation. So it can be assumed if there isoral tradition is lost in one generation because modern society will not be able toappreciate the classic work.

Second, Herodotus is a Greek scholar that lived in 5th cent. BC. He came fromGreece and he was born around 485 BC in Halicarnassus, Turkey. He was born inglory century of Greece especially Athena, which is Pentecontaetia era or between479 BC - 431 BC and that was a period peace time. At that time, Herodotus was 16years old and he was involve in the rebellion against Lygdamis which caused him tobe discarded or be deported. After that he stayed in Athena for a while and at Athenahe had relation with Pericles and Sophocles. He died on 425 BC.Additionally, he known as the” father of history and world’s first historian”. Hisinterpretation of recorded events of ancient Greece are acceptable to the standard ofmodern history. He travelled widely such as along the coast of Asia Minor, SoilGreece, the Black Sea. The Babylonians, the Nile Valley, Sicily and South Italy.Further, from his adventure he got a lot of inspiration and sources from his note or

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also in his mind and make it as a masterpiece. One of the most popular masterpieceare “Historiai”.Herodotus is different from the others because he moved away from Greek myths anddivine intervention. He focused on human history rather than others who interest in“Logograph”, which telling about myths and hero. In fact, his work that stressed onhuman motivation for their actions about Peloponnesian War. Herodotus’s creationalso has a comprehensive distinct or culture history because in his book, he alsodescribe about people civilization at that time such as Egypt, Athena, Perris, and soon. He also touched about trade, carpentry, agriculture, tradition and so on. So it’scovers various aspects of community’s life. Therefore, Herodotus not only regardedas father of history but also as father of Anthropology (cultural).

Third historian is Thucydides. He was historian and the author of an“Alimos”. One of his work is Peloponnesus War history, which tell us about warbetween Sparta against Athens in 411 BC. Thucydides called the father of “scientifichistory” because of strict standards in gathering evidence and analysis in term ofcause and effect without reference to the intervention of the God as outline in hiswork.He also been called as father of the school of “Political Realism”, which views therelation between nations as based on might rather than right. More generally,Thucydides showed an interest in developing an understanding of human nature toexplain behavior in such crisis as plague, massacres and civil war.

Last historian in this summary is Leopold Von Ranke. He was a famousGermany historian in 19th cent. AD. He was born on 21st of December 1795 in Wiehe,Thuringia, Saxony, Germany and his was died on 23rd May 1886 in Berlin.He was leading German historian of the 19th century whose scholarly method and wayof teaching (he was the first to establish a historical seminar) had a great influence onwestern historiography because of that, he known as the “founder of scientifichistory”. He was ennobled in 1895 with the addition of “Von” in his name.He able to implement seminar teaching method in class and focused on archivalresearch and analysis of historical document. He introduced many idea such asreliance on primary sources (empiricism) and emphasis on narrative history andespecially international politics.

MUSLIM HISTORIAN

5. Muhammad Shihab Az-Zuhri

• Muhammad Ibn Muslim Ibn Ubaiydillah Ibn Shihab Az-Zuhri• Called by Shihab/Az-Zuhri• Died 741/742• He wrote about Prophet Muhammad one of the earliest hisyorical document



• Ibn Shihab Az-Zuhri is regarded as one of the greates sunni authorities on hadith suchas; Ibn Al-Madani, Ibn Hibban, and Abu Hatim

• Muhaddith, fiqh and historian

6. At-Tabari

• Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Jarir Al-Tabari• Born in Chalipet, 893 AD• Died in Baghdad, 17 februari 923 AD• Muhaddith, mufassir and historian• He was the most influential and best known work are his Qur’anic commentary and

was followed by history of Prophet and kings• At-Tabari’s history became popular because the Samanad prince, Mansur Ibn Nuh had

it translated into Persia• The sources of At-Tabari’s history covering the years from the Prophet’s death to the

fall of the Umayyad dynasty• At-Tabari could not sustain his preference for reports originating with the Prophet and

the pious scholar of the early community, but his judgment of the report was based onthe largely theoretical criterion

7. Ibn Khaldun

• Abu Zayd Abdur Rahman bin Muhammad bin Khaldun Al-Hadrami• Born in Tunisia, 27 May 1332 CE• Died in Cairo, 19 March 1406 CE• He is best known for his book ‘Al-Muqaddimah’ the book influenced in 17th century

some Othman historian, and they used this book to analyze the growth and decline ofthe Othman empire

• 19th century, European scholar acknowledge the significant of the boo and consideredIbn Khaldun as one of the philosopher from Muslim world

Al-Muqaddimah

In 1475, Ibn Khaldun and his family were lodged in the safety castle (qal’ah Ibn Salamah)in Algeria, he spent 4 years there, and he wrote the massive masterpiece the Muqaddimah

The Muqaddimah contain:

• 1st book : contemporary Arab scholar• 2nd and 3rd book : general sociology• 4th book : sociology of politics• 5th book : sociology of urban life• 6th book : sociology of knowledge and economic

He is called by ‘father of historiography.



A. How historians work

Firstly, as we know that historians are challenged by the complexity of the worldand many people want to use their studies of the past in order to help solve the problemof the present. We believe that by studies the past we can solve the problem of thepresent. The historians will not spend a lot off effort or time to persuing the kind whichhas no answer, for example “who is the smartest people in the world?”, this question isnot important and the historian will focus among the important ones only.

Further, beside the historian focus among the important ones only the historianalso have to find the true evidence to do research and to support their conclusion at theend of their research. Besides, the historian also have to check the realibility of theevidence to make a people believe their conclusion is correct and strong. The way of thehistorians check the realibility of evidence, they use the test of consistency andcorroboration.

Furthermore, if the historians already had the conclusion on their research whiletheir conclusion leads to other conclusion is uncovered the historian has a responsibilityto include it. In addition, as we mentioned above that the historians have to find the trueevidence and there are three basic form of historical evidence : primary, secondary andtertiary.

a. Primary evidence: Primary sources are original materials. They are from thetime period involved and have not been filtered through interpretation orevaluation. And alos records the actual words of someone who witnessed withtheir own eyes at the time of that events. These can be newspaper accounts,diaries, notebooks, letters, minutes, interviews, and any works written by aperson who claim first-hand knowledge of an event.Another primary source is official statements by established organizations orsignificant personage’sroyal decrees, church edicts, political party platforms,laws, and speeches. Recent history has been recorded by photographs, film, andaudio and videotapes.These recordings events actually happened are also primary forms of evidence.Artifacts are another form of primary evidence. Examples of artifacts such ashouses, coins, tools, clothing and so on.

b. Secondary evidence: Secondary sources are less easily defined than primarysources. Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit ofhindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Inaddition, secondary evidence is records the finding of someone who did notobserve the event but who investigated primary evidence or we can say secondhand. Most history books fall into this category, commentaries, criticisms,histories, monographs other than fiction and autobiography.

c. Tertiary evidence: Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillationand collection of primary and secondary sources. Such as: Directories, Fact

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books, Guidebooks, Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary andsecondary sources, Chronologies, and almanacs.

B. Three directions of historical research1. Traditional direction of historical research

Firstly, the historians investigate the question they choose to study in manyways and their particular approach depends on their values and experiences and theirbelief about which aspect of human nature and the human environment are moreimportant to an understanding of their subject.

Traditionally, in this direction the historians have been divided into those whosaw:

a. Social: Investigates the development of human group, Communities andtheir interactions

b. Cultural: Deals with the meaning of ideas and attitudes and theirrelationship to social changes

d. Intellectual: Deals with the meaning of ideas and attitudes and theirrelationship to social changes

e. Poltical: Focuses on the operation and act of goverments, parties,andinstitutions

f. Diplomatic: Deal with relationship between govermentsg. Economic: Studies developments in technology, production,

consumption, and divison of wealth

2. New directions of historical researchIn this direction, some historians have begun to explore or try to find the

different aspects of the past. Such as :a. Psychistorians : emotional development of individuals (attempt to

explain by their emotional reactions to important social developmentssuch as war and depressions).

b. History of science and technology : focus is on the evolution of scientificknowledge.

c. Ethnohistory : the contact between different cultures in order to trace thecauses of cultural change.

d. Enviromental historians : the interaction of human communities withtheir habitats.

e. Study of private life : includes family history, sport history, and filmhistory.

3. New menthods of historical researchActually, many of the new direction of historical research have been influenced

by other fields of knowledge. Such as:a. Psychohistory by psychologyb. Demography and the new social history by sociologyc. Ethnohistory by anthropologyd. The new political history by political sciencee. The new economic history by economics

Moreover, in the new methods of historical research the historians use computerto help them to do analyze data and to make such analyses, the computer must beprogrammed-that is, provided with detailed instructions on how to handle the data.













Besides, the computer is not only to analyze historical data but it is also becomingimportant as a way of collecting historical facts.

BASIC METHODOLOGIES OF HISTORY

HOW HISTORIANS WORK

Historians have the job of studying and interpreting the past. When people need detailedinformation about the past, they go to historians to get the full story. First of all, the raisedquestion that come to mind are numberless. So, the historians have to choose among them.Then, they will find the problem of the questions so that they will search for something thathistory has answer. After that, the historian will collect all the evidences and interpret them. Inanalyzing the evidence, they make clear all things. Finally, the conclusion can be reported afterall the information of the evidence is proved.

THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCE

There are two basic forms of historical evidence, the primary and secondary evidence.Primary evidence records the actual words of someone who participated in or witnessed theevent described. For example, any works written by person who claim firsthand knowledge ofan event, the official statements that has been recorded or artifacts.

While, the secondary evidence records the findings of someone who did not observethe event but who investigated primary evidence and most history books fall into this category.When your own history research paper is finished, it will be secondary evidence.

TRADITONAL AND NEW DIRECTIONS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

The traditional directions of historical research are social which studies about thehuman groups and communities, cultural and intellectual which learn about the ideas andattitudes to social changes, political which discovers about parties and institutions , diplomaticwhich studies the relations between governments and lastly, economic which studies aboutdevelopments in technology production.

While, new directions of historical research are psychohistorians which examining theemotional development of people, science and technology which study about the evolution ofscientific knowledge, historical demography which emphasizes the social impact of populationchanges, ethnohistory which discovers about cultural history, and environmental historianswhich studies about interactions of human communities with their habitats.

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NEW METHODS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Many of the new directions of historical research have been influenced by other fieldsof knowledge. So, the historians borrow ideas and methods of analyzing evidence from theseother fields. For example, scholars use of quantitative or uniform data to study about the pastsuch as election returns, price levels, population statistics so that comparisons can be madeamong statistics from different periods. Elaborate analysis of statistics of large bodies of data(millions of voters, prices, households) need computer that must be programmed, how tohandle the data with detail instructions. So the using of computer is important in historicalresearch, not only for analyzing the historical data, but also as a way of gathering historicalfacts.



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BASIC METHODOLOGIES OFHISTORY

BY:NUR FADHILAH BINTI MISZAIRI (1413074)NUR NABILAH BINTI M.ZAMRI (1412618)

HIGHLIGHT

HOW HISTORIANSWORK

HISTORICALEVIDENCES

TRADITIONALDIRECTIONS OF

HISTORICALRESEARCH

NEW DIRECTIONS OFHISTORICALRESEARCH

NEW METHODS OFHISTORICALRESEARCH

HOW HISTORIANS WORK

Raisesquestion Identifies

problemsGathersevidence

Interpretsinformation

Reportsconclusions

Numberless

Important things

The reliability of evidenceConsistency & corroboration

The covered conclucion

Strong & convincing

THE HISTORICAL EVIDENCES

HISTORICALEVIDENCES

PRIMARYEVIDENCE

SECONDARYEVIDENCE

Documents are those writtenat the time of the period

under study.

Documents are those written“after the fact” that is,

at a later date.

THE TRADITIONAL DIRECTIONS OFHISTORICAL RESEARCH

CULTURAL

Human groups and communities

Ideas, attitudes to social changes

Parties and institutions

Relations between governments

Developments in technology production

THE NEW DIRECTIONS OF HISTORICALRESEARCH

SCIENCEAND

TECHNOLOGY

PSYCHOHISTORIANS

HISTORICALDEMOGRAPHY

ETHNOHISTORY

ENVIRONMENTALHISTORIANS

the emotionaldevelopment

evolution of scientificknowledge

the social impact ofpopulation changes

cultural history

interactions of humancommunities with

their habitats



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THE NEW METHODS OF HISTORICALRESEARCH

Influence by other knowledgeQuantitative data / uniform data

The data set is largeThe using of computer



1. Explain the Islamic or quranic concept of history!2. Explain the historical consciousness among Muslims!3. What is Sirah? What is hadith? What is Quran? What is khabar and maghazi?4. Mention the range and scope of history from Islamic perspective!5. What is sunnatullah in history?



THE ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF HISTORY

Definition

History of world or nation-describe about the rise and fall of nations.

History of region- depict the growth and expansion of political advance or downfall offamilies.

Qur’an and in modern connotation represent the rise and fall of political authority.

For instance, History of prophet Musa and Fir’un

The Past

Modern scientific point of view Prophet’s life and activities have been analyzed and verified.

Modern historical point of view revelations store up in the form of Qur’an are to be regardedas something authentic.

Range and scope

The range and scope of this past embrace of whole of mankind from first man advent on theearth till doomsday. Instead of accepting of religious statement modern historians haveborrowed from:

• Biology concept of evolution

• Anthropology concept of race

• Sociology concept of social change

• Archeology the cultural man in different ages.

THE TWO IMAGE :

I. THE QURANIC IMAGE

ALLAH created Adam from land and endowed with the spiritual of knowledge and blessedwith the duty of a prophet for his children. From prophet Noah till the last prophet there is acontinuous line of prophethood and human history which talk about the prophet andfollowers.

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II. THE MODERN IMAGE

Western views history as the change from the primitive creature, intellectually stunted andculturally blind to a modern lifestyle. They accept the theory of primitive consciousness to agrowth of modern consciousness. The way they observe history are by analyzing the past,reconstruct it and finally they investigate the causes.

While the Muslim put the theory of history as even though the physical changes, the valuesare still there. This is because Quran teaches people more than enough. The Quran alsodivides man’s existence on this earth into three sections:

• Comprised from the period of Prophet Adam until Prophet Muhammad.

• Period of the Khulafa’-Rashidun till the regeneration of man after the second comingof Jesus.

• Shows man’s gradual downfall till he loses all consciousness of values and the wholehuman race and the creation are destroyed by God.

Hence, this shows us the difference between :

How Quran shows history

How modern researchers viewhistory

THE METAPHYSICS

The views of history by Quranic principles :

1. God created man for a purpose, which is to realize HIS true greatness.

2. The emergence of the prophets are for the continuous renewal of human values.

3. Morality is based on absolute values and this is immutable.

DIFFERENT CONCEPTS

v Jewish – the Jews are the chosen people and authority should ultimately belong tothem.

v Christian – History is a long process making the stage ready for God to become Manso that Man may be redeemed.

v Islam – the scientific findings and theories to be verified in the light of Islam.



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CHAPTER 3

Definition

Range andscope

QuranicImage

ModernImage

TheMetaphysic

DEFINITION

• Qur’an and in modern connotation represent the riseand fall of political authority.

• Growth and expansion of

political progress

• Downfall of houses and

families

THE PAST

• Modern Scientific point of view : Prophet life andactivities have been analysed and verified.

• Modern Historical point of view : revelation storedup in the Qur’an are to be regarded as somethingauthentic.

RANGE AND SCOPE

• Instead of accepting of religious statement, modernhistorians borrowed from:

1. Biology - evolution

2. Anthropology – races

3. Sociology – social changes

4. Archaeology – cultural patterns

THE 2 IMAGES

Quran Modern



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THE QURANIC IMAGE

• ALLAH created Adam from land and endowed withthe spiritual of knowledge and blessed with the dutyof a prophet for his children.

• From prophet Noah till the last prophet there is acontinuous line of prophethood and human historywhich talk about the prophet and followers. WesternerMuslim

IMAGE

1. Westerner views

• As the change from the primitivecreature, intellectually stunted andculturally blind to a modern lifestyle.

• The theory of primitive consciousnessto a growth of modern consciousness.

• [By analyzing the past, reconstruct itand finally they investigate the causes]

• The values are still there.• The Quran also divides man’s existence on this earth into three

sections:i. the period of Prophet Adam until Prophet Muhammad.ii. period of the Khulafa’-Rashidun till the regeneration of man

after the second coming of Jesus.iii. man’s gradual downfall till he loses all consciousness of

values and the whole human race and the creation aredestroyed by God.

Hence,

Quran shows historyVS

Researchers view history



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THEMETAPHYSICS

1. Worship

2. Continuousrenewal

3. Difference ofmaterial progress

and moral standards

CONCEPTS

ISLA

M • the scientificfindings andtheories tobe verifiedin the lightof Islam.

CHRI

STIA

N • is a longprocessmaking thestage readyforGod(Christ)to becomeMan.

JEW

ISH • the Jews are

the chosenpeople andauthorityshouldultimatelybelong tothem. Theylimit the powerof Divinity.

Ibnu Sina said: "science is a true sciencewhen it relates knowledge of the world

to the knowledge of the DivinePrinciples."



The Islamic concept of history

Summary

In Islamic concept of history, there are word who giving the same meaning as history.

The word tarikh as example means date or era. It is the time when a particular event took

place. Islamic calendar start under caliph Umar and the word tarikh also was introduced on

643 CE. Then the word tarikh acquired the meaning of historical work and afterwards that of

history. Other than that is akhbar the plural words for khabar which means information and

narration.

Quran as well as the revelation is the history itself. Muslim can know the past history

of mankind trough revelations. The information that contains in the Quran is genuine because

the words came from Allah Himself. The range and scope of Quran cover all aspect of

mankind from the beginning of man’s life on earth until the doomsdays. It start with prophet

Adam life and continuous to the prophet hood time and then to human history. There are also

history on the rise and fall of society or political authority by gone nations and extinct

civilization. For instance story on people of ‘Ad, they are well known as the people who good

in architecture. However because of their disobedience towards Allah and their prophet,

Allah gives punishment to them. Hadith and sirah are also one of the sources of history in

islam. Hadith means the doing and saying of Prophet Muhammad and his companions. While

sirah means the biographical detail of prophet Muhammad, his act saying and practices.

Muslim in early time will refer back to these sources regarding the ways of life.

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The information in Quran has also being borrowed by certain modern historian,

anthropologist, sociologist and archeologist. They borrowed the concept of evolution, races,

social change and the evolution of civilization and culture without accepting the religious

part. Therefore, because of this situation, there are two images on viewing the concept of

mankind.

First is Quranic image, we will get the image of the first man which is Prophet Adam

and his wife, Eve and also their children. We being inform that the new creation endowed

with spiritual knowledge. Quran also mentioned that Allah divided human into different

group in order for us to know each other. As a Muslim, we have to believe on divine plan in

history. Allah had plan everything and it happen based on reason.

However for modern image, historian had presented the first human being having

emerged trough a biological process. They said that the first human are primitive creatures

and then they had met modern consciousness. In other word, they are revolving from time to

time. They interpret and analyses differently from what was in the Quran.

The metaphysic is about principle of worshiping Allah. Allah wanted us to realize his truegreatness. The basic principle of worship is in plant the code of life granted to man by god.Second is the renewal values that were bring from the first prophet to the last prophet. Thirdsis the differences that exist between material and moral standard. As a conclusion Qur’anicviews history different from other religion.







EXPLAIN ABOUT THE MAIN IDEAS OR PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY OF THESESCHOOLS OF HISTORY OR PHILOSOPHERS:

1. American Schools of historya. Progressiveb. Consensusc. The New Leftd. Social History

2. School of Annales3. Spengler4. Hegel5. Marxist conception6. Toynbee



SCHOOL OF “ANNALES”

Marc Bloch is a Medievalist. Lucien Febvre is a specialist in the sixteenth century. As

a result of Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre’s great achievement, the history is widely broadened

in France. In 1929, Bloch and Febvre founded a historical journal which is Annales d’histoire

sociale eteconomique (Annales of economic and social history). The School of Annales is

named after that journal and it remains as the main source of scholarship along with many

books and monographs.

School of Annales is established to emphasize more on social rather than political or

diplomatic themes and concern about an awareness of what they could learn from other

disciplines especially the social sciences which are economics, sociology, psychology and

geography.

As the practitioners of the social disciplines were primarily concerned with

contemporary problems, Bloch and Febvre made a point that only with their help the historians

could become aware of the full range of significant questions which they could put to their

sources. This point is accepted by the historians as Marc Bloch’s Feudal Society is probably

the best known outside France on that time. As a result, the development of study in those

disciplines continue to increase with the help from Bloch and Febvre.

The first scholar to approach the history of mentality in a systematic way is Lucien

Febvre, the co-founder of Annales. He made a point that the worst kind of historical

anachronism is psychological anachronism which is an unthinking assumption that the mental

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framework with which people interpreted their experience in earlier periods was the same as

our own.

The ultimate aim of the historians is to recapture human life in all its variety or in

Annale’s phrase, to write ‘total history’(histoire totale or histoire integrale). The fulfillment of

this ideal has often been credited to Fernand Braudel, Febvre’s successor and editor of Annales

and doyen of the historical profession in France.

Fernand Braudel has written a book, which is The Mediterranean and the

Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. The book mention every dimension of Braudel’s

cast subject in brilliantly evocative detail : the physical and human geography of the region, its

economic and social life, its political structures, and the Mediterranean policies of Philip II and

his rivals. The book is probably the finest achievement of Annales school, but it still did not

fulfill the ‘total-history’ concept as many critics have been pointed out. They said that different

approaches are not integrated with each other. It concerns with the parts of the book. The

political narrative which forms the third and concluding section of the book is largely detached

from the geographical and economic panorama in the first two parts.

Due to Braudel’s experience, he came to a suggestion that ‘total-history’ cannot be

realized on so vast as stage as Mediterranean. It is scarcely more practicable for a single

country. Paradoxically, therefore, ‘total history’ turns out in practice to mean local history.

Traditionally, local history was the preserve of amateurs whose horizons were limited by their

local loyalties and their social position in the community (usually squire or parson); their work

was much stronger on antiquarian detail than on the interpretation, and was largely ignored in

academic circles. In the last twenty years, however, local history has been increasingly taken

up by professional historians because of the opportunity it offers of straddling the conventional



demarcations between specialisms. The Annales historians were among the first to practice the

new kind of local history.

Marxian Conception of History.

Historical materialism is a methodological approach to the study of society, economics,

and history first articulated by Karl Marx (1818–1883) as the materialist conception of history.

It is a theory of socioeconomic development according to which changes in material conditions

(technology and productive capacity) are the primary influence on how society and the

economy are organized.

Historical materialism looks for the causes of developments and changes in human

society in the means by which humans collectively produce the necessities of life. Social

classes and the relationship between them, along with the political structures and ways of

thinking in society, are founded on and reflect contemporary economic activity.

Historical materialism springs from a fundamental underlying reality of human

existence: that in order for human beings to survive and continue existence from generation to

generation, it is necessary for them to produce and reproduce the material requirements of life.

Marx then extended this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that, in order to carry

out production and exchange, people have to enter into very definite social relations, most

fundamentally "production relations".

By "relations of production", Marx and Engels, the authors of Das Capital, meant the sum

total of social relationships that people must enter into, in order to survive, to produce and

reproduce their means of life. As people must enter into these social relationships, because

participation in them is not voluntary, the totality of these relationships constitute a relatively

stable and permanent structure, the "economic structure". for example: a capitalist's exclusive

relationship to a capital good, and a wage worker's consequent relation to the capitalist; a feudal



lord's relationship to a fief, and the serf's consequent relation to the lord; a slavemaster's

relationship to their slave.

The basic concept of Marxism adapted from his book A Contribution to the Critique of

Political Economy(1859):

• In the social production of human existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations,

which are independent of their will, namely relations of production appropriate to a

given stage in the development of their material forces of production.

• The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of

society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to

which correspond definite forms of social consciousness.

• The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social,

political and intellectual life.

• It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social

existence that determines their consciousness.

• At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into

conflict with the existing relations of production or – this merely expresses the same

thing in legal terms – with the property relations within the framework of which they

have operated hitherto.

Toynbee’s Philosophy of History

Arnold Joseph Toynbee CH (April 14, 1889 – October 22, 1975) was a British historian

whose twelve-volume analysis of the rise and fall of civilizations, A Study of History, 1934-

1961.



Toynbee approached history not from the perspective that takes the nation-state or

ethnic groups as the unit of history, but from civilizations as a unit, taking into account of the

roles of religious traditions worldwide. Rejecting a natural deterministic view of Oswald

Spengler (1880 – 1936), who similarly explained the rise and fall of civilization in The Decline

of the West, Toynbee introduced the concept of challenge-response, how people responded the

challenges they encountered determined the rise and fall of civilization. His perspective of

history also impacted the philosophy of history.

In his Study of History Toynbee describes the rise and decline of 23 civilizations. These

are: Egyptian, Andean, Sinic, Minoan, Sumeric, Mayan, Indic, Hittite, Hellenic, Western,

Orthodox Christian (Russia), Far Eastern (Korea/Japan), Orthodox Christian (main body), Far

Eastern (main body), Iranic, Arabic, Hindu, Mexic, Yucatec, and Babylonic. There are four

'abortive civilisations' (Abortive Far Western Christian, Abortive Far Eastern Christian,

Abortive Scandinavian , Abortive Syriac) and five 'arrested civilisations' (Polynesian, Eskimo,

Nomadic, Ottoman, Spartan); thirty in all.

Toynbee applies his model to each of these civilizations, painstakingly detailing the

stages through which they all pass: genesis, growth, time of troubles, universal state, and

disintegration. His over-arching analysis was the place of moral and religious challenge, and

response to such challenge, as the reason for the robustness or decline of a civilization. He

described parallel life cycles of growth, dissolution, a "time of troubles," a universal state, and

a final collapse leading to a new genesis. Although he found the uniformity of the patterns,

particularly of disintegration, sufficiently regular to reduce to graphs, and even though he

formulated definite laws of development such as "challenge and response," Toynbee insisted

that the cyclical pattern could, and should, be broken.



Apart from that, he argues that the breakdown of civilizations is not caused by loss of

control over the environment, over the human environment, or attacks from outside. Rather, it

comes from the deterioration of the "Creative Minority," which eventually ceases to be creative

and degenerates into merely a "Dominant Minority" (who forces the majority to obey without

meriting obedience). He argues that creative minorities deteriorate due to a worship of their

"former self," by which they become prideful, and fail to adequately address the next challenge

they face.









American schools of history.

The professional study of history began in 1870s at Johns Hopkins University. There werevarious schools of thought developed but only 4 schools of thought were pre-dominated.

Progressive school

They dominated historiography during the 1st half of 20th century. These historians oftenreflected on issues and concerns of their time. They saw the past as story of conflicts. Theyoften stressed the differences between class, groups and etc that existed in America. They saythat American history was an arena of competing social and economic forces. Rich vs poor,aristocracy vs democracy. These historians were optimistic and hoped for social and politicalbetterment.

Consensus school

This school emerged after ww2. They were also known as neo-conservative. They were knownto disagree with progressive. They think that America had very little conflicts as compared toother countries. They often stress that America is unite in policies that promotes freedom andopposes tyranny.

New Left school

This school of thought emerged in 1960s. During this time there were great changes andmovement that happened that influenced the lives of the American. All the civil rights, politicalassassination and more were brought into question. These historians were set to find out thepast history of America to find out how they became to be violent, racist, repressive society.

Unlike consensus historians who were always emphasising on the unity of America, New Lefthistorians questioned how America has been divided by race, class and gender.

Social school

It is the most recent school of thought. These historians think it has been long time studyingthe lives of elites and it is about time to study ordinary Americans. They attempt to describethe experiences of ordinary people. However they were criticised for making small group ofpeople the representative of larger society without convincing evidence. However they werecredited for giving important new information.

Spengler’s philosophy of History

Who is Spengler?

• Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler.

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• German philosopher and historian.• His work ‘Decline of the West’ is the most influential and controversial in 20th

century.• He influenced many writers and scholars in 20th century.• In his work ‘Decline of the West’, he focuses on the birth, growth and decline of a

culture.

What is his philosophy? (based on textbook)

v He is known for his analysis of cyclical theory of the rise and decline of civilization(based on his work).

v He says that a culture has to go through the age-phases of the individual man.For example:- phases of man : infant, childhood, teenage, manhood and old age.-phases of culture : its birth, growths, its prime, its decay.

v According to Spengler, all human culture have their prime and after they enjoying it,they were hidden in ‘deaths dateless night’ (decline).

v Spengler views every culture has a spirit of its own. The spirit can be weakened butcannot die and the spirit will then transmigrate to another culture.

v Based on Spengler, every culture is not an organism but it is a movement. Even if theculture is already decline but still the thoughts and manners of that decay culture arebeing practiced by some people. This decay culture will develop to a new representingculture.

Extra notes:

Ø Spengler forms four stages of civilization’s life cycle;1) 1st stage : pre-culture stage which man is in nomad.2) 2nd stage : agriculture phase3) 3rd stage : early stage of culture consists of feudalism and aristocratic.4) 4th stage : New class of bourgeoisie grows (the capitalist class: Marxism)5) Final stage: civilization stage that according to Spengler that is the beginning

of the end of culture.

Hegel’s Philosophy of History

Who is Hegel?

• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)• German philosopher and Historian• He was known as a cultural and intellectual historian.• He is a founder of Hegelianism which means a new form of thinking and logic.• He introduces Hegelian’s dialectical theory of History.• Karl Marx uses dialectical theory as a reference for his own philosophy in history.



What is Hegelian’s dialectical theory?

v Dialectical theory also known as ‘synthesis of opposites’.v From Hegel’s view, every period of history of social culture represents a unity. For

example, political, economic, intellectual and religious features are coherent/unified.v Theoretically, Hegel explains that history is ‘the clash of opposing ideas’. (dialectical

theory)v Each coherent social culture (thesis) however will develop to a limit which they are

not unified to each other. This lead to the formation of antithesis. These twocombinations (thesis+antithesis) then will create a synthesis.

v That synthesis then again will develop to a limit which a new conflict arises (here thesynthesis is change to thesis) and will form it opposite (antithesis). They combineand make another new synthesis.

v This process of dialectical cycle will continue again and again.

Another Hegel’s philosophy?

§ Hegel attempts to explain the world history using a concept of ‘world spirit’ or ‘divineidea’.

§ People are free to act as they wish. The needs, passions, characters and talents of thepeople actually govern their act/doing/behaviour. However, from Hegel’s view, this isa serious misconception.

§ He proposes that the act of people is all done by the command of the world spirit.People do not have free choice/ freedom.

§ In Hegel’s view, people are the puppets of the world spirit.



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American school ofhistory and

western philosophies

Siti Nur Amirah Kamaluddin 1310614Nur Fatihah Bt Dul Said 1319404

Ø Development of the professional study of historybegan in 1870s at Johns Hopkins University.

Ø Various schools of thought were developed but onlyfour schools of thought were pre dominated.

Four schools of thought

Ø Progressive school

Ø Consensus school

Ø New left

Ø Social history

Ø Progressive school- dominated professional thought and writing during 1st half

of 20th century

- past as conflict between various groups

- optimistic about the future

Ø Consensus school- also known as ‘neo-conservative’

-emerged after ww2

-disagreed with progressive

Ø The ‘New Left’ school- emerged in 1960s

- study the past to find conflicts in American history

- influenced by the turmoil situations in 1960, civilrights, women rights

-they disagreed with consensus school.

Ø School of Social history- most recent

- relied too long on studying the actions and ideas of theelite

- unfortunately ordinary citizens did not have abundantrecords like the elite

- social historians has given important new information

- criticism making obscure people representative of largersociety without convincing evidence



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Western philosophies

Spengler’s Philosophyó Every culture is an organism. It has its birth, growth and decayó A culture that has decayed cannot be revived by human effortsó Culture has the age phase of manó That each culture has its own distinctive soul that express itself

in art, science, politic, religion and etcó Every culture has a spirit of its own, the spirit can be weakened

but cannot dieó Culture is basis of civilisation.ó Civilisation rise and fall according to a natural and inevitable

cycle.

v Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)

v German philosopher and Historian

v Hegel’s philosophy:

UnityWorld spiritRational / logic

HEGEL’S PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY

v UNITY

1. Every main period in history of social culture represents a unity.

2. Political, economic, general social-moral aesthetic, intellectual and religiousaspects are united.

3. Each aspects is complement each other.

v WORLD SPIRIT

1. Attempts to explain the world history using a concept of ‘world spirit’ or‘Divine idea’.

2. Explain that every action of mankind/individual is not from the choice of free-will but from the command of world spirit.

v RATIONAL / LOGIC

1. Had a rationalist view of history.

2. Rational is the real.

3. Show the Truth.

