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Journal of MMIJ Vol.127 (2011) No.9
1.Elements of Rare Earth and Classification
The periodic table of the elements, shown in Table 1,
highlights 17 elements comprising Scanndium, Yttrium and 15
elements known as “lanthanoids”1). The elements are lined up
according to the atomic number displayed horizontally and the
same type of electrons in the outermost shell vertically. The
electron number and type of each element gives the physical and
chemical properties2). It can be said that these elements called
“rare earth elements” are similar to each other in some physical
and chemical characters because the outermost electrons are the
same1).
Although there is no defined classification in rare earth,
Table 2 shows common classifications of two methods. One
is to classify into two categories and the other is into three
categories. Solubility of potassium sulfate double salt into water
is used in the case of three categories, e.g. not to solve; light rare
earth, difficult to solve; middle rare earth, easy to solve; heavy
rare earth3).
2.Minerals and Deposits
A theoretical percentage of rare earth contained and radio
active level, γ -ray, in main minerals are shown in Table 3. The
minerals of higher radioactive level are monazite and britholite.
There is no defined classification in rare earth deposits.
Table 4 shows comprehensive deposit types at present. Ion
adsorption deposits are actually one of the residual deposits.
However it is separated this time because ion adsorption
deposits consist of clay of halloysite and/or kaolinite to which
surface ionic rare earth elements are adhered3).
It is common that minerals include rare earth elements as
ones of the composition in its crystal, but ion adsorption type
is completely different from these common minerals deposits.
The ion adsorption deposit contents only 0.05-0.2% of rare
earth which is too small comparing to other minerals as above in
Table 3. But it is very easy to separate rare earth elements from
such clay4, 5). In such ion adsorption mines ammonium sulfate
solution is sprinkled from the top of the ore body and gathered
at the foot.
Table 5 shows typical specifications of representative rare
earth mines of the world, all of these mines except China have
ceased or are under development6). There are many types of ion
adsorption clays in details of which are enriched in heavy REE (Rare Earth Elements), light REE or both.
by Tatsuo OTA1
Rare Earth Resources and Related Industries in Japan*
High-tech industries require rare earths which consists of 17 elements. There are many applications for rare earth elements. Having analyzed the United States Geological Survey’s data, the world reserves of rare earths cover more than eight hundred years’ consumption based on total mine production of 130,000 tons in 2010. However, worldwide customers have recently suffered rising major prices and limited quantities in procurement. This is attributed to the Chinese policy of trying to control the production and export, despite the consumption increasing year by year in the world as well as in Japan. China employs a hard policy in rare earth based on their dominate market share at present, which is referred to as “Chinese historical strategy”. This policy was not carried out until recently, although they recognized it in 1992. In those days it was actually meaningless because many other suppliers besides China existed. This policy was based upon the fact that they have a 97% dominant share in the production of rare earth concentrates. They can supply this natural resource to all countries of the world.
Considering this situation and the commodities’ life cycle, it is clear that new sources other than from China should be developed, as a “China plus one” strategy. The heavy rare earths, such as Dysprosium, Terbium and the middle rare earth Europium are absolutely required for Japanese to maintain a high level of advanced technology.
The most important things for proceeding with such development projects are education and training because these projects require manpower, technology, and capital. It is easy to collect money at present if the project is attractive. This technology is maintained by manpower which requires high quality education, training and experience.KEY WORDS: Rare Earth, Magnet, Battery, Low Emission Vehicle, China
549 〈1〉
*Received 17 April, 2009; accepted for publication 29 June, 20111. Automotive-Related Business Unit, Mitsubishi Corporation, 6-1, Marunouchi 2-Chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo Postal Code: 100-8086, JAPAN[For Correspondence] Tel: [81]-3-3210-3536, Fax: [81]-3-3210-6006,
completed in 1990’s. This movement allowed downstream
554 〈6〉
Journal of MMIJ Vol.127 (2011) No.9
Rare Earth Resources and Related Industries in Japan
Table 12 Trend of Price of Rare Earth Metals in Japan.
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Journal of MMIJ Vol.127 (2011) No.9
Tatsuo OTA
manufacturers to get substantial bargaining powers that caused a
rapid decrease of raw materials’ price.
B) 2nd Stage: Upstream manufacturers restructuring
Natural resources industries started M & A in 2000 and
completed in 2006, e.g. BHP-Billiton in 2001. This 2nd stage
was an oligopoly similar to other international cartel situations
in natural resources industries. As a result, natural resources
prices went up rapidly. However, that does not imply easy
development of new sources any time soon.
C) Present stage; “Midstream” manufacturers restructuring
Just started but not f inished, e.g. Arcelor-Mittal, JFE
Steel, and Nippon Steel’s alliance both domestically and
internationally. “Midstream manufacturers” means intermediate
products manufacturers such as steel makers, device makers,
and so on. They have been suffered from the higher purchase
price of raw materials from suppliers and the lower selling
price of their products to users. Now this midstream industry
just started M & A. In Japan the merger of Hitachi Metals and
NEOMAX was performed in the magnet industry in 2007.
10・2 NEW TRENDSBased on the conditions above, the following new trends
are expected in Japan;
Table 13 Rare Earth Reserves and Reserve Base of the World.
Table 14 Rare Earth Production of the World.
Table 15 History of Rare Earth Policy in China.
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Journal of MMIJ Vol.127 (2011) No.9
Rare Earth Resources and Related Industries in Japan
A) Collaboration of Japanese government and private
organization has been executed more rapidly and deeply, e.g.
3-R, Substitute R&D and new mine development. As to mine
development, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial
Science and Technology (AIST) is now researching new deposits
of rare earth which does not include radioactive material,
e.g. apatite deposit containing heavy rare earth. Ferrous rich
manganese ore deposits also containing heavy rare earth
without radio-active materials19). Recently AIST agreed with
the Council for Geoscience of South Africa to develop a ferrous
rich manganese ore deposit in South Africa.
B) Technology of decreasing consumption quantity of Dy
and Tb, which is essential for the NdFeB alloy magnets, is
now under development by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.20),
Intermetallics Co., Ltd. and Osaka University for example. The
development seems to have already succeeded in the laboratory
of Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd. Shin-Etsu has now started a
study of its commercial application.
C) New applications are developed in biology and medical
areas, although the volume is not so large, e.g. MRI probe21),
scission and manipulation of DNA22).
10・3 FUTURE PROBLEMSA) Detailed statistical data of RE in Japan;
Exact data of rare earth is very difficult compared to other
items. For example China uses 23 HS codes for trading, but only
7 codes in Japan23).
B) Judgment of commodity life;
Only 16 years have passed since lithium ion rechargeable
batteries were introduced into the market. MRI, for example,
rare earth magnets was expected to expand at f irst stage but
uses superconductors at present. As to polishing, cerium oxide
took over from hematite for use in glass polishing in 1963. After
that the new float method of glass making did not use cerium.
High quality glass production followed the float method, which
required cerium usage again. Following that, a new pressed
glass method was developed and consumption of cerium was
decreased24). At present cerium is required for polishing of flat
panel, LCD, PDP and Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP), as
such the required quantity in semiconductor industry is large25).
C) How to proceed and manage new projects;
Projects require money, manpower and technology. Money
is suff icient at present, but manpower and technology are
lacking in upstream treatment of rare earths at present. This is
due to the rare earth market being depressed for a long period
of time. Manpower requires high quality education, training and
experience. Additionally, a project manager requires “passion”
for accomplishing a big great achievement.
References
1) T. Masui: 14th Rare earth Summer School, (2006), 1-10. 2) K. Tamao, H. Sakurai and H. Fukuyama: Shyukihyo, (Newton, Tokyo, 2007), pp.30-37. 3) S. Ishihara and H. Murakami: Chishitsu News, 609(2005), 4-18. 4) S. Ishihara and H. Murakami: Chishitsu News, 624(2006), 10-29. 5) A. Shibayama, Y. Tanamachi and S. Nakamura: Journal of MMIJ,123 (2007), 552-554. 6) C. Sinton: Study of the rare earth resources and markets for the Mt. Weld, (BCC Research,
2006). 7) T. Ota: Rare earth resources and related industries (in Japanese), (Metal Economics
Research Institute of Japan, 2007). 8) T. Urai: Chugoku rare earth sanngyono gennjoto doko oyobi nihon rare earth sangyoeno
eikyo (in Japanese), (Metal Economics Research Institute of Japan, 2005). 9) Japan Electronics & Information Technology Industries Association: Statistics, (2010).10) N. Ishigaki and H. Yamamoto: Magnetics Japan, 3(2008), 525-538.11) Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry: Statistics, (1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000,
pp.134-135.15) USGS(United States Geological Survey): Mineral Commodity Summaries, (1999, 2000,
2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010).16) Arum Publishing Co.: Rare Metal News, 2355 (2008), 8.17) Inner Mongolia Science and Technology Agency High-tech Industrial Zone Web-site: “We,
China, have the rare earth resources similar to the oil in Middle East” (in Chinese), (2008), pp.1-2.
18) Research in China: China Rare earth Industry Report, (2008), pp.10-12.19) Advanced Industrial Science and Technology: News, Press Release, (2007).20) T. Minowa: Kinzoku, 77 (2007), 592-592.21) M. Y. Katayama: Rare Earths, 50 (2007), 42-43.22) J. Sumaoka, T. Hirano and M. Komiyama: Rare Earths, 50 (2007), 104-105.23) T. Ota: BM news, 40 (2008), 29-33.24) Japan Society of New Metals: Rare Earths, (1988), pp.96-102.25) Gin-ya Adachi: An Overview of Functions and Applications of Rare Earths, (Shiemu