REACHES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY pr

UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA DE EL SALVADOR

Education school

“REACHES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST

METHODOLOGY PROPOSED IN THE ENGLISH PROGRAMS OF

JUNIOR HIGH, COMPLEJO EDUCATIVO SOTERO LAINEZ,

MUNICIPIO DE SENSUNTEPEQUE, DEPARTAMENTO DE CABAÑAS,

2006.”

RESEARCHERS:

VERONICA DEL CARMEN VASQUEZ hernandez

JENNIFER CAROLINA BONILLA

JUAN ANTONIO RAMIREZ PAZ

ACADEMIC ADVISOR: LIC. IRMA CARBALLO HERNANDEZ

San Salvador, el salvador, 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Page

Introduction

1.1. General and specific objectives----------------------------------------------------------11

1.2. Antecedents of the problem--------------------------------------------------------------12

1.3. Statement of the problem-----------------------------------------------------------------12 - 15

1.4. Justification---------------------------------------------------------------------------------16

1.5. Reaches and limitations-------------------------------------------------------------------17

1.6. Type of research---------------------------------------------------------------------------18

1.7. Sum up of concepts and categories to be used-----------------------------------------18 - 23

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2. THEORETICAL- METHODOLOGICAL BASE

2.1. Origin of the constructivism-------------------------------------------------------------23 - 24

2.2. Pioneers of the constructivism----------------------------------------------------------24 - 27

2.3. New perspectives to the constructivist learning theory------------------------------27 - 38

2.4. What is Constructivism? ----------------------------------------------------------------38 - 40

2.4.1. Types of constructivism---------------------------------------------------------------41 - 42

2.4.2. Constructivism in the classroom-----------------------------------------------------42 - 43

2.4.3. The constructivist teacher-------------------------------------------------------------43 - 44

2.4.4. The Constructivist teacher’s role-----------------------------------------------------44 - 45

2.4.5. Student’s role---------------------------------------------------------------------------45

2.5. Constructivist Methodology------------------------------------------------------------46

2.5.1. Aims of a Constructivist Methodology---------------------------------------------46 - 47

2.6. Didactic principles in the teaching of the English Language----------------------47 - 54

2.7. Characteristics of the pedagogical constructivism-----------------------------------54 - 55

2.8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

METHODOLOGY

2.8.1. Population sample--------------------------------------------------------------------56

2.8.2. Methods, techniques, instruments and procedures-------------------------------56 - 58

2.9. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION ABOUT THE

RESEARCH

2.9.1. The current English programs for Junior High---------------------------------58 - 59

2.9.2. Analysis of the seventh grade Program------------------------------------------60 - 125

2.9.3. Constructivist ideas and the English programs for Junior High-------------126

2.9.4. Drawbacks in the Junior High Programs---------------------------------------127 - 128

2.9.5. Programs in the practice----------------------------------------------------------129

2.9.6. Constructivist ideas in the practice---------------------------------------------129 - 132

2.9.7. DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION (After contrasting the

authors’ ones) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------133 – 135

CHAPTER III

3. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH-------------------136 - 142

3.2. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE------------------------------------------------142

3.3. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DATA ANALYSIS --142

3.4. CHRONOGRAM-----------------------------------------------------------------------143

3.5. RESOURCES---------------------------------------------------------------------------144

3.6. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS ON FINAL REPORT-------------144 - 147

3.7. GENERAL AND USED REFERENCES-------------------------------------------147 - 152

3.8. ATTACHMENTS

3.8.1. Checklist for the Constructivist teacher’s role-----------------------------------154 - 155

3.8.2. Checklist for the Constructivist student’s role-----------------------------------156

3.8.3. Interview------------------------------------------------------------------------------157

3.8.4. Questionnaire------------------------------------------------------------------------158

3.8.5. Checklist to observe methods used during the class in progress--------------159

3.8.6. Observation’s results----------------------------------------------------------------160 - 166

3.8.7. Basic theoretical Proposal----------------------------------------------------------167 - 181

CHAPTER I

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

INTRODUCTION

The new ways of teaching English language in El Salvador have the nucleus in the

Constructivist Approach as a result of the most recent Educative Reform (1989 -1999),

which carried among other changes the renovation of English study programs for Junior

High; suggesting to the teachers and students a ground-breaking methodology called

“Constructivist” with the aim to offer a more efficient teaching – learning process.

The programs were provided by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in 1998, to the public

schools. By 1999, these started up looking for the improvement of the national Education in

English, allowing teachers to make decisions that will enhance and enrich student’s

development.

This research is titled “Reaches and limitations of the constructivist methodology proposed

in the English programs of Junior High, “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez,” Municipio

de Sensuntepeque, Departamento de Cabañas, 2006.”

The goal of this work was to find out whether the suggested methodology by the Ministry

of Education was being applied, and which the results were after eight years of the

proposal.

It is a preliminary plan about what it is actually happening with the application of the

methodology mentioned above in the national educational system.

This research contains in its first chapter: general and specific objectives, antecedents of the

problematic situation, justification, reaches and limitations, type of research, as well as a

sum up of concepts and categories to be used. The second chapter contains an explanation

about the Constructivism origin until its entrance to the educative field, also, the steps

followed in order to develop the research, the most important elements registered and found

in the workfield as well as the researchers’ theoretical definitions. The third chapter

contains the following: the description of the subjects of the research, the data gathering

procedure, specification of the technique for the data analysis, resources, preliminary table

of contents on final report, general and used references and attachments as well.

1.1. GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

GENERAL OBJECTIVE

To analyze the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs of Junior

High.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

To determine reaches and limitations of the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the

English programs of Junior High.

To contrast the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English program of Junior

High with the ones used by the English teachers at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez.”

To design a basic practical proposal about Constructivist Methodology to advice the teacher

depending on the results of the research.

1.2 ANTECEDENTS OF THE PROBLEM

There are no facts of another research similar to this one carried out before. Therefore, this

study is just setting the groundwork for future studies related to this topic. Besides it will

provide information about the current situation related to the Constructivism in Teaching

English Language.

1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Historical development of the English Programs through the Educative Reform.

Through Salvadorean history, many educative reforms have been carried out. These have

responded to political, social and economical influences which have led to the Educative

quality improvement. Many changes have emerged in the educative field, in the last

Educative Reform (1989-1999) all the English study programs were redesigned and

redefined, conceiving them as “a set of theoretical-practical reflections, as a set of actions

of learning that the teacher and the student develop during a specific period of time to reach

objectives and precise goals in a specific level and science field.”1

To get a better understanding about the progression of the English programs of Junior High

through the Educational Reform it is presented a brief description since 1945 until now.

English Language in Junior High Level

The English Language as official subject in the Salvadorean Educational system goes back

to the structural Educative Reform of 1945, when the elementary level was changed in two

1 MINED. Reforma Educativa en Marcha Do. MINED. El Salvador. 1994 – 1999. p. 130.

levels, elementary (1º -6º ), Junior High (7º-9º called Plan Básico), and High School which

comprised from seventh to twelfth grade, now includes from 10° - 12° grade.

For a long time, there were no important changes in education. However in 1968, under the

presidency of General Fidel Sanchez Hernandez, 2 a significant educational reform was

promoted by Lic. Walter Beneke, who was Minister of education at the time. He authorized

the publication and implementation of the new study programs for all levels.

Related to the English language, the Administrative Unit of Technical- Pedagogical

Services designed the new English study programs, and didactic guides were printed to

teachers. Moreover, a systematical transmission of educative television started for seventh

grade. Channels 8 and 10 of Educational Television were inaugurated and the televised

classes were presented as a great valuable resource to enhance the teacher’s activities in the

classroom.3

For almost two decades fundamental movements were not made in the national educational

system. It is until 1991, when the Ministry of Education was conscious of the urgency to

update not just the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language but to do a renewal of the

whole educational system. Supported by the United States Agency for International

Development (USAID), through the Central America Peace Scholarships (CAPS) for

English teachers in public school. They were involved in designing and developing a new

study program that would improve the teaching – learning process.

2 MINED. Reforma Educativa en marcha - un vistazo al pasado de la Educación en El Salvador- documento I. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1995. P. 42. 3 Escamilla, Luís. Reformas Educativas – Historias contemporáneas de la Educación Formal en El Salvador.

Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1981. pp. 202-204.

By 1993, the first edition of the English study Programs was designed by Salvadorean

teachers trained in the United States and it was presented with acceptable results. Thus, in

1994, complete valid English programs for Junior High were approved. These were called

“Programas piloto” that is to say; that the programs were putting to proof to name them

official programs. However, new trends in the Educative field in the Salvadorean society

brought to an end this process. And new dispositions in the designing of the English

Programs were considered.

Constructivism in the Junior High Programs

The post-war conditions and the process of peace of the country led to adopt a new

Educative philosophy. In this way “at the beginning of 1994, enters to the educative specter

the Constructivism, which is in the new curricular instruments.” 4

In 1996, the Ministry of Education accepted recommendations from the National

Commission for Science and Development; it was decided to restructure the new study

programs which presented unit and coherence between Junior High and High School levels

because “both comprise the same stage of knowledge development as well as affective and

social aspects of the students.”5 As a result, in 1998, the ministry of Education presented a

well designed English program based on the Constructivist Approach, which was focused

in an anthropological, humanist and socially committed vision. “The ideas of this new

curricular approach arrived from Spain and emerged from Piaget´s and Vigotsky´s theories,

4 Picardo, Joao, Oscar Carlos. Realidades Educativas - Teoría y praxis contemporánea. Ed. INFORP- UES, El Salvador. 2000. p.114. 5 MINED. Programas de estudio de ingles – Tercer ciclo de Educación Básica. Ed. MINED. El Salvador.

1998. P. 5.

obviously with respective adjustments and adaptation to the Salvadorean sociocultural

circumstances.”6

The final edition of the English study programs has been in the teachers’ hands in every

public school since 1998. At the present time, it is considered that these are giving back

positive results. With this in mind the following questions emerge:

Are the English teachers taking into account the methodological suggestions of the English

programs of Junior High according to the constructivist approach?

Which are the benefits and limitations of the constructivist methodology proposed by the

Ministry of Education in the Junior High programs?

6 Pérez, Castro Abigail. En: Reforma de la historia y la historia de la reforma educativa en marcha de El

Salvador (Borrador). Ed. MINED s.f. p. 33.

1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH

In 1994, the Constructivist Approach is taken as philosophy in the teaching – learning

process by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in El Salvador to respond to the

Salvadorean students’ needs and the globalization phenomenon. As a result the English

study programs of Junior High, as well as the other ones to be developed at this level were

restructured suggesting an innovative methodology which stimulates the analysis,

application, critic thinking, and meaningful learning.

In order to have a vision of the effectiveness and impact produced by this Constructivist

Methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education (MINED) in the current English

programs of Junior High in El Salvador, it is necessary to develop a research with the

purpose to observe and determine the benefits reached by the Constructivist Approach as

well as its limitations. In this way, contribute with the national educational system showing

the outcomes of the Constructivist Methodology suggested by the Ministry of Education

(MINED) at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez” in Sensuntepeque city.

In this sense, it is expected the final results become a good contribution for students,

professors at Pedagogical University and the school in which the research took place.

1.5. REACHES AND LIMITATIONS

REACHES

- The researchers got to state communication with the Principal of the school and the Junior

High English teachers; and got the gap to carry out the practical part of the research.

- To persuade the English teacher to allow the researchers to stay in his classes and observe.

-The researchers established good communication with the students and the teacher who

were vital elements in this research.

-The researchers observed English teacher’s role as well as the students one.

LIMITATIONS

-The reluctance the teachers in charge of the English language teaching in Junior High

showed toward the researchers.

-Lack of cooperation of one of the two English teachers who did not accept the presence of

the researchers in his classes. This became a difficulty because he was in charge of all the

ninth grades in the morning shift. Therefore, the work group had to make an effort to visit

the school not just in the morning shift but also in the afternoon shift as well. Due to, in the

afternoon shift there was a ninth grade in which there was a teacher in charge the same who

gave the researchers the opportunity to observe his classes in the morning shift.

1.6. TYPE OF RESEARCH

This research is an exploratory and descriptive one. It is exploratory because, there is no

evidence about similar studies to this one. Therefore, the outcomes become essential for

new researches. It is descriptive because it allows arranging the results of observed

behaviors, characteristics, factors, procedures, and other variables of the phenomenon and

facts.

1.7. SUM UP OF THE CONCEPTS AND CATEGORIES TO BE USED

Constructivism “Basically it is the idea that maintains that the individual in the cognitive

and social aspects of the behavior as well as in the effective ones, is neither merely a

product of the environment nor a simple result of his internal dispositions, but a proper

construction which is generated day by day as result of the interaction between those

factors. Consequently, according to the Constructivist position, the knowledge is not a

faithful copy of the reality, but a construction of the human being. Which instruments do

the people use to carry out those constructions? Essentially, with the schemes that they

already have, that is to say, what they already constructed in their own relation with the

environment.”7

In light of the above and other definitions, Constructivism is a theory suggesting that

students learn by constructing their own knowledge, especially through hands-on

exploration. It emphasizes that the context in which an idea is presented, as well as

7 Pérez Córdoba, Rafael Ángel. El Constructivismo en los Espacios Educativos. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica.

2002. P. 2.

student’s attitude and behavior, affects learning. Students learn by incorporating new

information into what they already know.

Constructivism is derived from the Piaget and Vigotsky’s ideas about learning and their

followers such as Jerome Bruner, David Ausubel, and Howard Gardner, among others.

Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner demonstrated how thought processes could be

subdivided into distinct model of reasoning. While Piaget related each model to a specific

period of childhood development (Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete

operations, and Formal operations). Bruner’s model of human development is a

“combination of enactive skills (manipulating objects, spatial awareness), iconic skills

(visual recognition, the ability to compare and contrast) and symbolic skills (abstract

reasoning).” 8

The Russian Lev. S. Vigotsky is also important to Constructivism. He focussed on the

roles that society played in the development of an individual. Proximal Development

Zone (PDZ) is an important concept of Vigotsky‘s theory, he defined it as a term which

refers to “the distance between the level of understanding of a problem (or task) that is

possible to reach when a learner works by himself or herself and the level that can reach

with the help of a more expert peer i.e. a teacher.” 9 People learn as they go beyond their

own knowledge but only within a range that is within their grasp given and what

knowledge and skills they bring to a task.

8 Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). Teóricos: Vigotsky, Bruner y Piaget. Ed. CONAFE.

México. 2002. pp. 17-18. 9 Antunes, Celso. Vigotsky en el aula… ¿Quien diría?. Ed. San Benito. Argentina. 2003. P. 26.

David Ausubel developed a theory of Meaningful Learning; he thought that meaning was

not something that resides in the text and outside the learner. He said that meaning occurs

when learners actively interpret their experiences using certain internal, cognitive

operations.

If Ausubel had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, he would say

this: “The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already

knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly"10

Howard Gardner claims that all human beings have Multiple Intelligences. These multiple

intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He believes each

individual has eight intelligences: “Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence, Mathematical-Logical

Intelligence, Visual-Spatial Intelligence, Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence, Musical

Intelligence, Interpersonal Intelligence, Intrapersonal Intelligence, and Naturalist

Intelligence.”11

Types of Constructivism it is considered that there exist three types of constructivism:

“a) philosophical or epistemological, that has inspired the empiric work of psychological

type, and at the same time, it has been restrained by this; b) the one which contains the

conclusions derived from evolutionary psychological researches or cognitive about the

knowledge acquisition ( Psychological) and; c) the one of the implications of the mentioned

researches to the educative activity and the researches about the conditions in which are

learned and taught the new knowledge (Pedagogical).”12

10 Pérez Córdoba, Op Cit., p. 27.

11 Campbell, Linda. en: Inteligencias Múltiples - Usos Prácticos de Enseñanza Aprendizaje. Ed. Troquel.

Argentina. 2000. pp. 12- 13.

12 FEPADE. Cuadernillos Técnicos #7. Ed. Algier´s Impresores. El Salvador. 1998. p. 12.

The Pedagogical Constructivism “propitiates that the student thinks in an autonomous

way and understand significantly his or her world.”13 The pedagogical constructivism has

given to educators an innovative methodology that allows the student to become doer of his

or her knowledge.

The Constructivism was assumed methodologically in the most recent study programs in El

Salvador offering the teachers and students new ways to teach and to learn, changing in

focus of instruction from the transmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. In a

traditional curriculum, a teacher transmits information to students who passively listen and

acquire facts. In a transactional curriculum, students are actively involved in their learning

to reach new understandings.

“A Program is a systematized organization of the objectives, contents and activities of a

determined discipline that teachers and students have to develop in teaching learning

process.”14 The core of any program in El Salvador is the Constructivist Approach that is

why the new methodology proposed an endeavor act in response to different needs of the

learners.

“Constructivist Methodology starts from the diversity principle, its spirit is contrary to

proposals in which the learner reacts rather than acts go after than construct. For the same

13 Díaz Suárez, Reinaldo. La Educación – Teorías Educativas – Estrategias de Enseñanza – Aprendizaje. Ed.

Trillas México. 2002. P. 16. 14 Saavedra R, Manuel S. Diccionario de Pedagogía. Ed. Pax. México. 2003. P.136.

reason, fit to this idea all those methodologies based on the group activity of the students

and the teacher, it found its fundament in the Proximal Development Zone.”15

Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners.

The learning in all subject areas involves inventing and constructing new ideas. The

constructivist theory is incorporated into the curriculum, and advocates that teachers create

environments in which children can construct their own understandings. The Constructivist

Approach is used to create learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers who question,

investigate, and reason. A Constructivist Approach frees teachers to make decisions that

will enhance and enrich students’ development in these areas.

For that reasons, the teacher’s role in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of

information giver to that of knowledge facilitator, guide, and learner. “As a facilitator, the

teacher provides the rich environments and learning experiences needed for collaborative

study. “16

Understanding the role of the teacher in the constructivist classroom provides a useful

vantage point from which to grasp how the theory impacts on practice.

Student’s role: it is expected that the students interact with the classmates more than with

the teacher. They must constantly be listening, observing and performing the teacher’s

methodological suggestions. “They should be active performers of their own learning,

following the Constructivist Philosophy, which is founded on the premise that, by reflecting

15 Zabala, Antoni. En: Constructivismo en el aula. Ed. Grao. Colombia. 1999. P. 151.

16 Delgado Amaya, Master Didier. Revista Matices Pedagógicos. Ed. INFORP – UES. El Salvador. pp. 8-9.

on their own experiences, they construct their own understanding of the world they live

in.”17

The core of a Constructivist teaching – learning process is that learner’s participation is

vital in the construction of new knowledge. And must be propitiated by open questions and

the effort to use oral expression, promoting the dialogue and the group work, it must be

considered the student’s opinion, regarding to the student socialization process of sharing

knowledge, experiences, ideas, etc., listening and talking.

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2. THEORETICAL – METHODOLOGICAL BASE

2.1. Origin of the Constructivism

The Constructivism idea is not new. The concept has roots in classical antiquity going back

to Socrates’ dialogues with his followers, in which he asked direct questions that led his

students to realize by themselves the weaknesses in their thinking.18 The Socratic Dialogue

is still an important tool in the way Constructivist educators assess their students’ learning

and plan new learning experiences.

As a philosophy of learning, Constructivism can be traced at least to the eighteenth century

in the work of the Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that “humans can

17 Revista matices Pedagógicos. Ídem. 18 Ferrater, Mora, José. Diccionario de grandes filósofos 2 (K – Z). Ed. Alianza. España. 2002. p. 472.

only clearly understand what they have constructed by themselves.” 19 Many others worked

with this idea, but the first major contemporaries to develop a clear idea of applied

Constructivism into classrooms and childhood development were John Dewey and Jean

Piaget. They developed theories on childhood development and education, what we now

call Progressive Education, which led to the evolution of Constructivism.

2.2. Pioneers of the Constructivism

At the end of the1960 decade, it had been imposed in the psychology field, and also in the

pedagogic and didactics ones, a series of approaches that coincide into point out the human

development and learning as the result of internal reconstruction processes. The

development and learning theories, like those of Dewey, Piaget, Vigotsky, Bruner, Ausubel

and Gardner have been taken into account to provide instruments of analysis and reflection

about the practice, on how to learn and how to teach.

2.2.1. John Dewey

As already indicated, many psychologists worked on the theory of Constructivism, but

John Dewey was one of the first major contemporaries to develop this theory. According to

him, “Education depended on action. 20 For Dewey, mind is a means of transforming,

reorganizing and, reshaping accepted meanings and values, as a means of attending to the

lived situations of life.” Dewey stressed the importance of having a student’s knowledge

grow from experience. Knowledge and ideas came only from a situation where learners

had to draw them out of experiences that had meaning and importance to them. These

19 Ferrater, Mora, José. Op Cit., p. 516. 20 Luzuriaga, Lorenzo. Antología Pedagógica. Ed. Lozada. Argentina. 1956. p. 172.

situations, according to Dewey, have to occur in a social environment, where students could

come together to analyze materials and to create a community of learners who built their

knowledge together.

2.2.2. Jean Piaget

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for constructing a

highly influential model of child development and learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the

idea that child builds cognitive structures in other words, mental maps, schemes, or

networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or

her environment. Piaget further attested that a child’s cognitive structure increases in

sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and

sucking to highly complex mental activities.

Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children

progress through them. The four stages are: Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage,

concrete operations.

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old) Behaviors that occur at birth and are necessary

and instrumental for later cognitive development. Child thought involve see, listen, move,

touch etc.

2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) the ability to internally represent event(s).The child is not

yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.

3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11) the child evolves logical thought processes that can be

applied to concrete problems. As physical experience accumulates; the child starts to

conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.

Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations

can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.

4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15) the ability to solve all classes of problems,

which can be solved through logical operations. By this point, the child’s cognitive

structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.21

Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures assimilation,

accommodation and equilibrium.22 During all development stages, the child experiences his

or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the

experience is a repeated one, it fits easily or is assimilated into the child’s cognitive

structure so that he or she maintains mental equilibrium. If the experience is different or

new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive structure to accommodate

the new conditions. This way, the child creates more and more adequate cognitive

structures.

Piaget was mainly concerned with children’s developing understanding of the world, so for

him (and for children) accommodation is not more problematic than assimilation. That does

not necessarily hold as we grow older. We have ways of understanding our world which

work for us, as relatively successful adults. There is no problem in assimilating new

information and ideas which fit with this world-view, but we find it increasingly difficult to

accommodate to new material.

21 Labinowicz, Ed. Introducción a Piaget - Pensamiento- Aprendizaje- enseñanza. Ed. Colegio Americano. México. 1986. p. 60.

22 Labinowicz. Op Cit., 607.

Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after

another. He also concluded that “the logic of children and their modes of thinking are

initially entirely different from those of adults.”23 The implications of this theory and how

he applied them have shaped the foundation for constructivist education.

Piaget’s Constructivism is based on his view of the psychological development of children.

In short, in his educational thoughts, Piaget called for teachers to understand the steps in the

development of the child’s mind. The fundamental basis of learning, he believed, was

discovery: “To understand it is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such

conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are

capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition.”24 To reach an

understanding of basic phenomena, according to Piaget, children have to go through stages

in which they accept ideas they may later see as not truthful. In autonomous activity,

children must discover relationships and ideas in classroom situations that involve activities

of interest.

2.3. New perspectives to the Constructivist learning theory and practice

Among the educators, philosophers, psychologist, who have added new perspectives to

Constructivist learning theory and practice, are Lev Vigotsky, Jerome Bruner, David

Ausubel and Howard Gardner.

23 González, Eugenio. Psicología de la Educación y del desarrollo en la Edad Escola. Ed. CCS. España. 2004. p. 45. 24 Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). Teoricos: Vigotsky, Bruner y Piaget. Ed. CONAFE.

México. 2002. p. 22.

2.3.1. Vigotsky’s sociocultural theory

The Russian Lev. S. Vigotsky is also important to Constructivism, pioneering theorist in

psychology who focussed on the roles that society played in the development of an

individual. He believed that children learn concepts from their everyday notions and adult

concepts. He says that students learn through interacting with their peers, teacher, and their

contextual setting.

The social world of a learner includes the people that directly affect that person, including

friends, students, administrators, the pedagogical help (teachers), the curricular contents

and participants in all forms of activity. This takes into account the social nature of both the

local processes in collaborative learning and in the discussion of wider social collaboration

in a given subject.

Vigotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning emphasizes that “human intelligence originates

in our society or culture, and individual cognitive gain occurs first through interpersonal

(interaction with social environment) than intrapersonal (internalization).”25

Another aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development

is limited to a certain distance which he calls the “Proximal Development Zone” (PDZ).

Vigotsky defined PDZ as a term which refers to “a level of understanding that is possible

when a learner engages in a task with the help of a more expert peer i.e. a teacher.” 26

People learn as they are stretched beyond their own knowledge but only within a range that

25 Solano Alpizar, José. Educación y aprendizaje. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. p. 67. 26 Antunes, Celso. Vigotsky en el aula… ¿Quien diría?. Ed. San Benito. Argentina. 2003. p. 26.

is within their grasp given what knowledge and skills they bring to a task. Vigotsky´s view,

peer interaction, scaffolding, and modeling are important ways to facilitate individual

cognitive growth and knowledge acquisition. PDZ can be composed by different levels of

individuals’ knowledge (students and teachers), and can also include artifacts such as

books, computer tools, and scientific equipments. The purpose of PDZ is to support

intentional learning.

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory proposes that teachers provide supports for students to

move beyond what they are capable of accomplishing on their own. This scaffolding occurs

to take students through the Proximal Development Zone. The amount of scaffolding

provided is reduced as students become more independent within a learning context.

Vigotsky’s theory is very similar to Piaget’s assumptions about how children learn, but

Vigotsky places more emphasis on the social context of learning and the teacher’s role.

Also, in Piaget’s theory, the teacher plays a limited role whereas in Vygotsky’s theory the

teacher plays a very important role in learning.

2.3.2. Jerome Bruner

Along with the previous psychologists mentioned, Jerome Bruner also had a big influence

on the theory of Constructivism. “Bruner’s major ideas were that learning was an active,

social process in which students constructs new ideas or concepts based on their current

knowledge. And that the individuals construct their reality, or world through the

representation of their own experiences. The aim of the education is to help people in the

development and construction of a world.”27

Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner demonstrated how thought processes could be subdivided

into three distinct modes of reasoning. While Piaget related each mode to a specific period

of childhood development, Bruner saw each mode as dominant during each developmental

phase, but present and accessible in the individual’s whole life, using whatever mode to

solve problems.

According to Bruner there are three ways to represent the knowledge

Bruner’s model of knowledge representation is a combination of enactive skills

(manipulating objects, spatial awareness), iconic skills (visual recognition, the ability to

compare and contrast) and symbolic skills (abstract reasoning).

Enactive representation (Piaget’s sensorimotor stage) “consists in the motor answers; the

ways to manipulate the environment, like to ride a bicycle tie a knot etc.” 28 In their very

early years, young children rely extensively upon enactive modes to learn. As a child

learns to roll over, sit up or walk, they are learning to do so through their own actions.

While this mode is present in people of all ages it is more dominant when a person is

young. An example of this dominance is the way a young person can often learn to play a

musical instrument more quickly than an older person.

27CONAFE. Op Cit., pp. 13 - 14.

28 CONAFE. Op Cit., pp. 15-16

Iconic representation (Piaget’s preoperational stage) is the mental images without

movement; children acquire the capacity to think about objects which are not present.

Normally becomes dominant during the next stage of childhood years. Child replaces the

action for an image or a spatial scheme.

Later usually around adolescence the symbolic representation (Piaget’s formal operation

stage) of learning becomes most dominant. Students can understand and work with

concepts that are abstract. “In this case the notable systems are the language and the

mathematical notations.”29 The individual expresses his experiences in linguistics terms,

thus, logics and abstracts.

Bruner proposes the convergence of the three steps to know something, for that reason

Bruner’s feelings were that “the curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that

students continually build upon what they already know.”30 In which the students

understand that the fundamental structure of a subject ascends to superior levels, but can

turn to topics already studied, to deepen about them and turn over to enlarge them.

It might look at it as a spiral. When students continuously reflect on their experiences, they

find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they develop increasingly strong

abilities to integrate new information. One of the teacher's main roles becomes to

encourage this learning and reflection process.

29 CONAFE. Idem. p.16. 30 Bruner, Jerome. Desarrollo Cognitivo. Ediciones Morata. España. pp. 2001-17.

“A constant theme in Bruner’s work is that education is a process of discovery.” 31

Discovery means to get by ourselves the knowledge. As a structural theorist, Bruner

believes that information or knowledge is most effectively gained by personal discovery,

and then classified inactively, iconically or symbolically. Bruner advocated that if students

were allowed to pursue concepts on their own they would gain a better understanding.

Within the education system, a teacher would then engage students in active dialogue and

guide them when necessary so that students would progressively build their own

knowledge base, rather than be taught. New information would be classified and

understood based on knowledge already gained.

Assumptions:

Bruner states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: “1)

Predisposition towards learning; 2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be

structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner; 3) the most effective

sequences in which to present material and; 4) the effort for learning.”32

Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new

propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

Principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student

willing and able to learn (readiness).

31 CONAFE, Op Cit., 17. 32Arancibia, Violeta. en: Psicología de la Educación. Ed. Alfaomega. México. 1999. p. 80.

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral

organization). 33

2.3.3. David Paul Ausubel and the Meaningful learning theory

David Ausubel is a cognitive psychologist who studied learning theory. Ausubel is credited

with the learning theory of Advanced Organizers and the Meaningful Learning.

The Advanced Organizers theory is easily applicable to second language acquisition, but

transcends a singular application, to application across educational domains.

Advanced Organizer involves the use of “introductory materials with a high level of

generality that introduces new material and facilitate learning by providing an “anchoring

idea” to which the new idea can be attached.”34 Cognitive theorists believe that it is

essential to relate new knowledge to existing information learned. Teachers can facilitate

learning by organizing information presented so that new concepts are easily relatable to

concepts already learned. Examples of devices that may be used include: pictures, titles of

stories, reviews of previously learned concepts, short video segments, a paradigm, a

grammar rule, etc.

An Advanced Organizer could be as simply a device or a mental learning aid to help

learners to get an idea on the new information. According to Ausubel, the advanced

33CONAFE. Ídem., p. 16 34 González, Eugenio. En: Psicologia de la Educación y de Desarrollo en la edad escolar. Ed. CCS. España. p.

668.

organizer is a means of preparing the learner’s cognitive structure for the learning

experience about to take place.

David Ausubel contrasted Meaningful Learning from rote learning. Ausubel believes that

meaningful learning is crucial for classroom instruction. He calls “Meaningful Learning to

the possibility to state substantive links and non arbitraries between what has to be learned

(new content) and what is already know, that is, what is in the cognitive structure of the

individual who learns ,That is to say, his or her prior knowledge.”35

Ausubel has made his emphasis on the active nature of reception learning. The distinction

between rote and meaningful learning is an important one, and too often educators fail to

make reception learning as meaningful as possible.

Meaningful Learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge is fully understood

by the individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored

facts (stored in brain). In the other hand, rote learning is where the student memorizes

something without full understanding and he does not know how the new information

relates to his other stored knowledge.

Ausubel highlighted the importance that has to determine what the students know to

connect new content and procedures to those which students are already familiar and have

meaning for them.

35 Solano Alpizar, José. Educación y aprendizaje. Impresora Obando. Costa Rica. 2002. p. 73.

If Ausubel had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, he would say

this: “The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already

knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly"36

2.3.4. Howard Gardner and the Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University's Graduate School

of Education, as well as Co-Director of Harvard Project Zero. He claims that all human

beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and

strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He defined the first seven intelligences in “Frames

of Mind” (1983), eventually, he had added another one. Now he believes each individual

has eight intelligences. These are:

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,

meanings and rhythms of words

2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence: ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and

capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns

3. Musical Intelligence: ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: ability to control one's body movements and to handle

objects skillfully.

36 Pérez Córdoba, Rafael Ángel. El constructivismo en los Espacios Educativos. Ed. Obando. Costa Rica.

2002. p. 27.

5. Visual-Spatial Intelligence: capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize

accurately and abstractly

6. Interpersonal Intelligence: capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,

motivations and desires of others.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,

values, beliefs and thinking processes

8. Naturalist Intelligence: ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other

objects in nature.37

Teachers have always known that their students have different strengths. In the language

teaching field, some of these differences among students have been attributed to students’

having different learning or cognitive styles. Teachers who recognize the multiple

intelligences of their students acknowledge that students bring with them specific and

unique strengths, which are often not taken into account in the classroom situations.

If it is accepted that different intelligences predominate in different people, it suggests that

the same learning task may not be appropriate for all our students. We cannot assume that

all children understand something in the same way. Further, children may need different

experiences to advance to different levels of understanding. For these reasons, Gardner’s

theory leads to the conclusion that each individual is different to another. Those differences

must be taken into consideration in the teaching- learning process to comprehend that the

37 Campbell, Linda. En: Inteligencias Múltiples - Usos Prácticos de Enseñanza Aprendizaje. Ed. Troquel.

Argentina. 2000. pp. 12- 13.

way students learn and organize the knowledge, has rhythms, styles and peculiar abilities. If

it were no so, the education fails.

“John Dewey the great pedagogue of the twentieth century advices that the education fails

pretending to standardize the capacity of thinking of the students or to plan the same

intellectual skill to resolve any problem, since each thematic require of specific ability of

different thought.”38

Critics to the multiple intelligences theory

Multiple intelligences theory is well-known acknowledged for its use for educational

purposes. However, there are people who point out some shortcomings.

Critics of multiple intelligence theory maintain that Gardner’s work isn’t groundbreaking

that what he calls “intelligences’ taxonomy” have little differences with regard to other list

that educators and cognitive psychologists have always acknowledged.39

Some critics wonder if the number of “intelligences” will continue to increase. Gardner

claims that “it would be impossible to guarantee a definitive list of intelligences. The most

important is to identify which are present in each student to strength them.” 40

38 Flores Ochoa, Rafael. Evaluación Pedagógica y Cognición, Ed, Mc Graw – Hill Interamericana, Colombia,

1999, 20. 39 Solano Alpizar, Op Cit., 89. 40 Ruiz Ayala, Nubia Consuelo. Desarrollo de potencialidades y Competencias. Ed. Prolibros. Colombia. p.

67.

These opposing theorists believe that “notions such as bodily-kinesthetic or musical ability

represent individual aptitude or talent rather than intelligence.” 41 Critics also believe that

this theory lacks the strictness and precision of a real science.

Multiple Intelligence theory states that one’s culture plays an important role in determining

the strengths and weaknesses of one’s intelligences. Critics counter that “intelligence is

revealed when an individual must confront an unfamiliar task in an unfamiliar

environment.”42

Widespread adoption of multiple intelligence pedagogy would make it difficult to compare

and classify students’ skills and abilities across classrooms.

Educators faced with large class groups and lack of resources sees multiple intelligence

theory as utopian.

2.4. What is Constructivism?

Constructivist epistemology is obviously difficult to label. Depending on what is reading, it

may get a somewhat different interpretation. Nonetheless, many writers, educators and

researchers appear to have come to an agreement about how this constructivist

epistemology should affect educational practice and learning. It is an important

consideration if is taken into account the large and increasing volume of literature and

41 Bladillo Gallego, Rómulo. Competencias Cognoscitivas. Ed. Magisterio. Colombia. 1999. pp. 70- 71. 42 Bladillo Gallego. Op Cit., p. 72

numerous discussions about this new theory of learning. The following constructivist

authors consider what constructivism means for learning.

According to Mario Carretero the Constructivism “Basically is the idea that maintain that

the individual in the cognitive and socials aspects of the behavior as well as in the effective

ones, is not merely a product of the environment nor a simple result of his internal

dispositions, but a proper construction which is generated day by day as result of the

interaction between those factors. Consequently, according to the constructivist position,

the knowledge is not a faithful copy of the reality, but a construction of the human being.

Which instruments do the people use to carry out those constructions? Essentially, with the

schemes that they already have, that is to say, what they already constructed in their

relation with the environment.”43

Hein maintains, “Constructivism is a philosophy that refers to the idea that learners

construct knowledge by themselves and each learner individually (and socially) constructs

meaning as he or she learns. In other words, students construct their knowledge based on

the existing schemata and beliefs.” (Hein, 1991) 44

According to the Ministry of Education (MINED) “Constructivism can be conceived as a

set of articulated principles from where it is possible to diagnose, establish judgments, and

take fundamental decisions about learning.45

43 Pérez Córdoba. Op Cit., p. 2. 44 WWW.MINED.gob.sv 45 MINED. Programas de Escuelas Modelos. El Salvador. 1998. p. 33.

It has become in the conceptual frame to comprehend the teaching – learning process and

make possible to solve many of the obstacles and difficulties that the teacher confronts in

the classroom everyday.

The adoption of the Constructivist Approach in the educational field lead to a vision of

learning vision as a process to great extent, of individual character, in which the students

construct their knowledge through personal experience.

“Constructivism Approach is not an original educative conception but the influence of

diverse educative approaches, and particularly, the cognitive learning theories.”46 Its

principles are the learning theories derived from childhood development psychology and

genetic psychology. The collateral results in the educative field are not direct derivations

from these theories, but emerge when starting from these it pretends to construct an

educative model. That is to say, “the Constructivist conception of the learning educative

processes is not a pure and simple transposition to the educative field or a catalogue of

principles taken out from a set of development and learning Constructivist theories.”47

The purpose of this approach is to analyze, to explain and comprehend the scholar teaching

learning process; for this it nurtures from the mentioned theories.

46 Díaz Suárez, Reinaldo. La Educación – Teorías Educativas – Estrategias de enseñanza – Aprendizaje. Ed.

Trillas México. 2002. p. 92. 47 Grupo Océano. Manual de la Educación. Ed. Océano España. ISBN: 84-494-1617-5. p. 918.

2.4.1. Types of Constructivism

It is considered that there exist three types of constructivism: “a) philosophical or

epistemological, that has inspired the empiric work of psychological type, and at the same

time, it has been restrained by this; b) the one which contains the conclusions derived from

evolutionary psychological researches or cognitive about the knowledge acquisition

(Psychological) and; c) the one of the implications of the mentioned researches to the

educative activity and the researches about the conditions in which are learned and taught

the new knowledge (Pedagogical).”48 In this framework, in the philosophical

constructivism it makes reference to the way the human being acquires knowledge, at the

same time the pedagogical constructivism raises that the real human learning is a

construction of each student who gets to modify his or her mental structure and reach a

most important level of diversity, complexity and integration.

Pedagogical Constructivism propitiates that the student thinks in an autonomous way and

understand significantly his or her world. The school must promote the student cognitive

development according to the needs and conditions of him. The teacher must structure

interesting and meaningfully experiences that support the mentioned development. “The

most important is not the learning of a topic but the development and guarantee of the

mental structures to know and to learn. It is a question of not to memorize topics but to get

involved in a dynamic process of knowledge and learning that develop the cognitive skills

48 FEPADE. Cuadernillos Técnicos #7. Ed. Algier´s Impresores. El Salvador. 1998. p. 12.

through discovery models and problem resolution. The education aim is to generate

comprehension, thought autonomy and consequently, creative human beings.”49

2.4.2. Constructivism in the classroom

According to the Constructivist position, scholar learning is an active process from the

student’s point of view, in which this constructs, modifies, enhances and diversifies his or

her knowledge schemes with regard to the different scholar contents, starting from the

meaning that this can attribute to those contents and to the proper fact of learning them.

This perspective of learning presents an alternative view of what is regarded as knowledge,

suggesting that there may be many ways of interpreting or understanding the world. “On

the other hand, teaching is a help to the learning process.”50 This help is necessary in the

construction of a Meaningful Learning.

In the classroom, the Constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of

different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging

students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more

knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their

understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students’

preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.

A Constructivist teacher and a constructivist classroom exhibit a number of discernable

qualities markedly different from a traditional or direct instruction classroom. A

49 Díaz, Suárez. Op Cit., p.16

50 Onrubia Javier. En: El Constructivism en el Aula. Ed. Grao. Bogotá. 1999. p.101.

constructivist teacher is able to flexibly and creatively incorporate ongoing experiences in

the classroom into the negotiation and construction of lessons with small groups and

individuals. The environment is democratic, the activities are interactive and student

centered, and the students are empowered by a teacher who operates as a facilitator or

consultant etc.

Constructivist classrooms are structured so that learners are immersed in experiences within

which they may engage in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination, invention,

interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection. Teachers need to recognize how people

use their own experiences, prior knowledge and perceptions, as well as their physical and

interpersonal environments to construct knowledge and meaning. The goal is to produce a

democratic classroom environment that provides meaningful learning experiences for

autonomous learners.

The democratic and interactive process of a Constructivist classroom allows students to be

active and autonomous learners. Using Constructivist strategies, teachers are more

effective. They are able to promote communication and create flexibility so that the needs

of all students can be met. The learning relationship in a Constructivist classroom is

mutually beneficial to both students and teachers.

2.4.3 The constructivist teacher

Teachers are individuals who are often drawn into teaching by a love for kids.

Constructivist teachers develop skills and abilities to empower students and to make them

feel competent and significant.

To be a Constructivist teacher requires intelligence, creativity, patience, responsiveness,

and the ability to live with ambiguity permitting one to spontaneously abandon a plan in

order to accommodate specific individual or classroom situations. And while the job of

being a Constructivist teacher is demanding, its value is evident in the impact on students’

learning and personal development.

2.4.4. The Constructivist teacher’s role

The role of the teacher in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of information

giver to that of facilitator, guide, and learner. As a facilitator, the teacher provides the rich

environment and learning experiences needed for collaborative study. The teacher is also

required to act as a guide a role that incorporates mediation, modeling, and coaching. Often

the teacher also is a co-learner and co-investigator with the students.

The role of the teacher spins to a more collaborative position. She or he acts as facilitator –

providing resources and reacting to the demands made by the tasks and the students.

Without doubt, understanding the role of the teacher in the Constructivist classroom

provides a useful advantage point from which to grasp how the theory impacts on practice.

All of these psychologists, who had major influences on the theory of Constructivism, point

out that the teacher is a very vital part of the theory. A constructivist teacher sets up

problems and monitors students’ exploration, guides the direction of student inquiry and

promotes new patterns of thinking. It is up to the teacher to facilitate the Constructivist

learning process. The structure of the learning environment should promote opportunities

and events that encourage and support the process of understanding. Classes can take

unexpected turns as students are given the autonomy to direct their own explorations. From

this point of view a constructivist teacher elaborates a guide for the class but is the rhythm

of this which would determine its end. It is through negotiation that decisions are made

throughout the unit development.

2.4.5. Student’s role

One important student role is that of explorer. Interaction with the physical world and with

other people allows students to discover concepts and apply skills. Students are then

encouraged to reflect upon their discoveries, which is essential for the student as a

cognitive apprentice. Apprenticeship takes place when students observe and apply the

thinking processes used by practitioners. Students also become teachers themselves by

integrating what they’ve learned. Hence, they become producers of knowledge, capable of

making significant contributions to the world’s knowledge. In this process, it is expected

that the students interact with the classmates more than with the teacher. They must

constantly be listening, observing and performing the teacher’s methodological

suggestions. They should be active performers of their own learning, following the

Constructivist philosophy, which is founded on the premise that, by reflecting on their own

experiences, they construct their own understanding of the world they live in.

The core of a Constructivist teaching – learning process is that participation is vital in the

construction of new knowledge. And must be propitiated by open questions and the effort

to use the oral expression, promoting the dialogue and the group work, it must be

considered the student’s opinion and regard as the student socialization process sharing,

listening and dialoguing.

2.5. CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY

“The attention to the diversity is the didactic principle per excellence of the Constructivism,

since make allusion that the learners construct their learning according to their own

rhythm.”51 In this sense, “the Constructivist conception does not impose a specific

methodology; its essence is opposing to homogenizer approaches of the teaching, since, it

starts from the diversity principle, its spirit is contrary to proposals in which the learner

reacts rather than acts, goes after than constructs. For the same reason, to this idea fits all

those methodologies based on the group activity of the students and the teacher, this found

its fundament in the Proximal Development Zone.”52

There is no one single teaching methodology that is called “Constructivist” For example,

constructivist teaching is not limited to discovery learning nor does it necessarily imply that

lecturing cannot be part of constructivist teaching. It only implies the need to diagnose what

is already in the student’s mind (usually used to initiate instruction) and that the focus is on

student learning rather than teacher teaching.

2.5.1. Aims of a Constructivist Methodology

Times before, the methodology was characterized by memorization and repetition, since

students were considered as recipient of knowledge which had to be filled. Now, in the new

trends in education students and teachers count on a Constructivist Approach from where is

51 Joao, Oscar Picardo. Educación y Realidad - Introducción a la filosofía del aprendizaje. Ed. Obando. Costa

Rica. 2002. p. 98. 52 Zabala, Antoni. en: Constructivismo en el aula. Ed. Grao. Colombia. 1999. p. 151.

possible to choose what will enhance the students development, through a Constructivist

Methodology whose aim is “to form individual discoverers and constructors of knowledge,

attitudes and values; to form individuals who think, who reflect, who learn to learn, to be

and to live together, to get that the learners break with the safety that gives the dependence,

to live freely the discovery experience every day and every moment, that they can fly by

themselves; to respond to the school which is intended in our time, where the children

neither make the same, nor learn the same, where is talking about the culture diversity,

about integration of the diverse; to humanize the pedagogy being human educators,

dialoguers, and tolerant.”53

The Constructivist Methodology helps to construct the knowledge with emphasis in the

present and the future; reaching long-term and short- term goals like to develop the capacity

to learn to learn and to think, to get it, it is necessary specialized and trained teachers on the

constructivist practice according to the subject to be taught.

2.6. Didactic Constructivist principles in teaching English Language

The Constructivist principles are to be applied in general way to any subject. Nonetheless,

in the English Language Teaching from a Constructivist view it is necessary to take into

consideration the following principles:

53 Fernández Santos, Agustín. en: I Congreso pedagógico ALFA: Creando nuevas formas de Enseñar y

Aprender. Ed. Montañas de Fuego. El Salvador .2002. p. 69.

a) Attention to the diversity

It involves the personal multiplicity and cultural of the students, as well as the interests

variety and needs. Also must take into consideration to the teacher’s personal and

professional diversity and to the curricular conditionings and institutional of the teaching.

b) Verbal interaction

The classes have to support the verbal interaction between teacher and learners and among

students. These interactions make the dual function of construct the didactic process and are

used as practice of linguistics activities, which will be carried out outside the classroom.

c) Coherent and integral activities

The class communication must allow incorporating all the activities in coherent action with

the teaching and learning process, and enhance the directions of these activities shared by

teacher and students.

d) Cooperation and participation

The learners’ cooperation and participation is essential to learn to communicate in oral and

written way in English. An excessive competitive environment or one that do not foster the

self-assurance among the students and restrains their participation, which will diminish, at

the same time the opportunities to express themselves orally.

e) Practice and error

To take the risk to get wrong is necessary so the learner could experiment with the English

Language. Thus, it is appropriate encouraging learner to overcome their linguistic capacity

level, without fear to be criticized or censured.

Considering that learning is a process of constructing meaningful representations, of

making sense of one’s experiential world. In this process, students’ errors are seen in a

positive light and as a means of gaining insight into how they are organizing their

experiential world.

f) Use of the mother tongue

The student’s mother tongue in the class must be considered as a positive element upon it is

constructed the communicative competence in English.

g) Linguistic contents

The linguistic contents of the communicative teaching of the English Language must

involve 1) oral interaction among the speakers. 2) the expression and oral comprehension of

more extensive discourse rather than the short interchange. 3) the capacity to express

written way 4) the transactional and literary written comprehension text.

h) Learning program

The program or syllabus must be wide enough to ease that the students to get to know with

the cultural aspects necessary to understand English; that is to say, it must start from the

knowledge that the native speakers share, which are referents to give sense to many

habitual expression used.

i) Elements of integration of the mother culture

The learning program must include the necessary linguistic elements in such a way that the

English Learner can explain components of his or her culture to English native speaker.

j) Elements of integration of the culture in which is learned

The task and activities must allow comprehending the different ways to understand the

reality and the lived experience and reflect about them.

k) Grammatical competence

The attention to the English forms must be the objective of some task in the classroom.

This practice, professionally well established, it has not been abolished for any scientific

research. However, it is appropriate to value the available information about methods,

factors and stages of the grammatical acquisition.

l) Use of the text

The social dimension of the meaning of the English Language requires that the fragment

contributions must not be presented in isolated, but connected in a text as a part of a

performance based in linguistic uses. That is to say, the text should be organized taking into

account the prior contents to connect them with the new ones.

m) Variety and gradation of the difficulty of text

It is required to use variety authentic texts. The difficulty of these will be marked for the

linguistic level required by the learner and, by the nature of the task to get with them.

n) Projects and tasks

To respond to the discursive dimension, the program must be related to performances

(Projects or task) which in occasions can have as objective the attention to the English

Language, but most of the cases will be essays based in real situations that will be

experimented outside the classroom. In these activities English must be an important

component.

What the student learned in the classroom must transcend to students real life.

Constructivist learning is transferable. In Constructivist classrooms, students create

organizing principles that they can take to other learning settings.

o) Attention to the unpredictable phase of the language

The discursive dimension of the English Language involves something unpredictable that

the teachers as well as the students must count on. The class activities have to help the

students to face the unpredictable phase of the communication through unfilled

information; real or fictitious of an opposed interest as usually are made in simulations;

open answers to questions in writing; readings with linguistic difficulty levels and varied

thematic; and writing demand in the English Language, without the topics neither the

linguistic complexity have been a systematic studied object.

Teacher must be careful about the topic selections to be presented to the learners, because if

they are not according to the student’s interests and needs, learning would fail.

p) Use of generated dialogue

It is essential that the English teachers regard the generated discussion in the classroom

among students and the teacher, not just as a significant input, but a coherent performance

that the teaching has as main goal. The dialogue allows integrating the discursive

contributions useful as a guide to modify the pedagogic interventions, which almost always

must consider several of the four linguistic skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).

Social discourse helps students to change or reinforce their ideas. If they have the chance to

present what they think and listen of others’ ideas, students can construct a personal

knowledge based on what they understand. Only when they feel comfortable enough to

express their ideas will meaningful classroom dialogue occur.

q) The observation and mediation

The teacher should act determining the classroom activities, pointing leading their

development, explaining what is essential to carry them out, supporting the students’ efforts

to communicate orally or in writing in English, taking into account the learners’

suggestions and encouraging their initiatives development.

Finally, the teacher must be patient, supervise the work group, what the students do and act

as an observer of his or her class and not to impede learning through his or her teaching.

r) Attention to the students’ personality

In the interaction and in the developed activities in the classroom it must be taken into

account the following: 1) students’ feelings and emotions 2) the curiosity and enthusiasm

about the same. 3) Their development stage. 4) Their self-esteem and personal outstanding

characteristics.

s) Development of the autonomy

Student autonomy is accepted and encouraged. By respecting students’ ideas and

encouraging independent thinking, teachers help students attain their own intellectual

identity. Students who frame questions and issues and then go about analyzing and

answering them take responsibility for their own learning and become problem solvers.

A central objective of the English teaching must be to develop the learning autonomy. To

achieve it are necessary all the work activities go depending on: 1) encourage the reflection

about the English Language; 2) encourage students to make decisions and autonomous

development of learning activities; 3) use the Lexicographic, bibliographic and basic

computational resources; 4) develop the learning cognitive, metacognitive and social

strategies.

The school should determine the resources that support the autonomy in learning; the

efficient library availability; the easy access to centres of resources for learning (in Spanish

CRA) and to compensate the short time of the English practice. This is a way to pay

attention to the expectative diversity, needs and students learning styles.

t) Continual evaluation

The evaluation must take part of the teaching learning process and its application in a

continual way. It will take into account the levels reached as well as the process carried out

for that, and developing the autoevaluation capacity and the posterior decision making. 54

The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of

constructivist learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by

54 Grupo Océano. Op Cit., pp.552- 555.

the previous section on constructivist theory. These are not presented in a hierarchical

order.

2.7. Characteristics of the Pedagogical Constructivism:

Emphasizes learning and not teaching

Encourages and accepts learner’s autonomy and initiative

Sees learners as individual of will and purpose

Considers learning as a systematic process

Encourages learner inquiry

Nurtures learners natural curiosity

Takes the learner's mental model into account

Emphasizes performance and understanding when assessing learning

Makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, classify, create and

analyze.

Considers how the student learns

Encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the teacher

supports co-operative learning

Involves learners in real world situations

Emphasizes the context in which learning takes place

Considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner

Inquires about students understandings of concepts before sharing their own

understandings

Encourage learners to investigate outside and inside the classroom.

Allows the teacher to attend the students’ diversity

Support the verbal interaction

Let the students express themselves orally

Encourage the students to overcome their linguistic level

Allows considering the mother tongue as positive element to construct

knowledge of the English language.

Allows the students to express by themselves in writing.

Allows facing the unpredictable phase of the language.

Foster to generate discussion among the students and teacher

Encourages the reflection about the English Language.

Encourages students to make decisions and autonomous development of learning

activities.

Correct answers and errors are considered as worth steps to get the knowledge.

2.8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

METHODOLOGY

This research aimed to find out the reaches and limitations of the constructivist

methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education in the programs of Junior High. For

that reason, it was necessary to select a public school as a sample of the Salvadorean

National Educational System. In this case, it was decided to work at “Complejo Educativo

Sotero Laínez” in Sensuntepeque, Cabañas because two of the researchers live there, and

have the access to that school and also know the neighborhood.

2.8.1. Population Sample

At the school was taken the Junior High level. The number of total students was about 273

in the afternoon and morning shifts. The students who participated in the project were 95

distributed in this way: in seventh grade section “c” 35 students; in eighth grade section “b”

37 students; in ninth grade section “d” 23 students.

The project spanned two weeks from August 14 to August 30, 2006.

2.8.2. Methods, Techniques, Instrument and Procedures

Methods

The methods used for this study were the experimental and scientific, as significant

elements to analyze an object from the reality, its present and future relation with the social

changes especially in the educative field; moreover, was used the inductive and deductive

method to get to conclusions after the gathering information process and develop the data

analysis and tabulating procedure.

Techniques

To carry out this research two techniques were put into practice documentary and work

field. The first one consisted on a survey about the principal contribution from the

constructivist theories to the Educative field and its entrance as an Educative philosophy in

the Salvadorean territory. This information made possible to get reliable criteria to develop

the different stages of the study. The second one was the direct observation in which the

researchers observed three grades of Junior High (7° “C”, 8° “B” and 9° “D”) since they

were the research sample.

Instruments

The instruments used to develop this study were two checklists, a thirty questions checklist

for the observation of the teacher’s role, sixteen questions checklists for the students’ role.

Both checklist have four choices to answer, these were always, sometimes, rarely and not

visible. Also was held an oral interview with the teacher to get information about the use of

the English programs in the teaching - learning process. It was also designed a seven

question questionnaire for the students with three choices to answer, they were mucho,

poco, and nada this was to get an idea how they felt about their preferences for the English

subject, usefulness, as well as the class methodology. It is necessary to mention that this

instrument was structured and administered in Spanish to guarantee the truthfulness of the

information. Moreover, a chart with the methods and their respective techniques was

elaborated to observe which were used by the teacher, since in the methodological

suggestions of the English programs for Junior High can be developed most of them (See

attachments).

Procedure

At the beginning, information about the problem at a literary level was gotten for which

different libraries were visited by the researchers also bibliographical cards were

elaborated. The school selected was visited to talk with the principal and the English

teachers. They were asked for their permission to develop the project. Simultaneously to let

them know its purpose. At the same time were being analyzed the methodological

suggestions proposed in the English Programs of Junior High considering the Constructivist

characteristics and principles. At the same time, were determined achievements and

limitations within the programs (7°, 8°, and 9° grades).

Since the aim of this work has been to highlight if the integration of constructivist

characteristics into the practice of teaching and learning of the English language. The work

began with the analysis of the English programs for Junior High and through the

bibliographic and literary gathering about the theories related to the topic, was possible to

get reliable criteria to the whole editing and the field development. Through this

information and analysis, a summary of characteristics of constructivist learning and

teaching emerged. The summary of characteristics was used to compile a constructivist

checklist. The checklist was then used to observe the way in which Constructivist

Methodology proposed in the English programs for Junior High is accommodated in

educational practice at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez”.

In the observation process the researchers observed the English class from the beginning to

the end every day during two weeks. This allows realizing about the process that the

teacher developed during the class in progress.

2.9 THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION ABOUT THE

RESEARCH

2.9.1. The current English programs for Junior High

The English programs for Junior High are the core of this research. For that reason was

necessary to analyze them to determine reaches and limitations of the methodological

suggestions proposed by the Ministry of Education (MINED) then to contrast them with the

real practice at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez”.

The following charts present the analysis of the English Program for seventh grade. The

analysis for eighth and ninth grade can be appreciated in the CD room annexed to this

work.

2.9.2. PROGRAM ANALYSIS

SEVENTH GRADE PROGRAM

UNIT ONE: GETTING TO KNOW THE WORLD

CONTENTS METHODOLOGICAL SUGGESTIONS BY MINED

The following methodological suggestions have been

taken literally from the English study program for 7th

grade to avoid misunderstandings of any loose

translation.

METHODS CONSTRUCTIVIST

METHODOLOGY

1. From San Vicente

to San Salvador

Texto sugerido

Hi! My name is Julián, I’m from San Vicente. I’m a

mechanic. I have a friend in San Salvador. His name is

Manuel. He is a teacher. Manuel has a big family. I

have three brothers and one sister. My brothers are

high school students and my sister is a secretary.

1. Comenzar presentando un mapa del mundo para

situar a Julián en el Salvador. La idea es que Julián se

presente a los ciudadanos del mundo desde San Vicente.

Communicative

Language Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It emphasizes the context in

which learning takes place

--The use of an introductory

material (the text) helps to

provide an anchoring idea to which the new idea can be

attached.

-- A text based on the students’

real environment. Its content can be transferred to real situations.

Vocabulary:

• some members of

the family

• Some

occupations

2. Preguntar si los estudiantes conocen otro idioma que

se hable en el mundo. Señalar en el mapa los países

donde se hable los idiomas que van mencionando.

Content – based

approach

Principle: language is

learned most effectively

when it is used as a

means to convey

informational content of

interest to the students.

-- It considers students’ previous

knowledge

-- It encourages students to use

previous knowledge.

Functions:

• Identifying

giving personal

information

3. Iniciar con la audición de la grabación, preguntando a los

alumnos si reconocen algunas palabras y que creen qué está

diciendo Julián.

Community Language

Learning

(Tape recording students

conversation)

Note: it is supposed that in

this technique the students

must produce what they are

going to listen to. However, it is considered that in this

level students do not have

that ability developed, and

instead can be used a

dialogue or reading

performed by the teacher or

the one that he or she

considers to be used.

-- It lets inquire on students’ previous

knowledge.

--It encourages students to use

previous knowledge of the language.

-- It promotes students’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes students’ autonomy.

-- It lets consider errors and correct

answers as necessary steps in the

knowledge acquisition.

Grammar:

• To have in

affirmative

• To be in

affirmative

4. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar la

grabación. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio.

Community Language

Learning

(Reflective listening)

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

5. Realiza el siguiente ejercicio de lectura comprensiva. El

estudiante deberá llenar los espacios en los círculos con la

información adecuada del texto.

Occupation

_______ ________ ________

Occupation

The Grammar Translation

Method

-- It can develop learner’s autonomy

and promote kills of self reliance.

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

______________

friend

Family Julian ______________

Occupation

_______________

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It could be used to help the

students to face the unpredictable

phase of the language.

6. A partir de este ejercicio, ampliar el vocabulario con los

miembros de la familia más cercana y algunas ocupaciones y

profesiones más comunes en su comunidad.

Content – based instruction

approach

Principle: when they work

with authentic subject

matter, students need

language support.

-- Adding vocabulary or new

information ease the construction of

previous knowledge.

-- It demonstrates the teacher – led

introduction of new language to

enable students to work things out for

themselves with teacher’s help.

7. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con la forma

afirmativa de los verbos Be y Have. Se debe dar tiempo al

estudiante para que asimile los conceptos que se presentan en

los cuadros. Luego se realizarán los siguientes ejercicios:

Se deduce la forma que debe usar, de entre las siguientes: ‘re,

‘s,’m, it, we, you. Después de terminar el ejercicio, el

estudiante deberá escribir las frases en su cuaderno.

I _________ from San Vicente.

______ ‘re from El Salvador.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool

that teachers can use to ease learning

by organizing information presented so that the new concepts can be

easily related with concepts already

learned.

-- Offering a variety of exercises when studying language is a way to

consider the students’ multiple

intelligences.

-- It Promotes the construction of

previous knowledge.

______ ‘s a mechanic.

She _________ a secretary.

It ‘s a big family.

______ ‘re from El Salvador.

You ‘re students.

______ ‘re students.

En este ejercicio, además de escribir el pronombre personal, el

estudiante deducirá la forma verbal correspondiente para he,

she, it. Completar con frases originales. Después de terminar el

ejercicio, el estudiante deberá escribir las oraciones en su

cuaderno.

I __________

____ have a big family

___ __________

They __________

---------------------------------------------------------------------

He three friends

Grammar Translation

Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It encourages students to work by

themselves on how language forms

are constructed.

-- It encourages students’ autonomy.

-- It helps the students to face the

unpredictable phase of the language.

-- It lets students reflect on their own

learning.

____ ? _________

____ _________

8. Hacer también un ejercicio de personalización con el objeto

de internalizar el aprendizaje. Puede usar este texto:

My name is________________________. I’m a

_______________.

___________ from ________________.

I____________________a sister. We___________students.

My sister is a_______________ and my mother __________ a

secretary.

Grammar Translation

Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It lets construct new knowledge on

students´ previous one.

-- It stimulates students to learn from

real situations.

--It stimulates a real encounter.

2. Where are you from?

Diálogo sugerido

Marcia: What´s your name?

Juan: Juan

Marcia: Hi! Juan. My name is Marcia. I’m from Honduras, where

are you from?

Juan: Morazan

Marcia: Are you a student?

Juan: No, I’m a carpenter. Are you a student?

Marcia: yes, I’m a language student.

1. Iniciar con la audición del diálogo, pidiendo que identifiquen de

donde es cada personaje y cuál es su ocupación.

Community Language

Learning.

(Tape recorded

student conversation)

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place

-- It constructs the new knowledge

on student’s´ previous one.

--It lets students inquire on previous

knowledge and also constructs new

ones about the English language.

-- It inquires on student’s previous

knowledge.

-- It constructs previous knowledge

of the language-

Vocabulary:

• some

nationalities

• some

occupations

2. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar la

grabación. Los estudiantes siguen en silencio.

Community Language

Learning

(Reflective listening)

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

Functions:

• asking and

giving personal

information

3. Hacer un ejercicio de repetición en coro después de escuchar cada frase, con el objeto de que imiten la pronunciación.

Audio- lingual

method:

(Repetition drill)

-- It considers the way students learn.

--It lets students inquire on previous

knowledge and also constructs new

ones about the English language.

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

Grammar:

• “to be” in

affirmative and

interrogative

form

4. Realizar el siguiente ejercicio de lectura comprensiva utilizando

estas preguntas:

What’s his name?

________________________________________________

What’s her name?

_______________________________________________

Where’s Francisco from?

_______________________________________________

Where’s Marcia from?

_______________________________________________

What’s Francisco?

_______________________________________________

What’s Marcia?

______________________________________________

The Grammar

Translation Method.

(Comprehension

questions)

-- It encourages students to use

previous knowledge.

-- It encourages student to

understand meaning and use of the

language.

-- It constructs on student’s previous

knowledge.

5. Presentar el cuadro de la gramática con la forma interrogativa del

verbo be. Dar tiempo para que el estudiante la internalice.

Questions

Singular am I

Are you a doctor?

Is he/she/it

The Grammar

Translation Method.

(Deductive application

of the rule)

-- Grammar rule is used as a tool in

the construction of new knowledge

based on the prior ones.

-- It promotes students’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes students’ initiative.

-- It encourages students to

understand new language form.

Plural are we

Are you from El Salvador?

Are they

6. Presentar oraciones divididas en segmentos, para que los

estudiantes las ordenen correctamente.

?teacher a he is from she Guatemala ? is

Park in you the? are she sister is ¿ your

Parents are they? your from where you? are

Communicative

Language Learning.

(Scrambled sentences)

-- Offering a variety of exercises

when studying language is a way to

consider the students´ different

multiple intelligences.

-- It Emphasizes students’ underlying

knowledge.

-- It encourages students to

understand meaning and use.

7. Tomar uno o varios personajes conocidos por los estudiantes,

como Thalía por ejemplo, para que al final adivinen de quién se

trata.

__________ __________ a girl? Yes, she is.

__________ __________Brazil? No, she isn’t

__________ __________ __________Mexico? Yes, she is.

_________ __________ a writer? No, she isn’t.

_________ __________ a singer? Yes, she is.

_________ __________ name ___________? Yes, she is.

The Grammar

Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It shows teacher-led introduction

to enable students to work things out

by themselves with the teacher’s

help.

-- It emphasizes students’ initiative.

-- It can develop students’ autonomy.

8. El ejercicio anterior puede hacerse en forma oral también. Un

estudiante pasa al frente de la clase pensando en un personaje

conocido para que toda la clase haga preguntas. Se puede también

dividir la clase en dos grupos, para ver quién adivina primero el

nombre del personaje.

Desuggestopedia

(Choose a new

-- It emphasizes individual learning

as well as cooperative learning.

-- Verbalization is a means of

internalizing and represent what has

identity) been already learned.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It helps students face the

unpredictable phase of the language. 3. Our neighbor

Texto sugerido

A village family

Pedro and his family are from a village in the mountains of

Guatemala. He has a brother and a sister. Their names are Tomas

and Metzi. Tomas is 12 years old and Metzi is 14. Their father is a

farmer, his name is José, and their mother is a rural farmworker.

her name is Xela. The family isn’t rich and they have a small house

in the village. They have some animals: Pedro has 10 chicks and

Tomas has a horse and a cow. They attend classes in the morning.

They are in the field in the afternoon.

1. Iniciar con la audición del texto, pidiendo que identifiquen

nombres, ocupaciones y miembros de la familia.

Communicative

Language Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It considers the student’s social

context.

-- It promotes the construction of

new knowledge of the language

based on previous ones as students

approach to comprehension.

-- It encourages the students to use

prior knowledge.

-- It constructs on students’ previous

knowledge

Vocabulary:

• members of the

family

• some adjectives

• occupations

2. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar el cassette.

Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio.

Community Language

Learning

(Reflective listening)

-- It helps students get new elements

to understand the language.

Functions:

• asking and

giving personal

information

3. Leer en voz alta, profesor y estudiantes, imitando la

pronunciación de la grabación.

The Audio - Lingual

Method

(Repetition drill)

-- It helps to construct new

knowledge on the basis of the

previous ones.

Grammar:

• possessive

adjectives

• “ To have” in affirmative

• “to be” in

affirmative,

negative and

interrogative

4. Hacer un ejercicio de selección múltiple, según el texto,

subrayando la oración adecuada.

Pedro is 13. a. this family has a small house.

b. Pedro isn’t rich b. Their house is in the city

c. Pedro is a teacher c. Pedro has a horse

a. the children attend classes in the afternoon.

b. The children are in the field in the afternoon.

c. Pedro has two brothers.

a. Pedro and his family are from El Salvador.

b. Tomas is 14 and his sister is12.

c .Tomas has a horse and a cow.

a. Pedro is a mechanic

b. His father is a rural farm worker.

c. His mother is a. teacher.

(Antonyms/synonyms)

Note: other exercises

that ask students to

work with the vocabulary of the

passage are also

possible.

The Grammar

Translation Method

(Reading

comprehension questions)

-- Offering a variety of exercises

when studying language is a way to

consider the students’ multiple

intelligences.

-- It helps the students to face the

unpredictable phase of the language.

--Correct answer and errors can be

considered as worth steps in the

knowledge acquisition.

-- It explores students’ strengths and

weaknesses in learning.

5. En este ejercicio, completar las preguntas así como las respuestas -- Correct answers and errors can be

considered as worth steps in the

con la ayuda del texto.

Where ____ ____ from? They are from Guatemala

How old ____ Metzi? She is __________

What´s ____ father? He´s a ___________

Where are _____ in the afternoon?

They’re in ___________________

Grammar Translation

Method

(Fill in the blanks)

knowledge acquisition.

--It helps students to understand

something, rather than challenging

them to give right answers.

-- It helps students rather than

frighten them.

6. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con la forma negativa del

verbo auxiliar “to be” y los adjetivos posesivos. Dar tiempo para

que el estudiante se familiarice con los contenidos que se presentan en los cuadros.

Grammar Translation

Method

Deductive application

of the rule)

-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool to

construct previous knowledge.

7. Luego que el estudiante ha internalizado los conceptos, hacer los

siguientes ejercicios:

De acuerdo con su información personal, el estudiante deberá llenar

los espacios en blanco.

My name ______Otto. My name is ____________

I ______ 10 years old. I’m _______. My father

______an astronaut. He ___ __________________.

My mother ______ a movie star. She _____ ____________.

My teacher’s ________ from Mexico. They ______ _________ El

Salvador. We ____ from Canada. We _______

from _______________________.

Grammar Translation

Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- Offering a variety of exercises

when studying language is a way to

consider the students’ multiple

intelligences.

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- Correct answers and errors can be

considered as worth steps in the

knowledge acquisition.

Que los estudiantes completen estas oraciones.

- ____________name’s Kate. - Name’s Steve.

- It’s ________________birthday today - Kate is _________

girlfriend.

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

8. En esta etapa, hacer un ejercicio de la siguiente manera: cada

estudiante deberá describir en su cuaderno a un compañero y una

compañera. Si la escuela es mixta, que describa amigos o parientes.

Luego que lean su descripción a toda la clase. Deberán usar los

adjetivos posesivos.

Grammar Translation

Method

(Composition)

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes cooperative

learning.

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

4.Friends from abroad Texto sugerido

April 16, 1998

Dear Marielos,

My name is Ali. I’m 14 and I’m from Morocco. I have black hair,

brow eyes and dark skin. I’m tall and strong: I’m a student in 7th

grade. My school isn’t very big. My favorite singers are Madonna

and John Secada. They‘re great! My favorite color is blue and my

favorite animals are cats. I have two cats; their names are Abu and

Toufik. They eyes are big and green.

What are you favorite things?

Love, Ali

1. Iniciar con la audición del texto, solicitando que los estudiantes

identifiquen el mayor número de palabras.

Communicative

Language Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It constructs on students’ previous

knowledge.

-- It takes into account the students’

social context.

-- It grounds learning activities in an

authentic, real-world context.

--It Considers the students´ interests.

-- It constructs new knowledge on

the basis of previous ones.

Vocabulary:

• some parts of the

body

• adjectives of quality

• names

2. Escuchar el texto una segunda vez e, inmediatamente,

hacer preguntas como: What color is his hair?, Who is his

favorite singer? etc.

Grammar translation method

(Reading comprehension

questions)

-- It considers students´ learning

styles.

Functions:

• describing people • expressing

preferences

3. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a escuchar la

grabación. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio.

Preguntar donde está Marruecos y que idioma hablan allí.

Communicative Language

Learning

( Reflective listening)

-- It inquires on students´

previous knowledge.

-- It constructs on students’

previous knowledge.

-- It explores students’ strengths and weaknesses in learning.

4. Pedir a los estudiantes que elaboren una ficha con el

perfil (datos)de Alí , su persona y de uno de sus

compañeros, de la siguiente manera:

Nota: Recordar que al escribir inglés, se coloca primero el mes, luego el día en números seguido de coma y por

último, el año.

Profile

Name: Alí

Country: __________________________________

Age:______________________________________

Favorite singers:___________________________

Grammar translation method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It emphasizes cooperative

learning as well as individual.

-- It considers the way he student

learns.

-- It demonstrates the teacher-

led introduction of new language

to enable students to work things

out for themselves with teacher’s

help.

Favorite color:_____________________________

Favorite animals:__________________________

Grammar:

• adjectives of quality

5. Aprovechando la información que cada estudiante ha

dado acerca de sí mismo, reunir por grupos aquellos que

tienen preferencias por determinado color. Pedir que los

estudiantes digan oraciones tales como:

“Our favorite color is_________”. “Our favorite animal

is______” y

Our favorite singer is _______”. Los estudiantes también

pueden escribir oraciones en sus cuadernos.

Community Language

Learning

(Small task group)

--It emphasizes on cooperative

learning.

-- It promotes learners’

independence.

-- It constructs on students’

previous knowledge.

6. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con el uso de los

adjetivos. Dar tiempo para que el estudiante se familiarice

con los contenidos que se presentan.

Adjectives

- We use adjectives to describe people and things.

Here are some examples: old, small, big, rich, dark.

Look at the sentences

Ali has black hair This singer is great

He’s tall My horse is small

- the form of adjectives:

A rich man a great singer a small

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Deductive application of the

rule)

-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool

that teachers can use to ease

learning by organizing information presented so that the

new concepts can be easily

related with concepts already

learned.

-- It Promotes the construction of

previous knowledge.

-- It encourages students to

understand new language forms.

-- It explores students’ strengths

house

- an adjective comes before a noun:

Adjective + noun

I have a beautiful cat

-An adjective comes after the verb “to be”

To be + adjective

They are strong

and weaknesses in learning.

7. Después de internalizar los contenidos de los cuadros,

pedir a los estudiantes que subrayen todos los adjetivos que

están en el texto.

Grammar Translation Method

(Antonyms/synonyms)

Note: other exercises that ask

students to work with the

vocabulary of the passage are

also possible.

-- Offering a variety of exercises

when studying language is a way

to consider the students’ multiple

intelligences.

-- It encourages learner to use

what has learned.

8. Presentar oraciones divididas en preguntas para que los

estudiantes las ordenen correctamente.

Strong are students the José Luis Perales great is

singer a

Has hair my sister black House the small are

Eyes have blue I teachers my nice are.

The Communicative

Language Teaching.

(Scrambled sentences)

-- It considers the student’s

variety of learning styles.

-- It can develop students’

autonomy.

5. Citizens of the world

Diálogo sugerido: (se supone que están mirando fotos)

Paco: Look, Mónica, who’s this?

Mónica: This is Bono, he’s a singer. He’s fantastic and

he’s from Ireland.

Paco: And who’s she?

Mónica: Oh, that’s the famous tennis player

Paco: where is she from?

Mónica: She’s Spanish, her name’s Arantxa Sánchez.

Look, this is an excellent soccer player. What’s name?

Paco: He´s Patrick Kluivert, he’s from Great Britain.

Mónica: well, what about this?

Paco: This is Gabriel Garcia Márquez. He´s Colombian

and he ´s a famous writer.

Mónica: and look at Tom Hanks. He’s a terrific actor.

Paco: I agree!!

1. Iniciar con la audición del diálogo, pidiendo que

identifiquen adjetivos, nacionalidades y profesiones.

Communicative Language Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

-- It constructs on student’s previous

knowledge.

-- It encourages students’ to use

previous knowledge.

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It demonstrates the teacher – led

introduction of new language to enable students to work things out for

themselves with teacher’s help.

Vocabulary:

• countries and

nationalities

• occupations

2. Entregar el texto a los estudiantes y volver a

escucharlo. Los estudiantes siguen el texto en silencio. Community Language Learning

(Reflective listening)

-- It encourage learners to reflect on

the language it self.

Functions:

asking and giving

personal information

3. Hacer un ejercicio de repetición (en coro) después de

escuchar cada frase, con el objeto que imiten la

pronunciación.

The Audio-Lingual Method

(Repetition drill)

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

-- It helps students to get new

elements to understand the language.

Grammar:

• adjectives of

quality

• verb to be: wh-

questions

this, that, these, those

4. Hacer un ejercicio escrito de lectura comprensiva,

utilizando la información del diálogo.

Where’s Bono from? _____________________

Where’s Arantxa Sánchez from? She’s from__________

Is Patrick Kluivert from Spain? No, he _____________

He´s from ___________

Where is García Márquez from? __________________

Is Tom Hanks a teacher? No, _____________________

He’s ___________________

The Grammar Translation Method

(Reading comprehension questions)

-- It considers students´ learning

styles.

-- It encourages students’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes students

understanding

5. Presentar los cuadros de la gramática con los adjetivos

demostrativos: this, that, these, those. Dar tiempo para

que los estudiantes se familiaricen con los contenidos

que se presentan en los cuadros.

Demonstratives

Singular plural

This house these houses

Grammar Translation Method

(Deductive application of the rule)

-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool that

teachers can use to ease learning by

organizing information presented so

that the new concepts can be easily

related with concepts already learned.

-- It Promotes the construction of

previous knowledge.

That house those houses

We use this, that, these, and those with nouns

This school is big

Those children are noisy

We use this and these for things that are near and that

and those for things that are not near.

This is a tree.

These are balloons

-- It encourages students to

understand new language forms.

- It can develop student’s autonomy.

6. Realizar un ejercicio de complementación con

oraciones como las siguientes:

_________________ clouds are white

_________________ plane is big

_________________ students are good.

_________________English lesson is interesting.

_________________ teacher is nice.

_________________ trees are tall.

_________________ shoes are old. ( de ellos)

The Grammar Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It helps students to face the

unpredictable phase of the language.

-- It lets students to reflect on the

language itself.

-- It constructs on students previous

knowledge.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

7. Write nationalities in four groups according to their

endings:

-- It considers the way students learn.

Americ ___ Span___ Japan____ Canad___

Mex___ Chin ___ Brit ___ Germ ___ Brazil ____

Portugu ____

-ish - an -ian - ese

____ _____ _____ _____

____ _____ _____ _____

____ _____ _____ _____

Grammar Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It constructs on learners’ previous

knowledge.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

8. Se puede hacer el siguiente ejercicio:

Country or nationality? Write one word from each pair:

Brazil France Japan Mexico

Brazilian French Japanese Mexican

Spain The USA

Spanish America

Grammar Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It considers how the students learn.

-- It can emphasize individual

learning.

9. Con objetos de los estudiantes, se les puede pedir que

hagan diálogos similares a estos en forma escrita; si es

posible, lo pueden hacer en forma oral.

A: Is ____________your pen?

B: NO, that ____________My pen _________My pen

A: Are ________________your glasses?

B: yes they are. Thank you

The Audio-Lingual Method

(Complete the dialogue)

-- It considers the students´ learning

styles.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

UNIT TWO: WHAT AROUND US

CONTENTS METHODOLOGICAL SUGGESTIONS BY

MINED

METHODS CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY

1. At home 1. Pedir a los estudiantes que describan por escrito

lo que hay en su casa, usando there is y there are.

Tomar en cuenta también algunos utensilios

eléctricos.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Composition)

-- It lets to construct new knowledge on previous ones.

-- It grounds learning activities in an authentic, real-

world context.

-- It encourages students to express by themselves in

writing.

Vocabulary:

• rooms and

objects in a

house

2. Con esta información hacer que los estudiantes la intercambien en forma oral y que hagan

preguntas usando is there y are there.

The Direct Method

(Conversation practice)

-- It uses verbalization as a means of internalize and

represent what the student has learned.

-- It encourages cooperative learning.

Functions:

• describing

places

3. Presentar una lista de adjetivos que describan

espacios y objetos del hogar para que los

estudiantes escriban oraciones con ellos.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Use words in sentences)

-- It makes possible the construction of previous

knowledge.

-- It emphasizes student’s autonomy.

-- It demonstrates the teacher – led introduction of new

language to enable students to work things out for

themselves with teacher’s help.

Grammar:

• verbs to have, to

be

• adjectives of

quality

• there is/ are

• affirmative and

interrogative

forms

• imperative

4. Pedir a los estudiantes que describan lo que hay

en su cuarto o en los demás espacios de la casa, por

ejemplo la cocina, utilizando el verbo have. Con

esta información, hacer que los estudiantes

reporten por escrito y en forma oral lo que su

compañero diga que tiene en su cuarto o casa.

The Direct Method

( Paragraph writing)

-- It lets students engage in real world situations.

-- It provides learners the opportunity to construct

knowledge and understanding from authentic

experience.

-- It encourages individual learning as well as

cooperative learning.

sentences

-- It emphasizes the writing as well as the oral

expression.

5. Llevar al aula una caja (mediana) cerrada para

que los estudiantes adivinen que hay dentro

utilizando la formas there is, there are.

Communicative Language

Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It encourages learner autonomy and initiative.

-- It constructs on learners’ experience.

6. Pedir que los estudiantes escriban un párrafo

pequeño expresando sus preferencias, por ejemplo:

My favorite room in the house is my bedroom…

The Direct Method

( Paragraph writing)

-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.

-- It considers how the students learn.

7. Explicar como funciona una grabadora de

cassettes.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It makes possible the construction of new

knowledge.

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

8. Solicitar que los/las estudiantes visiten un

supermercado para que copien las etiquetas de

productos que están en inglés, que las traduzcan y

las presenten a la clase. Lo mismo puede hacer con

medicinas y con ropa.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

--It provides learners the opportunity to construct new

knowledge and understanding from authentic

experience.

9. Presentar a los estudiantes artículos como un

frasco de medicina, etc. Leer lo que dice en las

etiquetas para que deduzcan en que lugar se deben

guardar.

Where are you going to put these things- below the

kitchen, sink in a locked cabinet, or on a big shelf?

Communicative Language

teaching

(Authentic materials)

--It provides learners the opportunity to construct new

knowledge and understanding from authentic

experience.

-- It emphasizes a real life situation.

10. Solicitar para la siguiente clase que los

estudiantes elaboren un reloj.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It emphasizes learner’s autonomy.

2. At school

1. Pedir a los estudiantes que hagan un horario con

sus actividades más importantes dentro y fuera de la

escuela, por ejemplo:

7:00 a.m. Breakfast

8:00 a.m. social studies

9:00 a. m. Math exam

10:00 a.m. Recess

10: 30 a.m. English class

Posteriormente pedirles que escriban oraciones: “I

have breakfast at 7:00 am”. Si el alumno pide se le

pueden proporcionar algunos verbos como: eat,

study, play, wake up. Hay que recordar que es más

importante que el alumno sepa solamente unos pocos

verbos, pero que los pueda ocupar correctamente.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Using words in sentences)

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

-- It provides learners the opportunity

to construct new knowledge and

understanding from authentic

experience.

-- It considers how the students learn.

-- Emphasizes students’ previous

knowledge.

-- It stimulates the learners’ autonomy

and initiative.

Vocabulary:

• school subjects

• numbers and

hours • days of the

week

2. Que los estudiantes hagan un pequeño cuestionario y

se pregunten entre ellos acerca de sus preferecias: What

is your favorite subject/What are your three favorite

subject’… favorite day(s) of the week, favorite time of

the day. Se les puede pedir que escriban en sus

cuadernos lo que sus compañeros respondieron.

The Direct Method

(Conversation practice)

-- It considers how the students

learn.

-- It emphasizes individual as well

as cooperative learning.

-- It lets learners to engage in

dialogue with peers.

-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.

Functions:

• asking and

giving

information

about.

• school subjects

and days of the

week.

• telling time

3. Con el reloj de cartulina hacer que los estudiantes se

pregunten la hora entre ellos. Ejemplo: What time is it?

It´s_______.

Communicative Language

Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It encourages cooperative

learning.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It helps students face the

unpredictable phase of the

communication.

Grammar:

• verb to have

• preposition of

time

• imperative

sentences

• numbers(1-100)

4. Para repasar los números que se pregunten entre ellos

la edad, la edad de sus padres, hermanos(as), amigos.

Ejemplo: I am ____ years old.

The Direct Method

(Conversation practice)

--It emphasizes cooperative

learning.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

--It encourages the students to

overcome their linguistic level.

3. Computers 1. Comenzar dándoles a los alumnos algunos comandos

a través del Total Physical Response (TPR): stand up,

open your book, close the windows.

Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct

behavior)

-- Correct answer and errors can be

considered as worth step to get the

knowledge.

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It encourages students to

understand new language forms.

Vocabulary:

• computer

language

2. Que el alumno se de cuenta de cuantas palabras

conoce en inglés que se utilizan en español.

Content - based instruction

approach

Principle: Teaching should build on student’s previous

experience.

-- It inquires on previous

knowledge.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It lets consider the mother tongue

as positive element to construct

knowledge of the English language.

Functions:

• giving

commands

3. Hacer un ejercicio de vocabulario, pidiéndole a los

estudiantes que identifiquen las partes de la computadora.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It emphasizes in the construction

previous knowledge.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

Grammar:

• imperative

form

4. Hacer un ejercicio donde el estudiante tiene que poner

las instrucciones con el dibujo que corresponde. Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct

behavior)

--It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It emphasizes individual as well

as cooperative learning.

5. Proporcionar a los estudiantes una serie de instrucciones sencillas, por escrito, para que las sigan;

ejemplo:

-Open your book - write the date, etc.

-write your name

Total Physical Response

(Action sequence)

-- It considers the students´ learning

styles.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It lets students to reflect on

learning.

4. At the park 1. Pedir a los estudiantes que enumeren los lugares que

hay en la ciudad y que los escriban en la pizarra. Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct

behavior)

-- It considers the context in which

learning is taking place.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

Vocabulary:

• things in the

2. Si hay un parque en su comunidad, que los

estudiantes describan por escrito lo que hay en él.

Solicitar a algunos estudiantes que lean en voz alta sus

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Composition)

-- It takes into account the place in

which learning is taking place.

-- It encourages students to work by

park listas.

themselves how language forms are

constructed.

Functions:

• describing

places

3. Escribir preguntas en la pizarra con “is there” y “are

there” e incluir vocabulario como: a swing (columpio),

a slide (deslizadero), a seesaw (sube y baja), trees, statues, flowers, benches, snacks stand, para que los

estudiantes las escriban en sus cuadernos y las

contesten.

The Grammar Translation

Method

( Use words in sentences)

--Adding vocabulary or new

information ease the construction of

prior knowledge.

-- It demonstrates the teacher – led

introduction of new language to

enable students to work things out

for themselves with teacher’s help.

Grammar:

• there is/are

• affirmative,

interrogative,

negative

• prepositions of

place

4. Partir de un texto que tenga la ilustración de un parque y luego presentar un párrafo en el que haya

información errónea. El ejercicio consiste en que el

estudiante subraye las frases que no concuerdan con la

ilustración. Por ejemplo, si en el dibujo hay tres bancas,

el párrafo puede tener una frase así: there are four

benches in the park, entonces el estudiante lo subrayará.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Antonyms/synonyms)

Note: other exercises that ask

students to work with the

vocabulary of the passage are

also possible.

-- It encourages students to work by themselves how language forms are

constructed.

--It constructs on learners’ previous

knowledge.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

5. Con el texto del parque, explicar el uso de las

preposiciones de lugar y hacer que los estudiantes las

subrayen.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Deductive application of the

rule)

--It emphasizes on students’

previous knowledge to construct the

new ones.

6. Pedir a los (las estudiantes que usen las preposiciones

de la lectura para describir los espacios y objetos de su

casa. Por ejemplo: the bathroom is between two

bedrooms.

The Grammar Translation

Method

( Use words in sentences)

-- It encourages students to work by

themselves on how language forms

are constructed.

--It lets the students to put into

practice what they have learned.

7. Pedir a lo/las estudiantes que expliquen como se usa

un teléfono público. Usar comparativos.

Communicative Language

Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It emphasizes on students’

performance and understanding.

-- Verbalization is used a means of

internalize and represent what has

been already learned.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

8. Preparar una lectura en la que se incluyan

preposiciones; luego, dárselas a los estudiantes para que

ellos al leerlas vayan haciendo un dibujo.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Antonyms/synonyms)

Note: other exercises that ask

students to work with the

vocabulary of the passage are

also possible.

-- It promotes learning autonomy.

-- It stimulates students’ creativity.

-- It encourages students to make

decisions and autonomous

development in learning activities.

5.In the street 1. Pedir a los estudiantes enumeren en inglés los

establecimientos comerciales que hay en su comunidad.

Escribirlos en la pizarra.

Content. –based instruction

approach

Principle: the subject matter

content is used for language

teaching purposes

-- It emphasizes the context in

which learning is taking place.

-- It makes use of students’ previous

knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• different names

of stores and

products

2. Preguntar que otros lugares pueden encontrarse en

una ciudad o pueblo.

Content – based instruction

approach

Principle: Teaching should

build on students’ previous

knowledge.

-- It makes use of students’ previous

knowledge

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and initiative.

-- It helps students face the

unpredictable phase of the

language.

Functions:

• asking about

places

3. Presentar una lámina de una calle con distintos

establecimientos para que los estudiantes describan por

escrito su ubicación, usando las preposiciones ya

conocidas.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It encourages students to express

by themselves in writing.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

Grammar:

• there is/are

4. Escribir la frase where´s the _________? En la

pizarra para que los estudiantes hagan preguntas por

escrito y que también las respondan con las

The Grammar Translation

-- It makes use of students’ previous

knowledge.

• affirmative,

negative,

interrogative.

• preposition of

place

preposiciones conocidas. Method

( Use words in sentences)

-- It encourages students to

understand new language forms.

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

5. Preguntar: is there a (nombre de negocio) in (nombre

de la comunidad), para que los estudiantes contesten

yes, there is o No, there isn´t.

Hacer preguntas en plural también.

The Direct Method

( Conversation practice)

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It promotes learners’ autonomy.

-- It encourages students express

themselves orally

6. Con la lámina ilustrativa, hacer un ejercicio de falso y

verdadero (true and false)

The Audio - Lingual Method

(Question- and answer drill)

-- It considers the way student

learns.

-- Correct answers and errors can be

considered as worth steps in the

knowledge acquisition.

-- It can encourage students to

reflect on their own learning.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

7. Que los estudiantes redacten un párrafo con there is y

there are y las preposiciones conocidas con los lugares

de la comunidad.

The Direct Method

( Paragraph writing)

-- It encourages students to express

by themselves in writing.

-- It promotes learners’ autonomy.

UNIT THREE: HAVING FUN

CONTENTS METHODOLOGICAL

SUGGESTIONS BY MINED

METHODS CONSTRUCTIVIST

METHODOLOGY

1. At home 1. Acercarse a un estudiante y decir

“Hi, my name is________. I´m your

teacher”. Hacer esto varias veces;

una vez los estudiantes comprendan,

hacer que ellos se presenten

individualmente, diciendo: “Hi, my

name is ____. I’m a student”.

The Audio – Lingual Method

(Chain drill)

-- It allows the teacher interact with

the whole class.

-- It makes possible the construction

of previous knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• verbs of action

• greetings

2. Hacer un ejercicio en cadena:

Hi, my name is_________this

is_______. (nombre del estudiante

próximo).

The Audio – Lingual Method

(Chain drill)

-- It emphasizes whole class activity.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It encourages students to express by

themselves in writing.

Functions:

• greeting and introducing

people

• describing actions

• asking and giving personal

information

3. Escribir en la pizarra nombres de

países y nacionalidades para que los

alumnos escojan una y por turno

digan “Hello, I´m from (nombre del

país), What´s my name?”Para que

toda la clase adivine el nombre.

Explicar que deberán adoptar personajes que sean conocidos por

todos.

Desuggestopedia

( Choose a new identity)

-- Verbalization is a means of

internalization and represent what has

been already learned.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

Grammar:

• present continuous

• affirmative form

4. Hacer grupos de tres y, con la

misma nacionalidad que han

adoptado, que se presenten usando los

nombres de los países, nacionalidad y

los nombres de personajes famosos.

Community Language Learning

( Small task groups)

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

5. Explicar, por medio de una línea de tiempo, el uso del

presente progresivo. Escribir oraciones sencillas en la

pizarra.

The Grammar Translation

Method.(Deductive application of the

rule)

-- Grammar rule constitutes a tool that

teachers can use to ease learning by

organizing information presented so

that the new concepts can easily be

related to concepts already learned.

-- It Promotes the construction of

previous knowledge.

6. Usar dibujos esquemáticos o recortes de revistas para

que los estudiantes escuchen y escriban en su cuaderno

oraciones en el presente progresivo.

Communicative Language Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

-- It considers the way students learn.

-- It encourages students to understand new language forms.

7. A través de un cuadro gramatical, explicar como se

forma el presente progresivo.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Deductive application of the rule)

-- It Promotes the construction of

previous knowledge.

-- It considers the way students learn.

-- It helps the students get new

elements to understand the language.

8. Solicitar que cada estudiante dibuje lo que su familia

esta haciendo en esos momentos y que escriban un

párrafo describiendo las distintas actividades en presente

progresivo.

The Direct Method

(Paragraph writing)

-- It considers the way the student

learns.

-- It encourages students to work by

themselves how language forms are

constructed.

-- It promotes learners’ autonomy.

-- It encourages the students to

express by themselves in writing.

2. At the fair

1. Presentar la lámina de un parque para que entre

todos los estudiantes construyan un párrafo

describiendo lo que las personas están haciendo.

Escribirlas oraciones en la pizarra hasta formar el

párrafo.

Communicative Language Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

--It eases the learners to express by

themselves in writing.

-- It makes use of students’ previous

knowledge.

-- It promotes the whole class

interaction.

Vocabulary:

• verbs of action

• some nouns

2. Presentar un cuadro de la gramática en el que se

explique la formación del presente progresivo:

oraciones afirmativas y negativas.

Grammar Translation Method

(Deductive application of the rule)

-- It lets construct on students

previous knowledge.

--It lets the students to get new

elements to understand the language.

Functions:

• asking and

giving

information

about an action

in progress.

3. Con una lámina alusiva ala feria, hacer un ejercicio

de completar, en el que los estudiantes escriban los

verbos en la forma del presente progresivo. Por

ejemplo:

I (match)____________the fair from my window

Grammar Translation Method

(fill in the blanks)

--It helps the students to face the

unpredictable phase of the language.

-- It considers the way students learn.

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

Grammar:

• present

continuous:

• affirmative,

negative and interrogative

forms.

4. Con la misma lámina de la feria, señalar personajes

y preguntar, por ejemplo: Is she looking at the

snakes?

Elaborar varias preguntas y solicitar a los estudiantes que las escriban en sus cuadernos.

The Audio- Lingual Method

(Question and answer drills) -- It encourages students to express

by themselves in writing.

-- It lets consider errors and correct

answers as worth steps in the knowledge acquisition.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

5. Presentar un cuadro esquemático con la forma

interrogativa del presente progresivo.

Grammar Translation Method

-- It eases the construction of

previous knowledge of the language.

6. Escribir en tarjetas verbos en infinitivo, y repartirlas entre -- It lets the students to get new

los estudiantes para que ellos usen el verbo en una oración

afirmativa. Inmediatamente después, organizar un ejercicio

en cadena, así:

Estudiante A: I’m reading a book

He’s writing a letter

Estudiante B: I’m writing a letter

He’s eating an orange

Estudiante C: I’m eating an orange

She’s cleaning her house.

( Deductive application of

the rule)

The Audio- Lingual Method

(Chain drill)

elements to understand the language.

--It promotes the verbal interaction

among students and teacher.

-- It lets the whole class participation.

-- It lets consider errors and correct answers as worth steps in the

knowledge acquisition.

-- It helps the students to overcome

their linguistic level.

--It emphasizes cooperative learning.

7. Solicitar a los estudiantes pasar al frente para que hagan

mímica de actividades, a fin de que los demás adivinen la

actividad usando el presente progresivo.

Silent way

( Teacher’s silence)

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

-- It considers the way student learns.

-- It Promotes the whole class

interaction.

8. Como un proyecto de la unidad, solicitar que por equipos

elaboren una lámina grande de la feria de su comunidad y

que también la describan utilizando las formas estudiadas en

esta lección.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It promotes students’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

3.A circus school 1. Preguntar quienes han ido a un circo recientemente.

Pedir que enumeren en inglés lo que vieron. Escribir

las palabras en la pizarra.

Content – based instruction approach

Principle: Teaching should build on

students’ previous knowledge.

-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.

-- It inquires on students’ previous

knowledge.

-- It constructs on learners’ previous

knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• verbs of action

2. Explicar que todas las personas que allí trabajan

tienen una función específica dentro del circo, lo cual

es importante.

Desuggestopedia

(Positive sugestión)

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It encourages learners to inquire.

-- It promotes learners’ autonomy.

Functions:

• expressing

ability

• describing

actions

3. Preguntar quienes pueden hacer algún tipo de

acrobacia (andar en zancos, malabarismo, hacer

trucos, etc.).Esta es la oportunidad para introducir el

vocabulario pertinente.

Content – based instruction approach

Principle: teaching should build on

students’ previous knowledge.

-- It promotes students’ initiative.

-- It encourages students to

understand new language forms.

Grammar:

• can:

affirmative,

negative and

interrogative

forms

• present

continuous

4. Explicar que en otros países existen escuelas para

que los niños puedan aprender lo relacionado con el

circo.

Desuggestopedia

(Positive suggestion)

-- It involves learners in real world

situations.

-- It considers the way students learn.

5. Invite al payaso del pueblo (si lo

hay) o a un mimo para que visite el Communicative Language Teaching -- It engages students in real learning

aula, para que los estudiantes le hagan

preguntas, y les enseñe como hacer

trucos y cómo maquillarse.

(Authentic materials) situations.

-- It promotes learners’ autonomy.

-- It considers the way students learn.

6. Presentar un cuadro de la gramática

del uso de can en afirmativo, negativo

e interrogativo.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Deductive application of the rule)

--It eases to construct previous

knowledge.

-- It helps the students get new

elements to understand.

7. Mostrar dibujos esquemáticos con

actividades propias de un circo para

que los estudiantes escriban después

oraciones usando el presente

progresivo, por ejemplo:”He’s

jumping a rope”. Posteriormente,

pueden leer las oraciones en voz alta.

Communicative Language Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- Offering a variety of exercises

when studying language is a way to

consider the students´ multiple

intelligences.

8. Con las mismas laminas que se

usan en la sugerencia 7, o con fotos,

que los estudiantes las describan

usando el auxiliar can; por ejemplo,

” He can walk on stilts”.

Communicative Language Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It encourages students to

understand new language form.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

9. Solicitar a cada estudiante que

escriba un párrafo describiendo todo

lo que él o ella puede hacer, utilizando el vocabulario del circo y

otras habilidades.

The Direct Method

(Paragraph writing)

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

10. Como un proyecto al final de la lección, se puede

simular un circo en su clase.

Desuggestopedia

(Creative adaptation)

-- It engages students in real learning

situations.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It lets students face the

unpredictable phase of the language.

4. Meeting a star 1. Preguntar a los estudiantes como creen que son los

artistas de cine. Pedir que den todos sus opiniones.

Hacer hincapié en que son personas tal como todos los

demás.

Content – based instruction approach

Principle: Teaching should build on

students’ previous knowledge.

-- It considers the students beliefs.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• idiomatic expressions:

of course,

really, etc.

2. Preguntar si saben donde está Hollywood y que si han

visto el programa de la entrega del Oscar a los mejores

actores y actrices.

Content – based approach

Principle: Teaching should be built on student’s previous knowledge.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It involves the students in real

world situations.

-- It considers students’ interests.

Functions:

• asking and

giving

personal

information

• asking for

permission

3. Solicitar los nombres de sus actores y actrices

preferidos para introducir el texto sugerido en esta lección.

Content – based instruction approach

Principle: learners work with

meaningful, cognitively demanding

language and content within the

context of authentic material and

tasks.

-- It considers the students beliefs.

-- It encourages learner’s autonomy

and initiative.

Grammar:

• “WH” questions

• can expressing

ability and asking

permission.

4. Explicar el uso de can para solicitar permiso, dar ejemplos.

Inmediatamente solicitar que los estudiantes escriban en su cuaderno

oraciones utilizando can en ambas formas, para expresar habilidades

y para pedir permiso.

The Grammar

Translation Method

(Deductive

application of the rule)

-- It encourages students to

understand new language form.

-- It helps the students get new

elements to understand the

language.

-- It considers different students´

learning styles.

5. Hacer el siguiente ejercicio:

Look at these questions and answers

Questions words

What is your name?___________ David

Where are you from? _____________Mexico

How are you? ________________ I’m fine.

Who’s he? ___________________Cristian Santos

How old is she? _______________she’s twenty

Why is she here? ______________ She’s on vacation.

Match questions words and what they refer to

The Grammar

Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It considers the way the students

learn.

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It can encourage students to

reflect on their own learning.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

1________________what? a) age

2_______________where? b) a person or people

3. ______________who? c) a reason or motive

4. _____________ why? d) conditions or descriptions

5. _____________how? e) places or locations

6. ___________ how old? f) things names or ideas

-- It encourage students to reflect on

their own learning.

6. Formar parejas de estudiantes para que se hagan preguntas usando

palabras interrogativas.

Community

Language Learning

(Small group tasks)

-- It encourages cooperative

learning.

-- It promotes learners’ autonomy.

7. Hacer un ejercicio de complementación similar a este:

Complete these sentences. Use can or can’t + one of these verbs:

come, find, bear, see, speak.

I’m sorry but we______ _____ to your party next Saturday

She has a good job because she ________speak three languages.

You are speaking very quickly. I ____ ____ you.

I like hotel room. You ____ _____the mountains from the

Windows.

The Direct Method

(Fill in the blanks

exercises)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and promote skills of self reliance

and investigation over teacher’s

dependence.

-- It can encourage students to

reflect on their own learning.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It helps students face the

unpredictable phase of the language.

8. Pedir a los estudiantes que para la próxima clase traigan una postal

en blanco o fotos de periódico o revistas.

Communicative

Language Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and initiative.

5. On vacation 1. Solicitar a los estudiantes que

expresen lo que hacen los

salvadoreños en vacaciones,

incluyéndose ellos mismos. Escribir

algún vocabulario mínimo en inglés.

Content – based instruction approach

Principle: Teaching should build on

students’ previous knowledge.

- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It considers the students beliefs.

-- It constructs on previous

knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• activities

• places

2. Con las postales que los estudiantes

traigan, solicitar que las describan por

escrito en inglés, utilizando adjetivos

en sus oraciones.

The Grammar Translation Method

( Use words in sentences)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It lets students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

Functions:

• expressing preferences

• describing actions

• expressing ability

3. Escoger, de entre las postales que

los estudiantes tienen, aquellas en las

que ilustren actividades. Solicitar que

los estudiantes expresen oralmente

(utilizar el presente progresivo)

oraciones y que luego las escriban en

su cuaderno.

The Audio - Lingual Method

(Multiple - slot substitution drill)

-- Verbalization is used as a way to

represent the acquired knowledge.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It encourages learner autonomy and

initiative.

-- It emphasizes the writing and orally

expression.

Grammar:

• adjectives of quality

• present continuous

• can expressing ability

4. Utilizando las postales, buscar

aquellas que se presten para que el

estudiante exprese oraciones con can.

Por ejemplo: “I can go to the beach”;

“I can swim in the lake”.

The Audio - Lingual Method

(Multiple - slot substitution drill)

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It lets the students express

themselves orally.

5. Una vez los estudiantes han

expresado sus oraciones en forma

afirmativa, en parejas que se hagan

preguntas con el auxiliar CAN.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Question and answer exercises)

-- It encourages cooperative learning.

-- It lets the students reflect on the language itself.

UNIT FOUR: STRENGTHENING OUR BODY

CONTENTS SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY BY MINED METHODS CONSTRUCTIVIST

METHODOLOGY

1. Physical exercise 1. Comenzar la clase con un ejercicio de

respiración y relajamiento. Desuggestopedia

(Positive suggestion)

-- It considers the way the students learn.

Vocabulary:

• parts of the body

• actions

2. Elaborar una ilustración grande del cuerpo

humano para que los estudiantes ubiquen los

nombres de las distintas partes.

Content- based instruction

approach

Principle: Learners work with meaningful, cognitively

demanding language and content

within the context of authentic

material.

--It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

--It lets construct previous knowledge.

Functions:

• giving commands

3. Cuando el estudiante domine los nombres de las

partes del cuerpo, puede hace el ejercicio de

“Simon says”.ejemplo,

Stand up please

Stand on one foot

Raise your left arm, etc.

La diversión está en que el estudiante debe pedir

que vuelvan a sus posiciones iniciales para

continuar con otras indicaciones.

Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct

behavior)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- Correct answers and errors can be

considered as worth steps in the

knowledge acquisition.

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.

Grammar:

• imperative form

• object pronouns

(me; him, her)

4.Solicitar que varios estudiantes, uno a la vez,

pasen al frente y dirijan un ejercicio de Total

Physical Reponse (TPR) similar al que se hizo de

“Simon says”

Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct

behavior)

-- It lets students reflect on the language

itself.

-- It encourages students to make

decisions and autonomous development in

learning activities.

5. Elaborar un cuerpo humano en grande y

luego recortar las distintas partes (puede

funcionar mejor en franelografo).Este ejercicio

puede ser muy divertido porque se trata de que

el estudiante de las indicaciones.

Total Physical Response

(Role reversal)

-- It promotes learners autonomy and

initiative.

-- It can encourage students to reflect on

their own learning.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It can show much the students enjoy

what they are learning.

6. Escribir en la pizarra instrucciones en inglés

para operar aparatos electrodomésticos. Hacer

preguntas con relación a ellas.

Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct

behavior)

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

-- It allows the teachers engage in

dialogue with students.

7. Solicitar que los estudiantes escriban un

juego de instrucciones para realizar un ejercicio

físico sencillo y que no se haya hecho en clase.

Total Physical Response

(Role reversal)

--It makes possible students creativity.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

8. En parejas los estudiantes pueden sentarse de

espaldas uno del otro, y con un juego de

instrucciones que se ha preparado con

anticipación, uno de los estudiantes sigue las

indicaciones que le vaya leyendo el otro.

Pueden ser las indicaciones para dibujar una

casa (esquema) por ejemplo.

Total Physical Response

(Using commands to direct behavior)

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It can engage the student in dialogue with peers.

9. Al finalizar esta clase solicitar que para la

próxima los estudiantes traigan recortes de

actividades deportivas.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It develops learners’ autonomy.

-- It promotes learners’ initiative and

autonomy. 2. I like sports 1. Preguntar “ What animals do you like?” y

escribir en la pizarra todas las respuestas que

den los estudiantes así: I like _________luego

The Direct Method

(Question and answer exercises)

-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.

-- It emphasizes performance and

preguntar “What sport do you like?” y hacer lo

mismo.

understanding.

Vocabulary:

• sports

2. Introducir frases preposicionales de tiempo:

in the morning, on Sundays, on Saturday. Luego, hacer que los estudiantes usen verbos

que ya conocen para producir oraciones usando

esas frases preposicionales; ejemplo: I help my

father in the afternoon. Deberán escribir estas

oraciones en sus cuadernos.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Deductive application of the

rule)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

Functions:

• expressing

preferences

• likes/ dislikes

3. Con ilustraciones de actividades distintas los

estudiantes deberán construir oraciones usando

“like”, “play” y otros verbos.

The Grammar translation

method

(Using words in sentences)

-- It allows the students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It considers students´ learning styles.

Grammar:

• simple present

affirmative

4. Introducir adverbios de tiempo: usually y

sometimes, explicando su posición en la

oración para que luego los estudiantes escriban

oraciones en sus cuadernos usando los días de

la semana, los adverbios y los verbos que hasta

hoy han practicado.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Deductive application of the

rule)

-- It builds on learners’ previous

knowledge.

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

5. Presentar un cuadro del uso de los verbos en

presente, haciendo énfasis en el morfema de la

tercera persona.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Deductive application of the

rule)

--It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It encourages students to understand

new language form.

6. Hacer un ejercicio de complementación para

que los estudiantes practiquen el presente de los

verbos. Lograr que puedan usar la tercera

persona sin ningún problema.

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It allows the students reflect on the

language itself.

7. Proporcionar a los estudiantes un texto en el que

se use He o She, con el objeto de practicar la 3a

persona.

(Antonyms/synonyms)

Note: other exercises that ask students

to work with the vocabulary of the

passage are also possible.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It encourages student to understand

new language form.

8. Solicitar que los estudiantes elaboren un horario

de sus actividades semanales e invitar a un

estudiante a que pase al frente y explique lo que

hace.

Task-based instruction approach

(An opinion gap)

-- It promotes learner’s autonomy.

-- It involves the students in real

world situations.

3. Life of a tennis star 1. Hablar sobre los deportistas más famosos del

país o de la comunidad para producir oraciones

usando “can”, “play”, “like”, etc.

Content- based approach

Principle: Teaching should build on

students previous knowledge.

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

-- It inquires on prior knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• actions

• meals

• times

2. Invitar a un deportista que presente cualidades

positivas entre los jóvenes para que lo entrevisten.

Con base en la entrevista, que los estudiantes

elaboren un horario de las actividades del

entrevistado.

Communicative Language Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It can encourage learners’

autonomy and initiative.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It lets considering the mother

tongue as positive element to

construct knowledge of the English

language.

Functions:

• describing daily

routines

3. Iniciar la construcción de un párrafo con las

actividades diarias que realiza el deportista

entrevistado o uno de los estudiantes que mejor

haya elaborado su rutina.

The Direct Method

(Paragraph writing)

-- It promotes the whole class

interaction.

-- It emphasizes learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes the help that a

student can give to another.

Grammar:

• simple

present

4. Escribir una calendarización de las horas del día

comenzando con la hora en que los estudiantes se

levantan. Que cada estudiante individualmente

escriba las actividades que realiza en cada una de

esas horas.

Task- based instruction approach

Principle: The teacher breaks down

into smaller steps the logical thinking

processes necessary to complete the

task. The demand on thinking made

by activity should be just above the

level which learners can meet without

help.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It constructs on previous

knowledge.

-- It encourages students to express by

themselves in writing.

5. En equipos de dos estudiantes, que intercambien

información sobre su horario diario. Task based- instruction approach

Principle: Students have input into

the design and the way that they carry

out the task. This gives them more

opportunity for authentic and

meaningful interaction.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It emphasizes students’ beliefs.

6. Que los estudiantes escriban un párrafo sobre sus actividades diarias y que también incluyan terceras

personas, miembros de su familia.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Composition)

-- It encourages leaners’ autonomy.

-- It encourages students to express by

themselves in writing.

-- It encourages the students to use what they have learned.

7. Solicitar que los estudiantes describan lo que les

gusta comer, Para que elaboren pequeños menús. Communicative Language Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

--It makes possible students´

creativity.

4. A healthy life Diálogo sugerido

A: Hi, Margarita how are you?

B: fine thanks. How are you?

A: Not bad, wow you really look great How do you keep fit?

B. Oh that’s easy. I get enough sleep, I eat good food and I

do exercises.

A: Ah… How long do you sleep?

B: I usually sleep eight hours.

A: Do you practice any sport?

B: Sure, I play basketball in the school team and I’m learning

to play soccer.

A: How do you get so much energy?

B: Well, I watch my diet. I have a big breakfast; I eat a lot of

fruit and vegetables.

A: Now, I understand. Maybe I need more vegetables and

fruits. My skin is dry, and looks at your skin!

B: Do you want to come with me? I’m going to play

volleyball now.

A: O.K. let’s go

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It stimulates a real life

encounter.

-- It grounds learning activities

in an authentic, real-world

context.

-- It considers the context in

which learning is taking place.

--It encourages the students to

overcome their linguistic level.

1. Hacer que todos los estudiantes circulen y que hagan

entrevistas a distintos estudiantes en el grado haciendo el

ejercicio: find someone who likes…” se puede hacer preguntas

como:

Find someone who likes soccer.

Find someone who plays tennis…

Después de haber hecho por lo menos una pregunta a cada

estudiante, solicitar que un estudiante reporte sobre lo

encontrado.

Task based- instruction

approach

Principle: Students have input

into the design and the way that they carry out the task. This

gives them more opportunity

for authentic and meaningful

interaction.

-- It encourages students to

investigate inside the classroom.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It considers how the students learn.

Vocabulary:

• actions

• food

2. Usando un cuadro con los cinco grupos de alimentos, hacer

preguntas para que los estudiantes respondan con sus

preferencias alimenticias.

Content - based-approach

Note: the subject matter

content is used for language

teaching purposes

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It considers the students beliefs.

3. Presentar láminas con distintos alimentos para que los

estudiantes elaboren oraciones con los mismos y así practiquen

las tres formas del presente simple.

The Audio - Lingual Method

(Multi - slot substitution drill)

-- It lets the students reflect on the

language itself.

-- It constructs on previous

knowledge.

Functions:

• asking and giving

informatio

n about

likes,

dislikes

and

activities.

4. Escribir en la pizarra algunas palabras interrogativas con

wh- y presentar modelos de preguntas con las mismas. Por

ejemplo:

When do you eat fruit?

How much milk do you drink?

Where do you practice sports?

Solicitar que los estudiantes escriban por lo menos cinco

preguntas, que entrevisten a uno de sus compañeros y que

escriban las respuestas.

Content – based instruction

approach

Principle: when they work

with authentic subject matter,

students need language

support.

-- It inquires on pr previous

knowledge.

-- It encourages student to understand

new language form.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It lets learners to engage in

dialogue with peers.

Grammar:

• simple present:

yes/no questions,

short answer wh-

questions.

5. Introducir la conjunción “but” para que los estudiantes

expresen preferencias de ellos mismos y de miembros de su

familia, así:

I like milk, but my father doesn’t.

My sister likes chicken, but I don’t.

The Grammar

Translation Method

( Use words in sentences)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It emphasizes the context in which

learning is taking place.

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It considers students’ beliefs.

6. Elaborar una serie de respuestas para que los estudiantes

escriban las preguntas. Deberán mezclarse respuestas que

requieran “yes/no questions” y “ wh-questions”

Communicative

Language Teaching

(Scrambled sentences)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

--It makes use of cognitive conflict.

7. Solicitar a los estudiantes que elaboren un dibujo con todas

sus preferencias y que cada uno de ellos pase a explicarlo en

ingles.

Communicative

Language Teaching

(Picture strip story)

-- It considers the students beliefs.

-- It promotes learning autonomy.

-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.

-- Verbalization is used as a way to

represent the acquired knowledge.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

8. Para la siguiente clase solicitar a los estudiantes que lleven

distintas frutas par una ensalada. Procurar tener los utensilios

necesarios, platos y depósitos grandes, cubiertos, etc.

Communicative

Language Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

-- It encourages cooperative learning.

5. An apple a day keeps the

doctor away Diálogo sugerido

Sue: Are you going to store?

Dan: Yes, I need some tomatoes for the

green salad.

Sue: Well, we don’t have any eggs or milk,

can we get some?

Dan: Sure.

Sue: … and we need some coffee, too.

Dan: is there any cheese?

Sue: Yes, there is. Buy you can buy some

shrimp for the cocktail.

Remember that Anita and José are coming

for dinner.

Dan: Do they like all kinds of food?

Sue: Yes, they do. At least Anita does. I

don’t know about José.

Dan: Does she like hot dogs?

Sue: No, she doesn’t she like goods

American food.

Dan: I know! Do we need any carrots for

the vegetable soup?

Communicative Language Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It considers the context in which

learning is taking place.

-- It makes possible the construction

of previous knowledge.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It considers the way students learn.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It constructs on previous

knowledge.

Sue: No we don’t, we have some. But you

can buy some apples.

Remember “an apple a day keeps the doctor

away”.

Dan: O.K. Do you have any money?

Sue: here’s a ten dollar bill.

Dan: I’ll be back in a minute.

1. Puede hacer una revisión de los números en forma rápida. Auxiliarse con la fruta que

los alumnos han llevado par contar, por

ejemplo las naranjas.

Vocabulary:

• food

2. Introducir some y any. Dar la explicación

pertinente sobre su uso. The Grammar Translation Method

(Deductive application of the rule)

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It allows the students reflect on the

language itself.

Functions:

• asking and giving

information about

likes, dislikes and

types of food.

3. Solicitar a los estudiantes que expresen

oralmente nombres de alimentos usando

some y any. Escribirlos en la pizarra.

Content based instruction approach

Principle: when learners perceive the

relevance of their language use, they

are motivated to learn. They know

that it is a means to an end, rather

than an end in itself.

-- Verbalization is used as a means to

represent the knowledge acquired.

Grammar:

• simple present:

affirmative, negative and interrogative

forms

4. Dar nombres de alimentos para que los

estudiantes elaboren preguntas u oraciones

afirmativas o negativas utilizando “some” y

“any”.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Use words in sentences)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

• count and mass nouns

• some /any

5. Elaborar una lista de alimentos que se

consumen en distintos países, comenzando

con las pupusas de El Salvador. Por

ejemplo:

El Salvador pupusas

USA Hamburgers and hot dogs.

Italy Spaghetti

Costa Rica gallo pinto

España paella

Nicaragua nacatamal

Guatemala fiambre

Luego que los estudiantes elaboren

oraciones por escrito utilizando la

información dada.

Communicative Language Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

-- It considers the learners’ beliefs.

-- It lets knowledge transcend to

another situation and context.

--It emphasizes individual learning.

6. Para utilizar la pregunta: Do we need any

________________? Haga una lista de

“comidas” para que entre todos enumeren lo

que se necesita para la comida.

Task based instruction approach

(An opinion gap)

-- It considers the students beliefs.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

7. Preparar una pequeña escena en inglés

para que los estudiantes, disfrazados de

distintas frutas y verduras, expresen que tipo

de beneficio representa para los humanos.

Desuggestopedia

(Creative adaptation)

-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.

8. Con la fruta que han traído, hacer una

ensalada y disfrutarla al final de la clase. Desuggestopedia

( Positive suggestion)

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

UNIT FIVE: LET’S SAVE THE EARTH

CONTENTS SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY BY

MINED

METHODS CONSTRUCTIVIST METHODOLOGY

1.The living planet 1. Organizar un juego de bingo con láminas

de distintos animales.

Desuggestopedia

(Creative adaptation)

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

Vocabulary:

• animals

• the weather

2. Mencionar en inglés nombres de animales

como camel, zebra, whale, bear, etc. Para

preguntar si los estudiantes los han visto en

vivo.

Content- based instruction

approach

Principle: the subject matter

content is used for language

teaching purposes.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It promotes the discussion of student’s

viewpoints.

Functions:

• describing animals

and their habitat.

• asking and giving

information about the

weather

3. Organizar un viaje al zoológico o al campo para que los estudiantes se formen

una idea del hábitat de las distintas especies.

En forma sencilla, los estudiantes pueden

presentar reportes en grupos de experiencia.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It makes possible knowledge transcend

from the classroom to real situations.

--It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It encourages students to express by

themselves in writing.

Grammar:

• there is/there are

• can expressing

possibility

• Wh- questions: how

much, how many, etc.

• adjectives of quality

4. Hacer que los estudiantes describan un

animal de su preferencia y su hábitat, que

pasen al frente lo que han escrito para que el

resto de la clase adivine el nombre del

animal.

Task - based instruction approach

(An opinion gap)

--It makes possible students creativity.

-- It considers the student’s learning

styles.

-- It considers the learners’ beliefs.

-- It lets learners to engage in dialogue

with peers.

5. Hacer que los estudiantes escriban oraciones usando can

(para expresar posibilidad) con los nombres de los animales,

por ejemplo: Zebras can run 30 kilometers per tour.

Grammar Translation Method

(Use words in sentences)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It encourages students to express

by themselves in writing.

6. Escribir las palabras interrogativas how much, how fast,

how far, how long, how tall, en lugar visible, para que los

estudiantes hagan preguntas con ellas. Dar los siguientes

datos:

Camels can drink 114 liters of water.

African elephants are over 3 meters tall.

Zebras can run 30 kilometers per hour.

Whales swim 9650 kilometers south in the autumn.

Content - based instruction

approach

Principle: when they work with

authentic subject matter,

students need language support.

-- It inquires on previous know

ledge.

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction

7. Explicar que muchos de esos animales están en peligro de extinción y preguntar si los estudiantes saben que animales

están en ese peligro en El Salvador.

Content based instruction

approach

Principle: Teaching should

build on student’s previous

experience.

-- It considers the learners’ beliefs.

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

8. Preguntar cuántas estaciones tenemos en El Salvador (lluviosa y seca) par luego, con láminas, mostrar las cuatro

estaciones que se dan en otros países.

Content- based instruction

approach

Principle: the subject matter

content is used for language

teaching purposes.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It involves students’ in real world

situations.

9. Introducir las palabras rainy, snowy, dry, cool sunny, icy, hot, cold. Con la ayuda de un globo terrestre ubicar los

lugares del planeta en que se dan esas temperaturas y esos

climas.

Content - based instruction

approach

Principle: when they work with

authentic subject matter,

students need language support.

-- It makes possible the construction

of previous knowledge.

-- It considers the students´ learning

styles.

10. Que los estudiantes escriban pequeños párrafos en los

que se describan el clima de ciertas zonas y los animales

que allí viven.

The Direct Method

( Paragraph writing)

-- It encourages students to make

decisions and autonomous

development in learning activities.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It grounds learning activities in an

authentic, real-world context.

2. Weather around the

World.

1. Repasar los nombres de estaciones en El Salvador y el

mundo a través de preguntas como: Is it cold in El Salvador

in December?

Content based instruction

approach.

Principle: Teaching should

build on student’s previous

experience.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It emphasizes the context in which

learning is taking place.

Vocabulary:

• the weather

• seasons and

month

2. Escribir la frase: “what’s the weather like?” En la pizarra y con el auxilio de un mapa del mundo señalar zonas decir

por ejemplo: “what´s the weather like in Argentina in

December?

The direct method

(Map drawing)

-- It constructs on previous

knowledge.

-- It lets the knowledge transcend to

another context.

Functions:

• asking and

giving

information

about the

weather.

3. Invitar a la clase a una persona del servicio

meteorológico para que explique a los estudiantes cómo se

puede pronosticar el tiempo atmosférico, o recortar el

periódico el pronóstico del día.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It makes possible the knowledge

transcend from the classroom to real

situations and context.

-- It lets consider the mother tongue

as positive element to construct

knowledge of the English language.

4. Con el auxilio del mapa del mundo hacer que los

estudiantes identifiquen los hemisferios, el ecuador, los

continentes, los mares, desiertos, polos.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.

-- It considers how the students

learn.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

5. Elaborar con los estudiantes organizados en equipos, un

tablero en que se jornalicen las actividades que se realizan en

cada mes o período en la comunidad donde viven.

Task based instruction approach

( An opinion gap activity)

-- It emphasizes cooperative

learning.

-- It considers the context in which

the learning is taking place.

-- It constructs on previous

knowledge.

-- It encourages students to make

decisions and autonomous

development in learning activities.

Grammar:

• adjectives for

quality

6. Hacer que los alumnos investiguen sobre los lugares más

altos, más bajos, más calientes de El salvador; similarmente,

hacer esto con el mundo.

Content - based instruction

approach

Principle: communicative

competence involves more than

using language

conversationally. It also

includes the ability to read, discuss and write about the

content from other fields.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and promote skills of self reliance

and investigation over teacher

dependence.

--It lets the students learn from real

world situations.

-- It encourages students to

investigate outside the classroom.

3. Animals in danger 1. Deletrear los nombres de los distintos continentes para que

los estudiantes los escriban. Luego, que los lean todos juntos.

Content based instruction

Principle: Teaching should

build on student’s previous

experience.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It encourages the students to

express by themselves in writing.

Vocabulary:

• describing

animals and their

habitats

• geographical

features

2. Con la ayuda de un mapa del mundo, señalar un área en el

mapa para que los estudiantes digan el nombre. (Continentes,

mares, océanos).

Content – based instruction

Principle: learners work with

meaningful, cognitively

demanding language and

content within the context of

authentic material and tasks.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and initiative.

Functions:

• asking and

giving

information about animals

and their habitat

3. Escribir en la pizarra nombres de habitats, por

ejemplo: poles and tundra, grasslands, mountains,

forests, rain forest. Leerlos con los estudiantes y,

luego, que ellos los escriban en su cuaderno.

The Audio-Lingual Method

(Repetition drill)

-- It makes possible the construction

of previous knowledge.

-- It grounds learning activities in an

authentic, real-world context.

Grammar:

• simple present

• Wh- questions:

how fast, how

big, etc.

• adjectives of

quality

4. En el mapa del mundo ubicar los habitats

mencionados en el numeral tres hasta lograr que todos

los estudiantes puedan hacerlo.

Content – based instruction

Principle: learners work with

meaningful, cognitively demanding

language and content within the

context of authentic material and

tasks.

-- It promotes the whole class

interaction.

5. Realizar un ejercicio de pareamiento de los distintos

habitats con los animales que allí viven.

Panda poles and tundra

Polar bear

Galapagos turtle desserts

Bengala tiger

Californian condor grasslands

Mountain gorilla

Cheetah mountains

Task - based instruction approach

(A reasoning gap activity)

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It considers the student’s learning

styles.

-- Correct answer and errors can be

considered as worth step to get the

knowledge.

Blue whale

Black rhino forests

Kangaroo rain forests

Iguana El Salvador

6. En parejas que los estudiantes se hagan preguntas

así:

Question: Where do elephants live?

Answer: In grasslands in Africa and India.

Task based- instruction approach

( An opinion gap activity)

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- Correct answer and errors could be

considered as worth step to get the

knowledge.

7. Hacer que los estudiantes investiguen más sobre los

habitats de los animales. Por equipo puede asignar un animal a cada uno para que presenten a la clase un

reporte sencillo en inglés.

Community Language Learning

(Small group task)

-- It encourages students to investigate

outside the classroom.

8. Invitar a un biólogo o un veterinario a la clase para

que hable sobre la vida animal.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It lets consider the mother tongue as positive element to construct

knowledge of the English language.

9. Elaborar una pequeña encuesta y que contesten

todos los estudiantes. En parejas pueden compartir la

información. Las posibles preguntas pueden ser:

What do you do to recycle things?

What do you do to save the energy?

What do you do to help animals?

Task – based instruction approach

Principle: Students have input into

the design and the way that they carry out the task. This gives them

more opportunity for authentic and

meaningful interaction.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It considers students’ beliefs.

4. Your planet needs you 1. Preparar fotografías de los periódicos sobre

fábricas, zonas de bosques quemados y talados,

basureros, etc. Colocarlos en el aula visible para todos

los estudiantes. Dar tiempo para que los observen y

Communicative Language

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

reflexionen sobre ellos.

Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It considers the way students learn.

-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.

-- It involves students in real world

situations.

Vocabulary:

• words related to

eco-system

2. Escribir en la pizarra oraciones como estas:

What every day objects can we recycle?

What causes air pollution and acid rain?

Which of the rivers is more polluted?

What is happening to our forests?

What destroys the ozone layer?

Leer las oraciones y que los estudiantes investiguen las

respuestas.

Task based instruction

(A reasoning gap activity)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It grounds learning activities in an

authentic, real-world context.

-- It promotes the students investigate outside or inside the classroom.

Functions:

• asking an giving

information

about the

ecosystem

3. Iniciar una campaña de reciclaje en el grado. Con

cajas de cartón, que los estudiantes las rotulen en

inglés para que allí depositen desperdicios que se

reciclan. Esta campaña puede extenderse a toda la

institución.

Communicative Language

Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It makes possible the learning

transcend from the classroom to real

situations.

-- It grounds learning activities in an

authentic, real-world context.

Grammar:

• simple present in

all its forms

• must/mustn’t

4. Para introducir must y musn´t, utilice la campaña de reciclaje iniciada para que, en tiras de cartulina, los

estudiantes elaboren oraciones como: We must recycle

paper, y que las coloquen por todo el grado.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Deductive application of the rule)

-- It constructs previous knowledge.

-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

--It makes possible students creativity.

5. Escribir cartas en inglés que se podrían enviar a las

distintas organizaciones (MAG, ONG) solicitándoles

charlas.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Composition)

-- It considers the way student learns.

6. Solicitar a los estudiantes que investiguen lo que su

gobierno local está haciendo para evitar más daños al medio

ambiente. Que los estudiantes elaboren reportes.

The Direct Method

(Paragraph writing)

-- It encourages students to

investigate outside the classroom.

-- It makes possible the knowledge

transcend from the classroom to real

situations.

5. Wonderful creatures 1. Procurar que los estudiantes nombren los animales que

conocen y sus costumbres alimenticias, donde viven, como

se esconden, si se comen o no etc.

Content based approach

Principle: Teaching should build on

student’s previous experience.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It can encourage learners’

initiative.

--It can encourage the students to overcome their linguistic level.

Vocabulary:

• acts about

animals

2. Después de escuchar a varios estudiantes haciendo

descripciones, que el alumnado escriba cinco preguntas

como:

How big is the______?

Can_______________swing?

How much does a _________weigh?

Que se hagan las preguntas en pareja.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Using words in sentences)

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It can emphasize learners’

autonomy and initiative.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

Functions:

• describing animals and

their habitat

3. Que los estudiantes elaboren pequeños carteles con

ilustraciones así:

Do you know?

Task- based instruction

( An information gap)

--It makes possible students

creativity.

-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.

• asking and

giving

information

about animals

You probable know that a camellion can change colors. But

did you know it can move one eye without moving the

other?

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

Grammar:

• simple present

in all its forms

• Wh- questions:

how big, how

tall, etc.

4. Con la información obtenida del proyecto anterior, que los estudiantes escriban preguntas así: “where do bowers

live? Y que otro estudiante conteste.

The Direct Method

( Question and answer exercises)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- Verbalization is used as a way to

represent the acquired knowledge.

-- It emphasizes performance and

understanding.

-- It encourages the students to

express by themselves in writing.

5. Como un proyecto, puede hacerse que en grupo los

estudiantes preparen pequeñas escenas representando

animales para denunciar el daño que se hace a su hábitat.

Desuggestopedia

(Creative adaptation)

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

--It makes possible students

creativity.

-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.

-- It encourages students to make

decisions and autonomous

development in learning activities.

UNIT SIX: WHAT DO YOU DO?

CONTENTS SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY BY MINED METHODS CONSTRUCTIVIST

METHODOLOGY

1. A day with dolphins 1. Presentar una lectura relacionada con la rutina diaria

de una persona y pedir a los estudiantes que subrayen

todos los verbos en la lectura sugerida.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It enquires on previous

knowledge.

-- It can develop learners’

autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

Vocabulary:

• actions

2. Luego que hayan subrayado los verbos, que escriban

oraciones con esos verbos de acuerdo con el texto.

The Grammar Translation

Method (Use words in sentences)

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It encourages students to reflect

about the use of the English

Language.

Functions:

• describing daily

routines

3. Realizar un ejercicio de complementación en el que

los estudiantes escribirán los verbos. Pueden dárseles

todos los verbos para que ellos escojan el que deben

escribir.

Grammar Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It encourages students to make

decisions and autonomous

development of learning activities.

-- It lets students to make choices in

their works.

-- It considers the different students´ learning styles.

Grammar:

• simple present

review

4. Preparar oraciones segmentadas para que los

estudiantes los pongan en orden. Pueden prepararse

sobres con las oraciones para que por equipos los vayan

formando.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Scrambled sentences)

-- It emphasizes individual as well

as cooperative learning.

-- It can develop learners’

autonomy.

-- It makes use of the cognitive

conflict.

5. Solicitar a los estudiantes que escriban en un párrafo

lo que hace cada uno de ellos (10 líneas). Que cada uno

The Direct Method

--It emphasizes individual learning

as well as cooperative learning.

comparta su información con otro compañero y que cada

uno reporte sobre otro.

(Paragraph writing)

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

6. Promover un juego en el que los estudiantes

entrevisten a sus compañeros y a cada uno le hacen una

pregunta. Escriban en la pizarra un cuestionario así:

Find someone who…

Helps his/her father in the field____________________

Cleans his/her room everyday _____________________

Cooks for his/her family_________________________ Works in a drugstore____________________________

Gets up at 5:00 in the morning____________________

El estudiante al entrevistar preguntará, por ejemplo: “Do

you help your father in the field?”Después de que todos

los estudiantes han hecho las preguntas, habrá que

ponerlas en comun.

Task-based instruction

approach

( An information gap)

-- It can develop learners’

autonomy.

-- It emphasizes cooperative

learning.

-- It inquires on previous

knowledge.

- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

-- It promotes the discussion of

student’s viewpoints.

-- It lets the students express

themselves orally.

7. Hacer que cada estudiante entreviste a una persona

muy conocida de la comunidad. Luego, que cada

estudiante lea en la clase las actividades de esa persona

sin decir el nombre, con el objeto que los demás

adivinen de quién se trata.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It promotes learners’ initiative.

-- It considers the way the student

learns.

-- It promotes the student investigate

outside the classroom.

2.Busy teenagers 1. La lectura que se usa en esta lección deberá

describir las actividades que realiza una persona joven

en cualquier parte del mundo.

Communicative Language

Teaching.

(Authentic Materials)

-- It involves students to learn

from real world situations.

Vocabulary:

• everyday activities

2. Dar el nombre de un(a) joven famoso(a) para que

los estudiantes vayan construyendo lo que esa persona hace todos los días. Por ejemplo, pueden escoger a

algún deportista de la comunidad o nacional, que sea

modelo de buenas cualidades. El primer estudiante

dice: “(nombre del deportista) gets up at six a.m.” y se

escribe esto en la pizarra; luego se sigue agregando

hasta completar un párrafo.

The Direct Method

( Paragraph writing)

-- It takes into account the

context in which learning is taking place.

-- It makes possible the whole

class interaction.

Functions:

• asking and giving

information about

everyday activities

3. Individualmente, cada estudiante hará lo mismo con

un personaje que él/ella escoja.

The Direct Method

(Writing paragraph)

-- It develops learners’

autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual

learning.

--It can encourage the students

to overcome their linguistic

level.

Grammar:

• object pronouns

• simple present

4. Solicitar a un estudiante pararse al frente, para que

los demás le hagan preguntas, por ejemplo, “ what

time do you get up?

Task- based instruction

approach

(An information gap)

-- It develops learners’

autonomy.

-- It emphasizes cooperative

learning.

-- It helps face the unpredictable

phase of the language.

5. Preparar una ficha como esta :

Grammar Translation Method

(Fill in the blanks)

-- It inquires on previous

knowledge.

-- It can develop learners’

autonomy.

Los estudiantes pueden llenar una ficha con personas

famosas y, luego, hacer un juego para leer en voz alta

una ficha los demás estudiantes pueden adivinar quién

es el personaje.

Name______________________age:____________

Profession__________________________________

City where he lives__________________________

City where ho works_________________________

How long does he works_____________________

When he sees his family______________________

-- It emphasizes cooperative

learning.

-- It lets students face the

unpredictable phase of the

language.

6. Hablar sobre la conveniencia de estar siempre

ocupados. Que cada estudiante escriba lo que hace en

tiempo libre.

Desuggestopedia

(Positive suggestion)

-- It considers the ways students

learn.

-- It encourages the students to

express by themselves in

writing.

3.A Good professional 1. Escoger una lectura de

un/a profesional famoso/a.

Communicative Language

Teaching

(Authentic Materials)

-- It takes into account the

context in which learning is

taking place.

Vocabulary:

• professions

2. Hacer que los estudiantes den ideas de que se trata

la lectura de la lección. Preguntarles que es lo que les

gustaría saber acerca de esa persona.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Translation of a literary

passage)

-- It considers the students

beliefs.

-- It can promote the discussion

of student’s viewpoints

-- Correct answer and errors can

be considered as worth step to

get the knowledge.

Functions:

• asking and

giving

information

about daily

routines

3. Introducir el posesivo con la ‘s (saxon genitive),

tomando como modelo a un estudiante del grado. Escribir

en la pizarra:

Miguel’s afternoon routine. Bajo este titulo escribir lo que

ese estudiante hace en su período.

The Grammar Translation

Method

(Deductive application of the

rule)

-- It lets construct previous knowledge.

-- It takes into account the context in

which learning is taking place.

Grammar:

• saxon genitive

• possessives

• questions

words

4. Tal como se hizo en la sugerencia anterior, que cada

estudiante entrevista a un compañero y que después

escriba lo que ese compañero hace.

Communicative Language

Teaching.

(Authentic materials)

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It stimulates verbal interaction.

5. Escribir en inglés nombres de profesiones en la pizarra.

Escoger una de las y entre todo el grado escribir un párrafo sencillo, de unas cinco líneas, sobre las

actividades que ese profesional desarrolla un día común.

Por ejemplo:

Dancer: Nina Petrowsky is a prima ballerina at the

Bolshoi Ballet. She lives with her husband, Guya, in an

apartment in Moscú. The apartment is small…

The Direct Method

(Paragraph Writing)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It encourages cooperative learning.

-- It can make possible the whole class

interaction.

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

6. Con base en lo que se ha construido en la pizarra, hacer

que los estudiantes lean la información y que luego, en su

cuaderno, hagan preguntas así:

What’s her husband name?

Where does Nina live? How’s Nina’s life?

The Direct Method

(Reading comprehension

questions)

-- It can encourage learners’ initiative.

-- It makes use of cognitive conflict.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

7. Si es necesario. Dar claves para que los

estudiantes escriban preguntas. Por ejemplo:

Where/ live/

What/husband’s name/

What / do/ in the morning

The Audio - Lingual-

Method

(Multiple - slot

substitution drill)

-- It considers the way students learn.

-- It lets the students to express by themselves in

writing.

8. Solicitar a los estudiantes que escriban un

párrafo acerca de ellos mismos, utilizando el

saxon genitive cuando sea posible. Que lo lean al

frente y pedir que cada uno de los demás escriba

una oración sobre el estudiante así:

Robert’s brother lives in San Salvador.

The Grammar

Translation Method

(Composition)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It lets the students to express by themselves in writing.

4. Plans and

expectatives

1. Preguntar que quieren ser cuando sean adultos.

Se pueden sugerir profesiones u ocupaciones que

ellos mencionan. Escribirlas en la pizarra.

Content- based approach

Principle: the subject

matter content is used

for language teaching purposes.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It lets the teacher engage in dialogue with the

students.

Vocabulary:

• actions

• occupations and

professions

review

2. Solicitar que cada estudiante escriba en su

cuaderno:

I want to be_________________________,

añadiendo el nombre de una profesión u

ocupación.

Content - based

approach

Principle: when they

work with authentic subject matter, students

need language support.

-- It involves the students in real life situations.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

Functions:

• actions and

giving

information

about future

intentions

3. Con ilustraciones presentar pequeñas

descripciones, por ejemplo: I have a university

education in medicine. I work in a hospital. I like

to work with people. Presentar varias profesiones u

ocupaciones de esta manera.

Content – based

instruction approach

Principle: when they work with authentic

subject matter, students

need language support.

-- It supports the construction of previous

knowledge of the language.

-- It considers the way the students learn.

Grammar:

• “going to”

future

• “want to”

4. Solicitar exprese lo que su compañero de al lado

quiere ser, por ejemplo:

Margarita likes children; she wants to be a

The Audio – Lingual

Method

( Chain drill)

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

pediatrician. She is going to be a good doctor.

(pediatrician)

5. Motivar a los estudiantes a suponer que ya

escogió la profesión o carrera técnica que va a

estudiar y que redacte un párrafo parecido al

siguiente: I like to fly, I’m going to be a pilot, I

like everything about the space.

The Direct Method

(Paragraph writing)

-- It encourages learners’ autonomy.

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

6. Puede organizar un juego pasando cinco

estudiantes al frente. Cada estudiante deberá decir una frase acerca de una profesión escogida; si se

elige “profesor”, las frases pueden ser:

I like people

I don’t like office work

I check papers.

I work with many people.

I play in my job.

Desuggestopedia

(Creative adaptation)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy and initiative.

-- It emphasizes performance and understanding.

-- It lets students face the unpredictable phase of

the communication.

7. Invitar a un orientador profesiográfico o

psicólogo para que de una charla inicial a los

estudiantes sobre las distintas posibilidades de

carrreras u oficios.

Communicative

Language Teaching

(Authentic materials)

-- It stimulates students to learn from real

situations.

-- It lets consider the mother tongue as positive

element to construct knowledge of the English

language.

5. Making plans for

christmas

1. Preguntar que va a hacer en vacaciones.

Escribir en la pizarra lo que digan.

I am going to work with my father.

I am going to play everyday.

I am going to rest.

I am going to visit my relatives.

I am going to read books.

Content – based approach

Principle: when learners perceive the

relevance of their language use, they

are motivated to learn. They know it

is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It makes possible the whole class

interaction.

-- It constructs on students’ prior knowledge.

Vocabulary:

• dates

2. Escribir en la pizarra What are you going to

do for Christmas? Explicar, si es necesario, sin

traducir. Dar tiempo para que los estudiantes

escriban sus respuestas.

Task- based instruction approach

(An opinion gap)

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

-- It considers students’ beliefs.

-- It considers the way the students

learn.

Functions:

• asking and giving

information about

future intention and

habits

3. Pedir a varios estudiantes que lean lo que

han escrito y que los demás escuchen y traten

de comprender. Que los estudiantes hagan

preguntas sobre lo escuchado.

Community Language Learning

(Reflective listening)

-- Correct answer and errors can be

considered as worth step to get the

knowledge.

-- It supports the verbal interaction.

-- Verbalization can be used as way to represent the acquired knowledge.

Grammar:

• “going to” future

• simple present

• adverbs of

frequency

4. Si en la comunidad viven varios extranjeros,

invitarlos al aula para que expliquen cómo

celebran la navidad en sus países. Si el visitante

habla inglés, los estudiantes deben hacerle

preguntas.

Communicative language learning

(Authentic materials)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and initiative.

-- It considers the different student’s

learning styles.

-- It stimulates a real life encounter.

5. Solicitar a los estudiantes que

investiguen cómo se celebra la

navidad en distintas partes del mundo

y que hagan una pequeña exposición.

Communicative Language Learning

(Authentic material)

-- It can develop learners’ autonomy

and promote skills of self reliance and

investigation over teacher

dependence.

-- It encourages students to

investigate outside the classroom.

6. Practicar los adverbios de

frecuencia: always, never, sometimes,

often, escribiendo oraciones como:

We always eat tamales for Christmas. I sometimes invite friends to my

house.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Use words in sentences)

-- It stimulates a real life situation.

-- It inquires on previous knowledge.

-- It lets the students to Express by

themselves in writing.

7. Que cada estudiante escriba tres

oraciones personales sobre la navidad

usando adverbios de frecuencia y que

las lea en voz alta.

The Grammar Translation Method

(Use words in sentences)

-- It emphasizes individual learning.

-- It lets the students to express by

themselves in writing.

8. Si un estudiante dice We always go

to the beach for Christmas, que el

compañero de la par le pregunte:

“Are you going to the beach this

year?”

Puede hacerse un ejercicio en cadena.

The Audio-Lingual Method

(Chain drill) -- It emphasizes cooperative learning.

-- It supports the verbal interaction.

-- It can encourage the students to

overcome their linguistic level.

2.9.3. Constructivist ideas and the English programs for Junior High

Contents

The programs analysis reflects the constructivist ideas because they present contents based

on the students’ interest and previous knowledge. That is, the topics are related with points

that the learners would like to know according to their age, these are connected with the

information which has been acquired in their environment (family, media, community,

etc.). This information allows motivating the students and helps them to attach the old

information with the new one.

Methodology

The proposed methodology in the Junior High programs enhances the students learning

ability and help teachers, to select enriched material for teaching. It is focused on the

Constructivist approach which benefits all students with different needs and abilities. The

teacher is able to adapt more materials to the students’ environment, which helps the

students’ become successful learners. By using several teaching ways for the students,

individual and group learning as a whole is being enhanced, because one single teaching

way does not reach all levels of understanding.

Teacher’s involvement

The Constructivist Approach presented in the programs has many methods and techniques

for students to learn, but by assessing the students’ abilities, the teacher is able to choose

the right method or technique for the individual student. This Approach cannot favor the

teacher’s preferred style, but must meet the needs of all students by using a variety of

teaching styles. The teacher may be able to use their ideas or imaginative thoughts as

freely.

The teacher’s assistance is widely considered in the programs not as the knowledge giver

but as a bridge between the child and the knowledge. It allows the teacher to put into

practice their creativity using what the programs propose in order to help the students to

construct meaningful learning. Teacher must endeavor to present relevant information to

keep the learners’ motivation for learning.

Students’ involvement

The students’ action in the English programs is regarded as the most important element

since it begins the success construction of their own knowledge. All the activities

suggested in the programs lead the students to get involved in this process, because they

allow constructing new understandings based on the previous ones. But the programs also

let the teacher builds previous knowledge (English language knowledge) when they are

missing.

2.9.4. Drawbacks in the Junior High Programs

Contents

It is considered that the programs present some disadvantage such as: There are contents

which can not be standardized for all Salvadorean students for instance content 3 from unit

3, “a circus school.” (Seventh grade) Since, circuses are not common everywhere in El

Salvador. This could originate lack of interest for learners.

In unit 6 the first content titled “A day with dolphins” (seventh grade) has no coherence

with the suggested methodology because it is supposed that might talk something about

dolphins. This kind of mistakes leads to misunderstandings of context and meaning.

Methodology

The programs from the beginning suggest that the students must write sentences and

paragraphs. However, it is well known that in El Salvador most of the students get familiar

with the English language in seventh grade and do not have developed this skill; therefore,

some of methodological suggestions are not attached to the student’s previous knowledge

of the English language.

The programs do not specify the percentage of the use of the English language during the

class in progress.

The programs are too wide, if it is considered that at this level the teacher should take

enough time in the construction of the prior knowledge of the English language.

The suggested methodology does not specify the English level that the student should have

developed some activities like: tell and write stories which are advanced to student’s level.

Some methodological suggestions are too extensive, and do not take into consideration the

real time to develop a content. For example to develop complex grammatical structures like

present perfect (eight and ninth grade)

2.95. Programs in the practice

Contrasting what the English program for Junior High proposes to produce Meaningful

Learning and the practice, the researchers valued, that the program is used only as a

reference for planning some topics and not as a set of systematized organization of the

objectives, contents and activities.

The programs are consulted without deepen in the real objective pretended with them,

because of the lack of information that the teacher has about the Constructivist

Methodology.

The programs propose methods and Constructivist techniques for the English Language

teaching. However, the teacher creates his own methodology based on the “Activist way”

(do just for do).

2.9.6. Constructivist ideas in the practice

The starting point of this research is in the Piaget’s, Vigotsky’s Bruner’s, Ausubel’s and

Gardner’s theories whose ideas have transcended to the educative practice, renowned as

Constructivism because of the central idea that the individual is the constructor of his or her

own knowledge. Therefore, it is considered necessary to contrast the involvement of the

Constructivist ideas assumed methodologically in the English programs through the direct

observation activities done in class by the teacher and students.

Piaget divided the children development in four stages. He considered that the individual

reaches different levels of knowledge depending on the age. For that reason, in the teaching

learning – process the new knowledge must be presented considering elements that

converge with the learners maturing. In this sense, the programs and any other help to ease

the students to acquire knowledge in the formal education have regarded Piaget’s ideas.

However, in the practice it was observed that the teacher did not take into account the

students’ developmental stage because in the contents presented to the students their ages

interests, needs and motivation were not considered.

Vigotsky’s most important concept is the Proximal Development Zone which emphasizes

the cooperative learning. According to him learners do not learn in an isolated way but in

the social context in which is valued the help that people around can give to the individual

in knowledge construction. Vigotsky draws attention not just to the role that the society

plays but to the role that the teacher performs to help his group in the knowledge

acquisition.

In the practice it was observed most of the time the individual worked. Some students

work by themselves but the great majority did not work and in the best of the cases they

asked to copy what the other classmate had done. They almost never inquired to the

teacher, if they did it; the help was not enough to encourage the students to construct a

Meaningful Learning.

Bruner’s contribution to the educative field presents similarity to Piaget’s ideas. He

distinguished three models to represent understanding, and assure that these are present in

every knowledge acquisition in the whole life.

Example of the three models of knowledge representation: Students could be asked to

construct models of the parts of the human body (enactive); they might watch a film about,

or involving, the human body (iconic); or they could consult reference texts and then

discuss their findings (symbolic).

Bruner thought that learners construct new knowledge based on the information already

learned. The early years provide the basis for language, physical agility, social

understanding, and emotional development that learners will use for the rest of their life.

From this new perspective, it is acknowledged the function of the learners’ previous

experiences which must be discovered by the teacher in order to assist their students in

learning.

This aspect mentioned by Bruner was not observed in the classroom, teacher almost never

asked about what the students know concerning the new content or something related to it.

Most of the time he started his class without having information on what the students knew

about it.

The most important developments of Ausubel’s writings in the theory of knowledge were

the Advanced Organizers and the Meaningful Learning. He recognized the importance of

the use of material which provides an anchoring idea to the students about a new content in

order to ease their understanding. Ausubel also concentrated on the idea of constructing

meaningful learning, which is possible when the students relate the knowledge acquired

with the new one, to do so it is necessary to distinguish what the child knows to look for the

connection between those kinds of information.

Related to this point, what the researchers observed in the class in progress was that the

teacher almost never used any material in his classes except a marker and sometimes a

book from which he took some dialogues to write on the board. Also when he started a new

content or finished one he did not matter to find out whether the students had learned or

not, in order to consider it in the next content or unit.

Howard Gardner is also renowned as Constructivist because of the multiple intelligences

theory. He affirmed that all individuals posses at least eight intelligences which the teacher

should discover, nurture and strengthen them in order to classify the type of activities,

exercises, tasks, etc. for each students to do. According to Gardner, the teacher must not

apply the same strategy to ease the students to learn because every single learner is

different from the other and needs to be leaded according to his or her weaknesses and

strengths.

The observation revealed that the teacher did not take into consideration the way the

students learn because during the time the researchers were in the classroom he never

changed the way to teach and not even were observed attempts for helping students who

needed an additional way of instruction.

2.9.7. DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION (After contrasting the

authors’ ones)

Constructivism is a reference for teachers which suggest them to take into consideration the

learners’ age, the social environment, the prior knowledge and the different levels of

understandings as means to acquire knowledge, in order to succeed in the teaching -

learning process. Identifying those aspects, teacher become conscious that the learner is an

individual who is capable to construct knowledge by themselves.

Constructivism is a theory about learning, not a description of teaching. A theory about

learning because it tells the teacher the way the individual learns. It is not a description of

teaching because it does not tell the teacher a specific way for developing its task, but to

choose the methodology that responds to the students’ interests and needs.

The way the individual perceives knowledge and the process of coming to know provides

the basis for educational practice. If educators believe that learners passively receive

information then priority in instruction will be on knowledge transmission. If, on the other

hand, they believe that learners actively construct knowledge in their attempts to make

sense of their world, then learning will likely emphasize on the development of meaning

and understanding.

Constructivism lets the educator know how the individual learns and does not prescribe any

specific methodology but to make an adaptation according to what the learners need in

order to acquire a Meaningful Learning, which is considered as the final knowledge

product that the students acquire from the relation between what he knew and what has

been presented.

In a constructivist view, the learner is the one who constructs knowledge, but it does not

dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge; this establishes its

base in one of the most important concepts of Vigotsky’s theory the Proximal Development

Zone, which is the level of understanding that the learners can reach by themselves and the

one that can reach with help of another more capable individual.

Constructivism modifies the teacher’s role; so that teachers help students construct

knowledge rather than reproduce a series of facts. He is a facilitator, who coaches,

moderates, and suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, and try

things that don’t work. He offers students different learning experiences and the students

reflect on those experiences and give a meaning or make sense without been taught by the

teacher. When something new is presented to students, they have to reconcile it with their

previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what they believe, or maybe discarding the

new information as irrelevant. In any case, they are active creators of their own knowledge.

To do this, they must ask questions, explore, and assess what they know.

Constructivism transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active

participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their

knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or

the textbook.

The Constructivist teaching emphasizes the attention to the students’ diversity. This

principle is drawn out from the multiple intelligences theory which emphasizes the

importance to teach according to the students’ learning way and needs. For that reason it

must be considered the usefulness of the methodology that responds to every student

requirement, through the cooperative learning among students and teacher – students.

The Constructivist teacher must provide tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based

learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and

inferences, and pool and put into words their knowledge in a collaborative learning

environment.

It considered that the most relevant aspects in a Constructivist teaching is the students’ role,

teacher’s role, the curricular contents and the references given by the constructivist theory

about how the individual learns in such a way the teacher makes use of the learners’ natural

capabilities and development and the role that plays the environment and the interaction

among them. There are many ways of interpreting or understand the connection of those

aspects to develop skills and abilities to construct knowledge in a participatory way.

CHAPTER III

3. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH

At the beginning of this research the first idea was that the Constructivism has been applied

in the Salvadorean curricular instruments in order to give a new course to the Salvadorean

Education to respond to the globalization phenomenon. This was the starting point of this

research which leads the researchers to find out the reaches and limitations of the

application of the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs for Junior

High by the Ministry of Education (MINED). The bibliographical information found in

documents from the Ministry of Education gave to know that the Constructivism Approach

was assumed officially in the English programs since 1998. Other texts provided important

elements of the Constructivist theories which helped to have a clear idea about the

Constructivist Methodology as well.

The Salvadorean Educative specialists pointed out that the Constructivism is not new in El

Salvador; since the teachers make it possible in the classroom everyday and that the

situation is that they did not know the methodology as Constructivism until 1994. As it is

the case with many of the current or popular paradigms, teachers were already using the

Constructivist Approach to some degree.

They also indicate that Constructivism could become in “Activism” when the contents are

developed without taking into account all those aspects that lead students to achieve an

enduring knowledge. The result of the “Activism” is a meaningless knowledge. Its

consequences are visible, in the change from content to content, from unit to unit, from a

grade to another when the students have to put into practice what they have learned before,

and the students do not remember basic procedures to develop the new one.

On the other hand, the Constructivist Methodology is considered groundbreaking for

teachers and students in the sense that this advises the teachers to leave the old

methodology which sees learners’ mind as blank pages upon which knowledge is etched,

and emphasize the way the student learns considering all those personal characteristics that

allow establishing methods and techniques to help them to gain a better understanding of

their world.

The Constructivist Methodology promotes the students’ construction of knowledge by

themselves especially through hands on, minds on, and cooperative learning. The teacher

has to guide the students toward the construction of knowledge. Thus, he offers a variety of

activities according to the students needs and interests in which they can analyze, create,

and discuss together to build new learning that will be meaningful in their lives.

The Constructivist Approach presented methodologically in all the programs is centered in

the development of skills, in which the student learns to reach understanding of topics by

himself. In this framework, the English study programs for Junior High guide teachers in

the planning and organization of the teaching learning process (TLP), considering the

reality of El Salvador and the students’ ages, abilities and interests, and taking into account

their specific needs as English- language learners. To achieve this, these programs present

specific objectives, contents, methodological suggestions, evaluation criteria, and cross

curricular topics in every lesson.

The methodology proposed by MINED in the English programs of Junior High is eclectic

(integral), which combines activities and techniques from the different teaching - learning

approaches and methods, such as: Total Physical Response, (TPR), Grammar Translation

Method, Direct Method, Silent Way, Audio- Lingual Method, Desuggestopedia,

Communicative Language Learning, the Communicative Language Teaching approach,

Content- Based approach and the Task – Based approach. The combination of methods

selected by the teachers should match the needs of the class: the rhythm, style of learning,

age of students, teaching style, experience, and didactic resources available.

The English programs for Junior High enhance motivation, participation and self -

confidence through different communicative activities in which students become fully

active participants. It stresses the importance of providing learners with the opportunities to

use their English for communicative purposes not only for the development of linguistics

skills. Students work with authentic material in small groups, practicing meaningful and

functional activities.

Obviously, the proposal of this methodology in the programs meets reality in the

classroom. In this sense, and considering that this research aims to find out whether the

Constructivist Methodology was being applied in the classroom and which are its reaches

and limitations, it was necessary the direct observation of the teacher’s and students’ role at

Junior High level in the public school “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez”, which is

placed in Sensuntepeque, Departamento de Cabañas, approximately 84 kms far from San

Salvador city: it is located in the Segunda calle poniente number 29 from Barrio El

Calvario with infrastructure code 12266, it is part of the Educative District 09-01.

In 2006 this institution had a population of 2000 students divided into Kindergarten,

Elementary, Junior High, High School and Evening school for adults.

The school’s facility is made of 18 available classrooms for teaching. It counts on basic

services. The human resources are 43 trained teachers to work on the different levels, 900

students’ parents and 2000 students.

The school counts with a Centre of Resources for Learning, (in Spanish CRA) which does

not work, therefore, a project on computer assisted learning was implemented.

In the science field, there were received from MINED 4 laboratory kits, there is an

available library that is used by students and teachers as well.

The school mission is “To get Educative success, applying Methodologies that allow the

integral development and the experience of the human values practiced by the students.

Its vision is “We want to make of the school, an institution, to form helpful people to the

family and the society so they can contribute with the development of our nation.”

The observation carried out in this institution was the complement of the bibliographical

research about the Constructivist theory and its entrance in the Salvadorean territory. The

final results gave to know that the Constructivist Methodology is not applied in a

systematical way; most of the time it is mixtured with elements of an “activist

methodology” or traditional one.

Constructivist Methodology proposed by the Ministry of Education is still on paper, the

direct observation of teacher and students’ role in the practice do not reflect a remarkable

application of its principles. The most frequent observation criterion was not visible choice

from the four used to determine the frequency that the students’ and teacher’s performance

show Constructivist attitudes during the development of different contents. (See

attachments). The interview with the teacher who is specialized in the English teaching

field (See attachments) in charge of teaching English Language gave to know the

following: He used the English programs for Junior High in planning but he did not know

about the Constructivist Approach assumed within them. Also he said he has never been in

a workshop about constructivism; as a result, he just used the programs to highlight some

aspects from this, such as the name of the contents, units and objectives. Consequently, he

did not develop the suggested methodology in the programs, and he developed his own

teaching way based on the traditional way in the classes in progress. The researchers also

wanted to realize about the students’ feelings about their preferences, usefulness and the

class methodology of the English subject through a questionnaire (See Attachments). They

responded that, they liked the English subject a little, but at the same time they considered

that, English is important for their lives, they also considered that learning English is a little

difficult. Moreover, they answered that, they liked the way the teacher developed the

English class a little and that, the teacher, must change his methodology to teach English a

lot.

Considering these answers it is assumed that the students are conscious about the

importance of English Learning, but at the same time they recognize that there is an

obstacle that restraint them to success in their learning which could be the teacher’s

methodology. On the other hand, teacher’s responses give to know what essential would be

the fact to be completely aware of the new methodology and how to use it. However, the

teacher cannot be responsible at all for this, but the whole educational system that has to

propitiate all the conditions in schools and the educators’ professionalism in order to attain

a truthful development of the constructivist methodology.

It is fundamental to mention that in a Salvadorean classroom at a public school like

“Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez” the teacher must face large class groups, lack of

essential didactic resources to teach the English subject and that he had to teach in double

shift which constitute additional obstacles to develop the Constructivist Methodology.

If Constructivism Approach is considered as the solution to put an end to the traditional

teaching ways in El Salvador it is essential that teachers know this theory (the nature of

how human beings build knowledge as a rich and rewarding area in which develop

teaching) and also to be showed the way they have to develop the teaching- learning

process with this Constructivist Approach. That is, the teachers have to be trained in the

Constructivist practice. Moreover, to be specialist in their subjects and help the students

“Learn to learn”. In this way Constructivism will not be just an “educative approach” and

will not be mistaken with “Activism”.

However, it is considered that time is still running out for positive results of the application

of the Constructivist Methodology proposed in the English programs for Junior High.

It is important to mention that according to what the teacher commented, it seems that all of

that changes about a new way of teaching English in El Salvador appeared suddenly

without time to digest ( much less understand) the changes brought in the educative field as

a result of the last Educative Reform. In this sense, it is considered that teachers must have

great participation in the definition of new educational reforms.

The Ministry of Education can no longer be boasting about, Constructivism is being used in

the Salvadorean classroom especially in the English Language Teaching. Its application has

to be rethought.

This research about the application of the Constructivist Methodology proposed by MINED

in the programs of Junior High has shown how fragile appears the theory in practice.

Therefore, it will have to devote vastly scientific and financial resources to overcome the

teachers and students’ needs in order to develop a real education that responds to the

globalization phenomenon to be at the front of the progress as it was stated in the entrance

of the Constructivism in the Salvadorean Education.

3.2. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

For data gathering were used two checklists, one for the observation of the teacher’s role

and one for the student’s role during the class in progress. The procedure consisted in the

observation of the teacher and students during their performance in the classroom, during

two weeks because in the school the teacher taught English everyday in Junior High level.

The totals of observation were three per day, twelve per week, and twenty four during the

two weeks. The researchers entered to the classroom at the beginning of the class and they

stayed there until the end. The checklists were verified to analyze the performance of the

students and teacher, after each class during the break time. It was in this way, because the

checking process in the classroom could be disturbing for the teacher, students and

researchers.

3.3. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DATA ANALYSIS

The data analysis was carried out taking into account the frequency, counting for each class

the researchers were in situ in the school for the English class to be observed. It was

decided to make a consolidation of the observation from the three grades to do the analysis,

because there were no notable changes in the students’ and teachers’ performances. The

totals of frequencies were converted into percentages (See attachments) to obtain the final

results.

3.4. CHRONOGRAM

ACTIVITY MONTH/ 2006 MONTH/ 2007

August September October November December January February March April

Documental research

Adjustments to the

gathered information

during the seminary

course.

Elaboration of the

instruments.

Fieldwork

Direct observation at

“Complejo

Educativo Sotero

Lainez”

Theoretical processing

Data analysis

First draft edition

Results

First draft presentation

Second Draft edition

Second draft

presentation

Final draft edition

Final draft

presentation

3.5. RESOURCES

Human resources

Researchers, academic advisor, teacher, students, school principal and school vice –

principal.

Logistics resources

School, computers, paper, flash memory, Compact Disk, diskettes, books, magazines

computer ink, paper, information downloaded from internet.

3.6. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS ON FINAL REPORT

CHAPTER I

1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction

1.1. General and specific objectives

1.2. Antecedents of the problem

1.3. Statement of the problem

1.4. Justification

1.5. Reaches and limitations

1.6. Type of research

1.7. Sum up of concepts and categories to be used

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2. THEORETICAL- METHODOLOGICAL BASE

2.1. Origin of the constructivism

2.2. Pioneers of the constructivism

2.3. New perspectives to the constructivist learning theory

2.4. What is Constructivism?

2.4.1. Types of constructivism

2.4.2. Constructivism in the classroom

2.4.3. The constructivist teacher

2.4.4. Teacher’s role

2.4.5 Student’s role

2.5. Constructivist Methodology

2.5.1. Aims of a Constructivist Methodology

2.6. Didactic principles in the teaching of the English Language

2.7 Characteristics of the pedagogical constructivism

2.8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

Methodology

2.8.1. Population sample

2.8.2. Methods, techniques, instruments and procedures

2.9. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION ABOUT THE

RESEARCH

2.9.1. The current English programs for Junior High

2.9.2. Analysis of the seventh grade Program

2.9.3. Constructivist ideas and the English programs for Junior High

2.9.4. Drawbacks in the Junior High Programs

2.9.5. Programs in the practice

2.9.6. Constructivist ideas in the practice

2.9.7 DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION (After contrasting the

authors’ ones)

CHAPTER III

3. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH

3.2. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

3.3. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE FOR THE DATA ANALYSIS

3.4. CHRONOGRAM

3.5. RESOURCES

3.6. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS ON FINAL REPORT

3.7. GENERAL AND USED REFERENCES

3.8. ATTACHMENTS

3.8.1. Checklist for the Constructivist teacher’s role

3.8.2. Checklist for the Constructivist student’s role

3.8.3. Interview

3.8.4. Questionnaire

3.8.5. Checklist to observe methods used during the class in progress

3.8.6. Observation’s results

3.8.7. Basic theoretical Proposal

3.7. GENERAL AND USED REFERENCE

General References

Alwood de mata, Claudia. Reforma Educativa de los 90. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1999.

Alvarez de Zayas, Carlos M. Pedagogía como ciencia. Ed. Félix Varela. Cuba. 1998.

Antunes, Celso. Como Estimular las inteligencias múltiples. Ed. Narcea. España. 2002.

Boggino, Norberto. El constructivismo en el aula. Ed. Homosapiens. Argentina. 2004.

Corrales Mora, Maricruz. Lenguaje logo – Descubriendo un nuevo mundo. Ed.

Universidad Estatal a Distancia. Costa Rica. 1996.

Diccionario Enciclopédico de Educación. Grupo Editorial Ceac. España. 2003.

Diccionario de las Ciencias de la Educación. Ed. Santillana. México. 1993.

F. Biehler, Robert. En: Psicología aplicada a la enseñanza. Ed. Limusa. México. 1990.

García, Madruga, Juan Antonio. En: Psicología evolutiva. Ed. Universidad nacional de

Educación a Distancia. Madrid. 1990.

Espinosa, Francisco. Panorama de la Escuela Salvadoreña y otros escritos. Ed. Piedra

Santa. 2000.

Galo de Lara, Carmen María. Evaluación del Aprendizaje. Ed. Piedra Santa. El Salvador.

2001.

Kennet, Henson. Psicología para la enseñanza eficaz. Ed. Thomson. México. 1999.

Larsen Freeman, Diane. Technique and principles in language teaching. Ed. Oxford

University. China. 2000.

Nunan, David. Second Language teaching & learning. Ed. Newbury House. United

States. 1999.

Juif, P. En: Grandes orientaciones de la pedagogía contemporánea. Ed. Narcea. España.

1988.

Rojas Zamora, Marisela. Educación Científica y matemáticas para el niño preescolar I.

Universidad Estatal a Distancia. Costa Rica. 2002.

UNICEF. Fundamentos de la metodología participativa y de la investigación

participativa. Ed. UNICEF. Guatemala. 1998.

Universidad José Simeón cañas. Desarrollo Profesional. Sistema de educación a

Distancia. Departamento de educación. El Salvador. 2003.

Used references

Antunes, Celso. Vigotsky en el aula… ¿Quien diría?. Ed. San Benito. Argentina. 2003.

Arancibia, Violeta. En: Psicología de la Educación. Ed. Alfaomega. México. 1999.

Bladillo Gallego, Rómulo. Competencias Cognoscitivas. Ed. Magisterio. Colombia. 1999.

Bruner, Jerome. Desarrollo Cognitivo. Ediciones Morata. España. 2001.

Campbell, Linda. En: Inteligencias Múltiples - Usos Prácticos de Enseñanza

Aprendizaje. Ed. Troquel. Argentina. 2000.

Consejo Nacional de Fomento Educativo (CONAFE). Teóricos: Vigotsky, Bruner y

Piaget. Ed. CONAFE. México. 2002.

Delgado Amaya, Master Didier. Revista Matices Pedagógicos. Ed. INFORP- UES. El

Salvador. 1999.

Díaz Suárez, Reinaldo. La Educación – Teorías Educativas – Estrategias de Enseñanza

– Aprendizaje. Ed. Trillas. México. 2002.

Escamilla, Luís. Reformas Educativas – Historias contemporáneas de la Educación

Formal en El Salvador. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1981.

FEPADE. Cuadernillos Técnicos #7. Ed. Algier´s Impresores. El Salvador. 1998.

Ferrater Mora, José. Diccionario de grandes filósofos 2 (K – Z). Ed. Alianza. España.

2002.

Fernández Santos, Agustín. En: I Congreso pedagógico ALFA: Creando nuevas formas

de Enseñar y Aprender. Ed. Montañas de Fuego. El Salvador. 2002.

Flores Ochoa, Rafael. Evaluación Pedagógica y Cognición. Ed. Mc Graw – Hill

Interamericana. Colombia. 1999.

González, Eugenio. Psicología de la Educación y del desarrollo en la Edad Escolar. Ed.

CCS. España. 2004.

Grupo Océano. Manual de la Educación. Ed. Océano España. ISBN: 84-494-1617-5.

Joao, Oscar Picardo. Educación y Realidad - Introducción a la filosofía del aprendizaje.

Ed. Obando. Costa Rica. 2002.

Labinowicz, Ed. Introducción a Piaget - Pensamiento- Aprendizaje- enseñanza. Ed.

Colegio Americano. México. 1986.

Luzuriaga, Lorenzo. Antología Pedagógica. Ed. Lozada. Argentina. 1956.

MINED. Programas de estudio de ingles – Tercer ciclo de Educación Básica. Ed.

MINED. El Salvador. 1998.

MINED. Reforma Educativa en Marcha Documento II. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1994

-1999.

MINED. Reforma Educativa en marcha - un vistazo al pasado de la Educación en El

Salvador- documento I. Ed. MINED. El Salvador. 1995.

MINED. Programas de Escuelas Modelos. El Salvador. 1998.

Ferrater Mora, José. Diccionario de grandes filósofos 2 (K – Z). Ed. Alianza. España.

2002.

Onrubia, Javier. En: El Constructivism en el Aula. Ed. Grao. Bogotá. 1999.

Ortiz de Maschwitz, Elena María. Inteligencias Múltiples en la educación de la persona.

Ed. Bonum. ISBN 950-507-570-7.

Pérez Castro, Abigail. En: Reforma de la historia y la historia de la reforma educativa

en marcha de El Salvador. (Borrador). Ed. MINED. El Salvador, s.f.

Pérez Córdoba, Rafael Ángel. El Constructivismo en los Espacios Educativos. Ed.

Obando. Costa Rica. 2002.

Picardo Joao, Oscar Carlos. Realidades Educativas - Teoría y praxis contemporánea.

Ed. INFORP- UES, El Salvador. 2000.

Ruiz Ayala, Nubia Consuelo. Desarrollo de potencialidades y Competencias. Ed.

Prolibros. Colombia. 2003.

Saavedra R, Manuel S. Diccionario de Pedagogía. Ed. Pax. México. 2003.

Solano Alpizar, José. Educación y aprendizaje. Ed. Obando, Costa Rica, 2002.

WWW.MINED.gob.sv

Zabala, Antoni. En: Constructivismo en el aula, Ed., Grao, Colombia, 1999.

3.8. ATTACHMENTS

CHECKLIST FOR THE CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER’S ROLE

SCHOOL: “Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez”

GRADE: _________ Section ____________ Date ___________

OBJECTIVE: To observe the teacher’s role during the class in progress.

QUESTIONS FREQUENCY

Always Sometimes Rarely Not

visible

1. How often does the teacher emphasize learning?

2. How often does the teacher emphasize teaching?

3. How often does the teacher encourage and accept learners’

autonomy? 4. How often does the teacher encourage and accept learners’ initiative? 5. How often does the teacher address learners as individuals of will and purpose? 6. How often does the teacher show in his performance that learning is a

systematic process? 7. How often does the teacher encourage learner inquiry? 8. How often does the teacher nurture learner’s natural curiosity? 9. How often does the teacher emphasize performance and

understanding when assessing learning? 10. How often does the teacher make extensive use of cognitive

terminology such as predict, create and analyze? 11. How often does the teacher encourage learners to engage in dialogue

with other students and teacher? 12. How often does the teacher support co- operative learning? 13. How often does the teacher involve learners in real world situations? 14. How often does the teacher emphasize the context in which learning

takes place? 15. How often does the teacher consider the beliefs of the learner? 16. How often does the teacher consider the attitudes of the learner? 17. How often does the teacher provide learners the opportunity to

construct new knowledge and understanding form authentic experience? 18. How often does the teacher tolerate errors as part of the teaching

learning process?

19. How often does the teacher include student self assessment and peer

evaluation in the program? 20. How often does the teacher interact with the whole class? 21. How often does the teacher interact with individual students as well? 22. How often does the teacher take into consideration in his teaching

learning process; the different learning styles, the multiple intelligences

and special needs of the students?

23. How often does the teacher inquire about students’ prior

knowledge? 24. How often does the teacher encourage students to use prior

knowledge? 25. How often does the teacher show respect for the students? 26. How often does the teacher offer options and choices in students’

works? 27. How often does the teacher explain to the students what they are

doing to understand what they are learning? 28. How often does the teacher construct previous knowledge? 29. How often does the teacher encourage the student investigate inside

the classroom? 30. How often does the teacher encourage the student investigate

outside the classroom?

CHECKLIST FOR THE CONSTRUCTIVIST STUDENT’S ROLE

SCHOOL: Complejo Educativo Sotero Laínez

GRADE: ________ Section ________ Date______________

OBJECTIVE: To observe the learners performance during the class in progress.

QUESTIONS FREQUENCY

Always Sometimes Rarely Not

visible

1. How often does the student interact with other?

2. How often does the student interact with the teacher?

3. How often does the student constantly listen to the teacher’s

methodological suggestions?

4. How often does the student perform the teacher’s

methodological suggestions?

5. How often does the student perform actively his/her own

learning?

6. How often does the student ask during the class in progress?

7. How often does the student investigate inside the classroom?

8. How often does the student investigate outside the classroom?

9. How often does the student show interest for a new topic?

10. How often does the student discuss with peers his/her own

viewpoints?

11. How often does the student discuss with teacher his/her own

viewpoints?

12. How often does the student work in whole class activities?

13. How often do the students work in small class activities?

14. How often does the student work in individual activities?

15. How often does the student show respect for the teacher?

16. How often do the students show in their performances that

enjoy what they are learning?

INTERVIEW

OBJECTIVE: To get the teacher’s knowledge and experience about constructivism

approach

1. Do you apply the English study program in the didactic planning?

_________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. Do you apply the English study program in the teaching - learning practice?

_________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

3. Do you know the English study program approach? Explain.

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

4. Do you use some textbooks for planning classes? Which one? Why?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

5. Do you know about the constructivist approach?

_________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

6. Do you apply the Constructivism in the classroom?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

7. Have you ever been in any workshop about the constructivism for English teacher?

When?

_________________________________________________________________________

CUESTIONARIO PARA ALUMNOS DE TERCER CICLO DE EDUCACION BASICA

COMPLEJO EDUCATIVO SOTERO LAINEZ

Grado _____________ Sección ____________

OBJETIVO: el siguiente cuestionario tiene como objetivo conocer las opiniones de los estudiantes de tercer ciclo de educación básica sobre la materia de Ingles en cuanto a la preferencia, utilidad y

la metodología de la clase.

1. ¿Te gusta la materia de inglés?

Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____

2. ¿Consideras que aprender inglés te servirá en tu vida?

Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____

3. ¿Consideras que aprender inglés es difícil?

Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____

4. ¿Te gusta como desarrolla la clase el maestro?

Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____

5. ¿Consideras que el maestro debe cambiar su forma de enseñar inglés?

Mucho _____ Poco ______ Nada _____

CHECKLIST TO OBSERVE THE TEACHING METHODOLOGIES USED BY THE ENGLISH TEACHER

SCHOOL________________________________________________________________________

GRADE_____________________SECTION_______________DATE_______________________

OBJECTIVE: To observe the methods used by the teacher during the class in progress.

METHODS TECHNIQUES The Grammar

Translation

Method

Translation of a

literary passage

Reading

comprehension

questions

Antonyms/

synonyms

Cognates Deductive

application of

the rule

Fill - in the

blanks

Memorization Use words in

sentences

Composition

The Direct

Method

Reading aloud Question and

answer exercise

Getting students to self - correct Conversation

practice

Fill- in the

blanks exercises

Dictation Map drawing Paragraph

writing

The Audio

Lingual Method

Dialog

memorization

Backward

build-up

(Expansio

n drill)

Repetition

drill

Chain drill Single- slot

substitution drill

Multiple- slot

substitution

drill

Transformati

on drill

Question and

answer drill

Use of

minimal

pair

Complete

the

dialogue

Grammar

game

Silent Way Sound color chart Teacher’s silence Peer correction Rods Self –correction

gestures

Word chart Fidel charts Structured

feedback

Dessugestopedia Classroom

set- up

Peripheral

learning

Positive

suggestion

Visualization Choose a

new identity

Role- play First concert Second

concert

Primary

activation

Secondary

activation

Communicative

Language

Learning

Tape recording student

conversation

Transcription Reflection on experience Reflective listening Human computer Small group task

The Total

Physical

Response

Using commands to direct behavior Role reversal Action sequence

The

Communicative

Language

Teaching

Authentic materials Scrambled sentences Language games Picture strip story Role - play

3.8.6. RESULTS OF THE TEACHER’S ROLE OBSERVATION (SEVENTH, EIGHT, AND NINTH GRADES)

CHART 1

QUESTIONS FREQUENCIES TOTAL

Always Sometimes Rarely Not visible

Fa Fa% Fa Fa% Fa Fa% Fa Fa%

1. How often does the

teacher emphasize

learning?

2

8.3

13

20.8

5

54.2

4

16.7

100%

2. How often does the

teacher emphasize

teaching?

21

87.5

1

4.2

__

0.0

2

8.3

100%

3. How often does the

teacher encourage and

accept learners’

autonomy?

1

0.0

1

4.2

5

20.8

18

75

100%

4. How often does the

teacher encourage and

accept learners’

initiative?

__

0.0

1

4.2

2

8.3

21

87.5

100%

5. How often does the

teacher address learners

as individuals of will

and purpose?

1

4.2

12

25

4

16.7

13

54.1

100%

6. How often does the

teacher show in his

performance that

learning is a systematic

process?

17

70.8

4

16.7

2

8.3

1

4.2

100%

7. How often does the

teacher encourage

learner inquiry?

__

0.0

2

8.3

7

29.2

15

62.5

100%

8. How often does the

teacher nurture

learner’s natural

curiosity?

__

0.0

__

0.0

3

12.5

21

87.5

100%

9. How often does the

teacher emphasize

performance and

understanding when

assessing learning?

__

0.0

3

12.5

5

20.8

16

66.7

100%

10. How often does the

teacher make extensive

use of cognitive

terminology such as

predict, create and

analyze?

1

4.2

6

25

5

20.8

6

25

100%

11. How often does the

teacher encourage

learners to engage in

dialogue with other

students and teacher?

__

0.0

4

16.7

4

8.3

18

75

100%

12. How often does the

teacher support co-

operative learning?

__

0.0

2

8.3

7

29.2

13

54.2

100%

13. How often does the

teacher involve learners

in real world situations

5

20.8

5

20.8

4

16.7

10

41.7

100%

14. How often does the

teacher emphasize the

context in which

learning takes place?

2

8.3

2

8.3

7

29.2

13

54.2

100%

15. How often does the

teacher consider the

beliefs of the learner?

__

0.0

1

4.2

3

12.5

20

83.3

100%

16. How often does the

teacher consider the

attitudes of the learner?

__

0.0

3

12.5

11

45.8

10

41.7

100%

17. How often does the

teacher provide learners

the opportunity to

construct new

knowledge and

understanding form

authentic experience?

__

0.0

__

0.0

9

37.5

15

62.5

100%

18. How often does the

teacher tolerate errors

as part of the teaching

learning process?

2

8.3

3

12.5

7

29.2

12

50

100%

19. How often does the

teacher include student

self assessment and

peer evaluation in the

program?

__

0.0

1

4.2

1

4.2

22

91.6

100%

20. How often does the

teacher interact with the

whole class?

10

41.7

9

37.5

5

20.8

__

__

100%

21. How often does the

teacher interact with

individual students as

well?

1

4.2

11

45.8

9

37.5

3

12.5

100%

22. How often does the

teacher take into

consideration in his

teaching learning

process; the different

learning styles, the

__

0.0

1

4.2

1

4.2

22

91.6

100%

multiple intelligences

and special needs of the

students?

23. How often does the

teacher enquire about

students’ prior

knowledge?

4

16.7

6

25

9

37.5

5

20.8

100%

24. How often does the

teacher encourage

students to use prior

knowledge?

4

16.7

6

25

9

37.5

5

20.8

100%

25. How often does the

teacher show respect for

the students?

22

91.6

__

0.0

__

0.0

2

8.4

100%

26. How often does the

teacher offer options

and choices in students’

works?

__

0.0

1

4.2

2

8.3

21

87.5

100%

27. How often does the

teacher explain to the

students what they are

doing to understand

what they are learning?

__

0.0

4

16.7

4

16.7

16

66.6

100%

28. How often does the

teacher construct

previous knowledge

__

0.0

1

4.2

13

54.2

10

41.6

100%

29. How often does the

teacher encourage the

student investigate

inside the classroom?

__

0.0

__

0.0

__

0.0

24

100

100%

30. How often does the

teacher encourage the

student investigate

outside the classroom?

__

0.0

__

0.0

__

0.0

24

100

100%

383.3 371 620.9 1592

TOTAL 13 12.4 21.5 53.1 100%

Chart 1 presents the result of the teacher’s role observation during the class in progress.

It is a consolidation of seventh, eight and ninth grades, considering that during the

observations in the three grades there were no significant changes in the way the teacher

developed his classes. The final results confirm that a 53.1% of the Constructivist

characteristics valued during the theoretical processing and the analysis of the programs

for Junior High were not visible. In the other hand, a 13% shows the application of the

Constructivist principles during the class in progress.

RESULTS OF THE STUDENT’S ROLE OBSERVATION (SEVENTH, EIGHT, AND NINTH GRADES)

CHART 2

QUESTIONS FREQUENCIES TOTAL

Always Sometimes Rarely Not visible

Fa Fa% Fa Fa% Fa Fa% Fa Fa%

1. How often does the

student interact with the

other?

3

12.5

6

25

9

37.5

6

25

100%

2. How often does the

teacher interact with the

teacher?

3

12.5

3

12.5

7

29.2

11

45.8

100%

3. How often does the

student constantly listen

to the teacher’s

methodological

suggestion?

10

41.7

12

50

2

8.3

__

0.0

100%

4. How often does the

student perform the

teacher’s

methodological

suggestions?

10 41.7

11 45.8. 1 4.2 2 8.3 100%

5. How often does the

student perform

actively his /her own

learning?

__

0.0

3

12.5

15

62.5

6

25

100%

6. How often ask during

the class progress?

__ 0.0 2 8.3 10 41.7 12 50 100%

7. How often does the

student investigate

inside the classroom?

__ 0.0 __ 0.0 __ 0.0 24 100 100%

8. How often does the __ 0.0 __ 0.0 __ 0.0 24 100 100%

student investigate

outside the classroom?

9. How often does the

student show interest

for a new topic?

__

0.0

__

0.0

10

41.7

14

58.3

100%

10. How often does the

student discuss with

peers his/her own view

points?

__

0.0

__

0.0

2

8.3

22

91.7

100%

11. How often does the

student discuss with

teacher his/her own

view points?

__

0.0

__

0.0

4

8.3

22

91.7

100%

12. How often does the

student work in whole

class activities?

7

29.1

16

66.7

1

4.2

__

0.0

100%

13. How often does the

student work in small

class activities?

4

8.3

3

12.5

4

8.3

17

70.9

100%

14. How often does the

student work individual

activities

6

25

12

50

3

12.5

3

12.5

100%

15. How often does the

student show respect

for the teacher?

__

58.3

7

29.2

3

12.5

__

0.0

100%

16. How often do the

students show in their

performances that enjoy

what they are learning?

4

8.3

6

25

16

66.7

__

0.0

100%

237.4 337.5 345.9 679.2

TOTAL 14.9 21.1 21.6 42.4 100%

Chart 2 illustrates the students’ performance during the class in progress as it was stated

before in chart 1, it was also made a consolidation for the three grades observed. This

shows that a 42.4% of the constructivist characteristics were not visible. While a 14.9%

were always observed.

RESULTS OF THE STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRIE

CHART 3

QUESTIONS FREQUENCIES

Mucho Poco Nada

Fa Fa% Fa Fa% Fa Fa%

1. ¿Te gusta la materia de

ingles?

18 37.5 23 47.9 7 14.6 100%

2. ¿Consideras que aprender

inglés te servirá en tu vida?

41 85.4 7 14.6 100%

3. ¿Consideras que aprender

ingles es difícil?

21 43.7 22 45.9 5 10.4 100%

4. ¿Te gusta como desarrolla

la clase el maestro?

14 29.2 18 37.5 16 33.3 100%

5. ¿Consideras que el

maestro debe cambiar su

forma de enseñar inglés?

26 54.2 11 29.9 11 29.9 100%

The results presented in chart 3 give to know the students’ preferences by the English

subject. A 47.9% answered that the like a little the English subject. But it seems there is

an inconsistency in the second question when an 85.4% responded that English it would

be useful in their lives. A 45.9% considered that learning English is a little difficult.

Then, what it would be the problem? The following could respond that. A 37.5%

answered that they like a little the way the teacher develop his English class. Therefore,

a 54.2% responded that the teacher must change the way he teaches English.

The checklist presented on (page 160) was used to observe the methods and techniques

used by the English teacher at “Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez.” The results have

not been presented in percentages because there was no a remarkable use of different

methods and technique. Thus the researchers considered just to mention that the most

used method was The Grammar Translation Method with the technique, deductive

application of the rule.

BASIC THEORETICAL

PROPOSAL ABOUT

CONSTRUCTIVIST

METHODOLOGY

3.8.7. Basic theoretical Proposal for English teachers at

“Complejo Educativo Sotero Lainez.” Sensuntepeque,

Cabañas.

The purpose of this proposal is to highlight basic aspects of the Constructivist

Methodology. It is not a prescription but a highly flexible instrument which can be

interpreted in many different ways, considering what the tasks and the students´

demand.

What is Constructivist methodology?

Constructivist Methodology starts from the diversity principle, its spirit is contrary to

proposals in which the learner reacts rather than acts go after than construct. For the

same reason fits to these ideas all those methodologies based on the group activity of

the students and the teacher, it found its fundament in the Proximal Development Zone

(Level of understanding that is possible when a learner engages in a task with the help

of a more expert peer for example the teacher, another student etc.).

The constructivist methodology is used to create learners who are autonomous,

inquisitive thinkers who question, investigate and reason. Constructivist teaching fosters

critical thinking and creates active and motivated learners who construct their own

knowledge.

A Constructivist teacher

Constructivist Methodology requires that the teachers turn their attention by 180

degrees. The teacher’s role in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of

information giver to that of facilitator, guide, and learner. As a facilitator, the teacher

provides the rich environments and learning experiences needed for collaborative study.

The teacher is also required to act as a guide a role that incorporates mediation,

modeling, and coaching. Often the teacher also is a co-learner and co-investigator with

the students.

A Constructivist classroom

Along with a constructivist teacher it is also needed to have a Constructivist classroom.

Creating a constructivist classroom requires that the classroom teacher must be in

position to:

Influence or create motivating conditions for students

Take responsibility for creating problem situations

Foster acquisition and retrieval of prior knowledge and

Create a social environment that emphasizes that attitude of learning to learn

Contrasting the traditional classroom with the Constructivist classroom

TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM

Curriculum begins with the parts of the

whole. Emphasizes basic skills.

Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning

with the whole and expanding to include the

parts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is

highly valued.

Pursuit of student questions and interests is

valued.

Materials are primarily textbooks and

workbooks.

Materials include primary sources of material

and manipulative materials.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the

student already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to

students; students are recipients of

knowledge.

Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping

students construct their own knowledge.

Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in

authority.

Teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in

negotiation.

Assessment is through testing, correct

answers.

Assessment includes student works,

observations, and points of view, as well as tests.

Process is as important as product.

Knowledge is a transmission Knowledge is transformation

Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing

with our experiences.

Students work basically alone. Students work basically in groups.

The respect is one way. Students have to

respect the teacher.

It is characterized by the mutual respect between

the teacher and the students.

Evaluation is seen as a product oriented:

achievement testing; criterion-

referencing (and norm- referencing)

Process – oriented: reflection on process, self

assessment; criterion referecing

Constructivist principles

Students come to class with an established world-view, formed by years of prior

experience and learning.

Even as it evolves, a student’s world-view filters all experiences and affects their

interpretation of observations.

For students to change their world-view requires work.

Students learn from each other as well as the teacher.

Students learn better by doing.

Allowing and creating opportunities for all to have a voice promotes the

construction of new ideas.

Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.

Seek and value students’ points of view.

Adapt instruction to address student suppositions.

The key component to learning is motivation.

Students need knowledge

Assess student learning in the context of teaching.

Learning is a social activity.

Learning is not instantaneous.

These are applicable at all levels and stages of learning. As teacher works with

the ideas of constructivist learning, He will develop personal versions of these

principles.

The following are general learning activities adapted to support the teacher’s

work in order to motivate students to learn English in a dynamic environment.

General Constructivist strategies

Authentic assessment

Assessment that seeks to evaluate students’ abilities in “real-world” contexts, including

the application and demonstration of skills and knowledge to authentic tasks or projects

likely to be encountered in adult life.

Scaffolding

An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process

of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According

to Vigotsky (1978), students’ problem solving skills fall into three categories: skills

which the student cannot perform, skills which the student may be able to perform, and

skills that the student can perform with help

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond

their ability without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher

support can allow students to function at the cutting edge of their individual

development. Scaffolding is therefore an important characteristic of constructivist

learning and teaching.

Minds on, hands on

The learners need to be active, that in order to participate in learning teachers need to

engage the learner in doing something, in hands-on involvement, in participatory

exhibits and programs. But the more important point is the idea that the actions which

are developed for the audience engage the mind as well as the hand. Not all experiences

are educative, as Dewey pointed out in. This does not mean that they necessarily have to

be complex but they do need to allow the participants to think as they act.

Physical involvement is a necessary condition for learning for children, and highly

desirable for adults in many situations, but it is not sufficient. All hands-on activities

must also pass the test of being minds-on they must provide something to think about as

well as something to touch.

General Learning Activities to develop in the classroom

Students can construct additional knowledge by writing:

Poems, short play, legal briefs, song lyrics, journals, diaries, memoirs, travelogues,

interviews, letters (or e-mail) to experts, original advertisements new endings for stories

or songs.

Students can construct additional knowledge by making/inventing/designing/drawing:

Posters, cartoons, timelines, models, charts, maps, graphs, board games, concept maps,

and multimedia presentations.

Students can construct additional knowledge by performing/presenting:

A play, a concert, role-play lecture (such as a well-known person from history), a dance

based on literature or historical event, collected songs about a topic from another era

etc.

Learning activities adapted to the English programs for Junior

High

Woodward, Suzanne W. Fun with grammar. Prentice Hall Regents. United Stated. 1997.

Activity 1: Ball Toss.

Focused content: A healthy life. Unit Four, 7º grade.

Dynamic: Whole class.

Material: Any soft ball or balloon.

Time: 10 minutes.

Procedure: Have students sit or stand in circle. Tell them you want a name of a food

according to the category selected. (fruit, vegetable, meat, drink, etc.) when they catch

the ball.

Begin the game by tossing the ball a student and saying a category. If you said fruit, the

student catching the ball must provide a name of a food. That student then throws the

ball to another and says a new category or the same.

fruit meat drink vegetable

Orange

Banana

Apple

Grapes

watermelon

Chicken

Fish

Steak

Pork

turkey

Soda

Tea

Coffee

Water

chocolate

Corn

Potato

Tomato

Onion

carrot

Example: Teacher: vegetable.

Student A: corn / fruit . . .

Student B: orange / drink . . .

Activity 2: Tic Tac Toe

Focused content: Physical exercises. 7° grade, Unit four

Dynamic: Two teams

Material: a grid with pictures.

Time: 12 minutes.

Procedure: present a tic tac toe grid with picture of body parts on the board. Divide the

class into two teams, one of them will mark X on the grid the other one will mark O.

The teams take turns coming to the board and writing next to the picture the name of

body part .If a student from team X writes a correct name , he /she then marks a large

X over that space. When team O writes a correct response, it marks a large O over that

space.

The first team that succeeds in having three of its marks in a row is the winner.

Activity 3: Picture sentences

Focused content: Meeting a star. 7° grade Unit three

Dynamic: Pair work

Material: magazine picture to share in class.

Time: 15 minutes

Procedure: Give each pair of students a magazine picture. The picture should have

several photos of different persons in it .Have the pairs write 10 sentences about the

picture, using an adjective and a noun in each sentence.

When the pairs have finished, have the students in each pair take turns holding up their

picture and reading out their sentences.

Activity 4: Scavenger hunt

Focused content: At the fair. 7° grade, unit three.

Dynamic: small groups.

Material: Magazines to share in class.

Time: 15 minutes

Procedure: arrange the class into groups of three or four. Give each group several

magazines to cut up.

Have the groups look for action pictures .Assign a certain number of pictures and a time

limit. Then they write sentences like:

For example: The children are playing.

The boy is walking.

Activity 5: Concentration

Focused content: A good professional. 7° grade, unit six.

Material: board.

Dynamic: small groups.

Time: 20 minutes.

Procedure: Draw a blank grid with only numbers on the board. Divide the class into

teams of about five. On a paper, your grid will have the answers written in.

Each team takes turns calling out two numbers, trying to match a profession and a place

of work. As the first participant calls out numbers, write the words that correspond to

these numbers in the blanks. You are asked if it is a match .If not, the facilitator erases

the words. If so he or she leaves them there and cross them out. The team takes another

turn. If the team does not make a match, erase the two words.

Example of grid on the board.

1

2 3 4 5

6

7 8 9 10

11

12 13 14 15

16

17 18 19 20

On the instructor’s paper:

1

Nurse

2

teacher

3

Fire station

4

office

5

waiter

6

pilot

7

Soccer player

8

Dentist

9

hospital

10

airport

11

restaurant

12

Police officer

13

bank

14

clinic

15

school

16

secretary

17

accountant

18

Police station

19

stadium

20

fireman

Activity 6: Changing the story

Focused content: Salvadorean Character. 9° grade, unit two.

Material: copies of Love Poem by Roque Dalton.

Dynamic: small groups.

Time: 20 minutes

Procedure: Divide the class into small groups and give each group a copy of the Love

Poem.

Love poem. (Roque Dalton)

Those who widened the Panama canal (and were on the silver roll´ not the golden roll’)

those who repaired the pacific fleet in California bases, those who rotted in prison in

Guatemala, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua for stealing, smuggling, swindling, for

starving, those who always suspected of everything (allow me to place him in your

custody for suspicious loitering aggravated by the fact of being Salvadorian).

Those who pack the bars and whorehouses in every port and capital . . .

(“The Blue Grotto”, “The G-String”,”Happyland”)

The sower of corn deep in foreign forest, the crime barons of the scandal sheets, those

who nobody ever knows where they are from, the best artisans of the world, those who

were riddled with bullets crossing the border, those who died from malaria or scorpions

bites or swarming bees in the hell of banana plantations, those who got drunk and wept

for the national anthem. . .

The students read the poem and changed the irregular and regular verbs in past tense

into present tense .be sure they understand and go over the answer when groups have

finished.

Activity 7: Dialogue writing and acting out

Focused content: Going to the stadium. 8° grade, unit four.

Material: None

Dynamic: pair works.

Time: 15 minutes.

Procedure: arrange the class into pair works. Instruct them to write a short dialogue

about sport activities like:

A- What kind of sport do you like?

B- I like basketball.

A- Do you like swimming?

B- Yes, I like. Do you play soccer? . . .

When the pairs have finished ask them to practice and act it out for the whole class.

Activity 8: Yard sale

Focused content: Shopping. 8° grade, unit six.

Material: pictures and common things at home and school.

Time: 30 minutes.

Procedure: Make group of four people each and prepare a yard sale with some of the

things you have with you: books, make-up items, combs, purses, earrings, rings, etc. Put

all these items on a table or on the floor. Then, one member of the group becomes the

“seller”; the other can go to see the other yard sales and become “customers”. You

should all move around asking for prices and characteristics of the objects being sold.

Price $12.00

Price $9.00

price $20.00

Price $25.00

Price $22.00

Price $31.00

Price $15.00

Price $29.00

Price $30.00

Activity 9: Folk Tales

Focused content: Tell me a story. 8° grade, unit two.

Materials: None.

Dynamic: small groups.

Time: 25 minutes.

Procedure: Get a group of five participants each; chairs should be arranged in circle

form. Any one in the group must say one sentence that is expected to originate the folk

tale of the “Cipitio” or a similar folk tale. Then, the participant closest in the circle

repeats this same line but adds one line of his/ her own line (or the story should continue

in this fashion until all the elements to the story have been told), you may want to share

your group’s story with the other groups.

Example: he was a short boy

He loved to visit rivers

He watched girls at rivers

He was a child with big hat

He was a child with big stomach

Note: Instead of having the participants SAY the lines, they could WRITE them one by

one, by passing a paper with the lines contributed by each of the participants.

Activity 10: Find someone who.

Focused content: What have you done today? Unit Five, 8° grade. Materials: checklists.

Dynamic: Whole class.

Time: 20 minutes

Procedure: Interview classmates to find some one who. . .? and writes his/ her name

next to the question, the first one to complete the survey is the winner.

Example: Have you ever . . .

1- eaten a hot dog?_________________________

2- visited Guatemala recently?________________

3- written a Poem?_________________________

4- driven a car? _________________________

5- been in Tazumal ruins?____________________

6- bought a bicycle? _____________________

7- drunk hot chocolate? _____________________

8- played ping pong _____________________

Activity 11: Time machine

Focused content. How’s life going to be? Unit Two, 9º grade.

Materials: list of basic items.

Dynamic: pair works.

Time: 30 minutes.

Procedure: Work in pairs. Imagine that you are going in a trip that will take you 100

years into the future. What will you need when you arrive? You have only enough room

in your time machine for some of the equipment listed below, but not all. Put each item

into one of these categories:

aspirin

food

bicycle

Bible

notebooks

raincoat

cash

Camera

watch

car

sunglasses

checkbook

television set

calculator

warm clothes

matches

radio

sleeping bag

tape recorder

heavy shoes

English dictionary

Then get together with another pair and compare your lists. If you could take only two

items, which one would you take?

Activity 12: Picture search (BE/ HAVE)

Focused content: Our neighbor. Unit One, 7º grade.

Materials: Magazines or catalogs.

Dynamic: Small groups

Time: 15 minutes

Procedure: Divide the class into group of three or four .Give each group several catalogs or

magazines. Have each group make ten sentences from a picture or pictures, using a form of

to be or to have.

Examples:

He is a man He is a boy

The man has a ball. He has a book

Have the groups read their sentences aloud while showing the class the pictures the

sentences describe.

category Item classification

Absolutely essential

Useful but not essential

No use at all

Activity 13: Twenty questions

Focused content: Movie stars. Unit Six, 9º grade.

Materials: None

Dynamic: whole class

Time: 15 minutes

Procedure: Choose one student to come to the front of the class this student will be given an

identity of a famous person. This student sits in front of the class and may answer only YES

or NO to any question

The class may ask a total of 20 yes or no questions to discover the “identity” of the student

in front of the class. If they guess the student’s identity before or by the twentieth question,

the class wins. If the class does not guess correctly, the student wins.

questions short answers

Are you tall?

Are you rich?

Are you short?

Are you pretty?

Are you Mexican?

Are you Italian?

Do you play tennis?

Do you play basketball?

Do you have a car?

Do you drink coffee?

How old are you?

Activity 14: Noncomparative.

Focused content: Look! I’m changing. Unit Three, 8º grade.

Materials: board and markers.

Dynamic: teams

Time: 15 minutes

Procedure: Divide the board in half. On each side, write the words: comparative and

noncomparative. Divide the class into two teams. Have each team form a line .The first

person from each team comes to the board.

Call out an adjective. The students check either comparative or noncomparative. The first

one to choose the correct answer gets a point for his or her team. After each adjective, the

students at the board are replaced by two more students for the next adjective. The team

with the most point at the end of the game wins .Both speed and accuracy are important.

Comparative

Noncomparative

Older Bad

Hotter Big

Colder Tall

Shorter Thin

Cheaper Dark

Prettier Fat

Younger Large

Stronger Nice

Taller Good

smaller Happy