Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy 1 Master of Philosophy in Technology Policy 2007/2008 Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy Written by: Blake J. Driscoll MPhil in Technology Policy Candidate Judge Business School University of Cambridge With the guidance of: Dr. William O’Neill Institute for Manufacturing Department of Engineering University of Cambridge
Rapid manufacturing is more than a novel method of production; rather, it represents a paradigm shift which will impact the very nature of production and consumption. The ability to quickly manufacture limited quantities of highly individualized or geometrically optimized products locally is a revolutionary prospect which challenges the fundamental principles of economies of scale, specialization, mass production, and outsourcing which have largely defined the manufacturing industry since the industrial revolution.
Many have speculated that rapid manufacturing will enable a manufacturing renaissance in high wage economies by reducing labor and assembly costs. Others declare rapid manufacturing to be the next industrial revolution. While such claims are common, there has been no attempt to quantify the potential impact of rapid manufacturing upon the global economy. This study will evaluate rapid manufacturing as a disruptive technology, identify which products will be most likely impacted by the uptake of additive fabrication, and quantify the potential impact widespread adoption of rapid manufacturing may have upon global trade.
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Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
1
Master of Philosophy in Technology Policy 2007/2008
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
Written by:
Blake J. Driscoll MPhil in Technology Policy Candidate
Judge Business School University of Cambridge
With the guidance of:
Dr. William O’Neill Institute for Manufacturing Department of Engineering University of Cambridge
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
2
Declaration
This Project Report is substantially my own work and conforms to the Judge School
guidelines on plagiarism. Where reference has been made to other research this is
acknowledged in the text and bibliography.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
3
Abstract
Rapid manufacturing is more than a novel method of production; rather, it
represents a paradigm shift which will impact the very nature of production and
consumption. The ability to quickly manufacture limited quantities of highly individualized
or geometrically optimized products locally is a revolutionary prospect which challenges the
fundamental principles of economies of scale, specialization, mass production, and
outsourcing which have largely defined the manufacturing industry since the industrial
revolution.
Many have speculated that rapid manufacturing will enable a manufacturing
renaissance in high wage economies by reducing labor and assembly costs. Others declare
rapid manufacturing to be the next industrial revolution. While such claims are common,
there has been no attempt to quantify the potential impact of rapid manufacturing upon the
global economy. This study will evaluate rapid manufacturing as a disruptive technology,
identify which products will be most likely impacted by the uptake of additive fabrication,
and quantify the potential impact widespread adoption of rapid manufacturing may have
upon global trade.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
4
Acknowledgements …to Malcolm Cook and Jim Dempsey for introducing me to rapid prototyping. …to Bill O’Neill for sharing my initial enthusiasm to undertake a project of this scope. …to Grant Kopec and Satya Dash for their ideas, opinions, and sense of humor.
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................... 5
1 RAPID MANUFACTURING AS A DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY .............................................. 6
1.1 EVOLUTION OF RAPID MANUFACTURING ......................................................................................... 6 1.2 EVOLUTION OF TRADITIONAL MANUFACTURING ............................................................................. 6 1.3 RAPID MANUFACTURING AS A DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY .............................................................. 8
2 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF RAPID MANUFACTURING ................................................ 10
2.1 RECENTLY COMMERCIALIZED APPLICATIONS................................................................................. 10 2.2 CURRENT AREAS OF RESEARCH ....................................................................................................... 13 2.3 FEASIBILITY OF IMPLEMENTING RAPID MANUFACTURING AT THE FIRM LEVEL ............................ 15 2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROMISING APPLICATIONS .......................................................................... 17 2.5 LIMITATIONS OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................................... 18
3 POTENTIAL IMPACT OF RAPID MANUFACTURING ON CURRENT PRODUCTS .......... 19
3.1 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 19 3.2 ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRODUCTS.................................................................................................. 22
4 THE NEXT INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION? ...................................................................................... 29
4.1 MANUFACTURING AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY ............................................................................ 29 4.2 THE PERCEIVED IMPACT OF RAPID MANUFACTURING ................................................................... 30 4.3 THE REAL IMPACT OF RAPID MANUFACTURING............................................................................. 31
6 FUTURE WORK ...................................................................................................................................... 38
and 3D printing. All additive technologies utilize an additive process of bonding liquid,
powder, or other materials layer-by-layer to produce a physical part.
While early additive technologies were quite crude in terms of accuracy, limited in
terms of material selection, and required several pre- and post-processing steps, they were
embraced by designers and engineers who used the technology to produce prototypes and
models for evaluating form, fit, and function of designs early in the development cycle,
greatly reducing design costs and increasing the speed and quality of products brought to
market.2 Because of this early application, additive fabrication is often referred to as “rapid
prototyping.”
Additive fabrication continued to make technological advancements under the guise
of “rapid prototyping” throughout the 1990s and 2000s. With continuous improvements in
materials, resolution, and build speed, many began to consider additive fabrication as a
manufacturing process in its own right. The application of additive techniques for the
production of end use products, or “rapid manufacturing,” is a potentially revolutionary
concept which will form the basis of this study.
1.2 Evolution of Traditional Manufacturing
To understand the potentially disruptive nature of rapid manufacturing, a brief
history of traditional manufacturing is necessary to identify the fundamental principles
which have influenced the rise of industry. Despite numerous process improvement and
technology based improvements, two basic principles have largely defined traditional
manufacturing: specialization and standardization.
1.2.1 Basic Principles
Specialization is a natural manifestation of human interaction and represents the
most fundamental characteristic of manufacturing. Adam Smith discussed the increase in
human productivity resulting from specialization and the division of labor by drawing
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examples from contemporary society. He notes that even within primitive tribes, certain
members would specialize in the manufacture of tools and weapons to be exchanged with
others who specialized in hunting.3 David Ricardo identified the concept of comparative
advantage in which entire nations or societies may benefit from specialization and trade. He
notes that natural or artificial advantages unique to geographic regions or societies support
the production of certain products, the trade of which results in increased wealth.4
Early manufacturing, or “craft production,” was based largely upon specialization.
Craft production featured highly skilled workers using flexible tools to design and produce
customized products in low volumes. It originally consisted of local customers, local
production, and local suppliers—although improvements in transport and international
trade would eventually enable the expansion of markets. Because each manufactured item
was unique, the overall consistency and quality of craft production was highly variable.5
The development of interchangeable parts by Honoré Blanc and Eli Whitney in the
late 1700s represents a significant advancement in production methodology. 6 The
standardization of parts and processes provided improved quality and consistency, thus
enabling larger production volumes at lower cost.
Standardization is the fundamental process which enabled a shift from craft
production to mass production and, along with specialization, largely defines contemporary
manufacture. While today’s global manufacturing system also benefited from numerous
technology and process improvements, the underlying principles remain specialization and
standardization.
1.2.2 Process Improvements
Following the development of standardized parts, the next significant advancement
in manufacturing occurred in 1908 with Henry Ford’s development of the assembly line.
His system of mass production utilized unskilled workers to operate inflexible single-
purpose machines and enforced rigid measurement techniques to ensure consistency and
facilitate assembly. The result was highly standardized production which delivered a high
volume of products with significantly reduced costs. By automating the entire assembly
process along a moving belt, Ford was able to carefully control the rate of production.7 Also
in the early 1900s, Fredrick Winslow Taylor introduced the idea of scientific management.
Taylor preached the extreme specialization through the division of labor into basic tasks, the
subsequent optimization of which would result in improvements to the overall process.
Taylor’s ideas are credited with launching the field of management science.8
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The concept of lean production represents the next significant process improvement.
Pioneered by Eiji Toyoda and Taiichi Ohno in the 1950s and 1960s, “lean” encompasses a
variety of process improvements including reduction of waste, continuous improvement of
production processes (kaizen), just-in-time inventory supply, and build-to-order production
based on kanban.9 Unlike mass production, lean utilizes multi-skilled workers and semi-
flexible machines to produce a limited variety of products in moderate volumes. This
reduces time wasted changing over to a different product, thus enabling the cost effective
manufacture of products with short lifecycles while reducing inventory and overhead
costs.10 Despite these improvements over mass production, lean factories still specialize in a
limited variety of products with common, standardized characteristics.
Agile manufacturing is yet another modern production philosophy which strives to
improve, but not fundamentally change, traditional mass production. Agile manufacturing
systems feature high levels of product and process flexibility to compress product lead time
and improve responsiveness. These goals may be achieved within a traditional mass
production environment through the rapid reconfiguration of manufacturing processes, but
typically result in additional waste. 11 Some manufacturers have attempted to meet
consumer demand through modularization, or the personalized combination of
standardized components.12 The most extreme form of agile manufacture, “build-to-order,”
requires process flexibility, product flexibility, and volume flexibility to effectively meet
consumer demand.13 Agility attempts to combine the flexibility and customization of craft
production with the reliability and volume of mass production, but is restricted by the need
to utilize standardized parts and specialized processes.
The application of technology has also historically resulted in the improvement of
manufacturing processes. Both Smith and Ricardo discussed the numerous benefits of
machinery, notably the reduction of labor by specialized machines capable of completing
repetitive tasks. The steam engine powered early factories of the industrial revolution,
while enterprise resource planning systems power today’s global manufacturing businesses.
While technology has greatly improved the efficiency of production, it has not inherently
changed its fundamental principles.
1.3 Rapid Manufacturing as a Disruptive Technology
Traditional manufacturing is built upon the principles of standardization and mass
production. Gradual improvements in process, technology, and transportation have
resulted in a truly global supply chain of international sourcing, manufacturing, and
distribution with economies of scale never previously imagined. But rapid manufacturing
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provides producers and consumers with a different value proposition: responsive
production of low-volume, customized products with increasingly competitive unit prices.
According to Christensen, attributes which make disruptive technologies less
appealing to mainstream markets are the same attributes which are more appealing to
emerging markets.14 In the case of rapid manufacturing, the ability to generate customized
products with a flexible machine is counter to the fundamental principles of conventional
manufacture—standardization and specialization.
Rapid manufacturing eliminates the need to produce standardized products and
maintain highly specialized factories. It provides the flexibility to manufacture multiple
products with a single machine, including complex geometries previously impossible to
manufacture through subtractive means. Additive technology enables the fabrication of
truly personalized products given direct customer input, thus eliminating all forms of
standardization.
Tuck and Hague discuss how rapid manufacturing achieves many goals of both lean
and agile philosophies. Rapid manufacturing results in the elimination of waste through the
reduction raw materials, work in progress inventory, and finished goods inventory. Further
cost savings are achieved by reducing assembly costs, consolidating the number of
components, reducing set-up and change-over time, and potentially eliminating transport
costs by allowing for manufacture at the site of demand. In addition, additive technologies
allow for the creation of value through customization and the compression of lead time
through the elimination of supply lines—two key goals of agile manufacturing.15 While lean
and agile manufacturing attempt to improve traditional production techniques, rapid
manufacturing achieves the goals of both philosophies using an entirely different—and
potentially disruptive—approach.
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2 Potential Applications of Rapid Manufacturing
Potential applications of rapid manufacturing technologies have been widely
documented in both academic literature and popular press. This chapter will review many
of the recently commercialized applications of additive fabrication and current areas of
research, and will also examine literature addressing firm level implementation of additive
technologies. This review will serve to identify the characteristics of promising applications
as well as the current limitations of rapid manufacturing technology.
2.1 Recently Commercialized Applications
The following literature review describes the numerous applications which have
been commercialized to date.
2.1.1 Prosthetic Implants
Rapid manufacturing has been widely adopted by the medical industry for a variety
of applications. Janssens and Poukens attribute the early adoption of rapid manufacturing
within the medical industry to the need for personalized implants, the ability to produce
complex geometries, and the ability of doctors to actively influence the design and
manufacture of components which greatly reduces development time and improves quality.
Most importantly, the high-value nature of medical devices justifies the relatively high cost
of manufacture.16
Doctors are using additive fabrication to produce titanium implants which can be
customized prior to surgery, offer a more accurate fit, and provide better post-operation
aesthetic appearance for the patient. Janssens and Poukens have also demonstrated the
successful use of electron beam melting to manufacture a titanium cranial implant.
2.1.2 Orthodontics
Harris and Savalani discuss a variety of applications in the field of orthodontics.
They cite research into the use of selective laser melting and selective laser sintering to
produce titanium prosthetics, but note that resolution constraints of today’s technologies
limit the rapid manufacture of dental prosthetics. They also cite more successful application
of rapid manufacturing technology for the production of orthodontic support structures,
such as drill guides, which can be customized for each patient.17
The Invisalign® system is perhaps the most successful commercial application of
rapid manufacturing technology in the field of orthodontic support structures. First
commercialized by Align Technologies in 1999, Invisalign® utilizes SLA technology to
create a series of customized clear plastic implants to be worn over a patient’s teeth.
Incremental changes in each successive implant slowly realign and straighten a patient’s
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teeth over the length of treatment, typically lasting about twelve months. Each implant is
unique, designed to fit each patient’s dental structure as well as the particular stage of
treatment.18
2.1.3 Hearing Aids
Masters, et al, discussed the use additive techniques for the manufacture of hearing
aids, citing particular benefits of quality and consistency. Hearing aids require a
personalized fit for both functionality and comfort. To achieve this level of customization, a
highly manual process resembling traditional craft-style of manufacture was employed,
often resulting in variable quality and inconsistency. Rapid manufacturing is able to deliver
the necessary personalized fit in addition to consistency and quality. Masters also cites the
biocompatibility of SLS nylon material as an inherent benefit of the technology.19
Phonak, one of the top three global manufacturers of communication and ear care
technology, uses selective laser sintering to manufacture nylon hearing aids. In addition to
delivering a personalized device in a biocompatible material, rapid manufacturing allows
Phonak to carefully control their production process and quickly deliver original or
replacement products to customers.20 Siemens, the market leader in hearing aids, also
utilizes SLS technology to manufacture hearing aids. Like Phonak, Siemens cites process
control and improved quality as the primary advantages over traditional manufacturing
methods.21
2.1.4 Sports Equipment
Delamore, et al, demonstrates the use of SLS in the development of bespoke football
boots citing advantages such as the ability to produce customized sensory and aesthetic
features and design freedom through consolidation of components and application of
functionally graded materials. 22 Gerrits describes the use of SLS to manufacture a
customized helmet for an Olympic rower. The helmet was designed to reduce body
temperature by reflecting sunlight and optimizing wind flow along the rower’s skull, thus
improving comfort and performance.23 Current research at Loughborough University is
investigating the use of rapid manufacturing technologies to produce tailored sports
garments optimized for injury prevention and impact protection.24
These examples of additive technology in sport target the niche market of world class
athletes, not the mass market of amateurs. While the high cost of personalized development
is currently limited to professional athletes who can more easily justify the expense and
quantify the value of competitive advantage, continued improvements in additive
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technology and subsequent reduction in cost may make this application more widely
accessible.
2.1.5 Aerospace Industry
Fox presents variety of factors which make rapid manufacturing attractive to firms
within the aerospace industry. Tooling is not cost effective given the low production
volume of the aircraft industry, so the small-batch ability of rapid manufacturing is
attractive. Further, rapid manufacturing is able to produce truly functional components
with adequate material, geometry, and accuracy. Rapid manufacturing technologies are also
flexible in their ability to build using a variety of materials, thus the continuous
development of new materials suitable for rapid manufacturing will only support the
continued application of the technology.25
Fox also presents an example of British Aerospace utilizing SLS technology to
manufacture complex duct work for its aircraft. Boeing and the US Navy also utilized SLS
to manufacture cooling ducts with complex geometry for the F/A-18 Hornet. In the case of
the F/A-18 Hornet, SLS was able to provide both the accuracy and material functionality as
well as the benefit of consolidating the number of components, thus reducing the need for
intermediate assembly.26
Spielman reflects on the use of rapid manufacturing to produce “Flight Certified”
components for use in space. Two hundred plastic capacitor housings were to be
manufactured for the international space station—a quantity which made rapid
manufacturing more economically viable than injection molding. Despite the need to
qualify the material and process prior to production and use, the total cost of product
development remained lower than that featuring traditional tooling.27
The University of Loughborough worked with Martin Baker Aircraft to develop
personalized ejector seats for pilots, but were ultimately limited by materials constraints.28
Steward examined the application of rapid manufacturing in the production of
premium airline seats. He cites benefits of rapid manufacturing given the low volume of
premium seats and complexity of seating design, but acknowledges that material limitations,
the need for aesthetic finishing operations, and size constraints limit the practical application
to small, non-cosmetic, non-structural seat components.29
2.1.6 Motor Sports
Tromans has examined the application of rapid manufacturing in the automobile
industry, specifically its early applications within motor sports. He notes that rapid
manufacturing is well suited for Formula One and NASCAR because of its ability to
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produce customized functional components in small volumes, generate complex geometries
which may be otherwise unmanufacturable, and quickly turn around new or replacement
parts.30
The Renault Formula One team recognized the early potential of rapid
manufacturing and developed a digital manufacturing center in 2002 with 3D Systems, a
pioneer of stereolithography technology. 31 The ability to make quick modifications to
functional components and reduce the need for assembly by consolidating multiple
components into single parts is advantageous for F1 teams.
Morrison provides an example of custom motorcycle shops which are utilizing
additive fabrication to produce functional parts in low volumes for their unique bikes.32
Kimberley discusses numerous applications of rapid manufacturing by the Italian
firm CRP Technology to optimize complex, functional components in low volumes. He cites
examples from Formula One racing, including break ducts, air intakes, and body panels, as
well as examples from championship motorbikes including seats, mudguards, and
windscreens.33
2.1.7 Art and Furniture
Rapid manufacturing has also allowed artists to construct works previously
restricted to their imaginations. EOS has collaborated with designer Assa Ashuash to
develop an artistic chair with optimized ergonomic and structural properties.34 Materilise, a
rapid manufacturing and design company based in Belgium, offers a variety of lamps, vases,
and other interior ornaments.35 And the Dutch firm Freedom of Creation uses laser sintering
to produce a range of artistic lighting and furniture pieces which are not manufacturable by
traditional methods. Freedom of Creation has also used SLS technology to produce
personalized awards and trophies for a variety of clients.36
2.1.8 Aesthetic Models
Morrison provides an example of firms using rapid manufacturing to produce
architectural models faster and cheaper than traditional, manual-intensive methods. 37
Wisconsin-based 3D Molecular Designs employs five different rapid manufacturing
technologies to produce complex models of proteins and other molecules for scientists and
academics.38
2.2 Current Areas of Research
In addition to the wide variety of additive products have already been
commercialized, many other applications are currently being researched.
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2.2.1 Textiles
Fralix has documented the potential for mass customization within the apparel
industry.39 Hague has described the benefits of rapidly manufactured textiles, including
seamless garments, customized tailoring, the creation of products that transition from solid
to fabric, and the potential to produce smart textiles with embedded functionality such as
computing.40
Evenhuis and Kyttanen first developed the concept for the rapid manufacture of
textiles composed of individual links and their company, Freedom of Creation, has
commercialized a limited number of textile products which are manufactured using SLS.
However, current technical capabilities limit the resolution of rapidly manufacture textiles,
which tend to be quite crude and resemble medieval chainmail. Continued improvements
will likely expand the number of potential applications.41
2.2.2 Automotive
The automobile is arguably responsible for the emergence of mass production in its
current form.42 Given the sheer volume of automobile production, the application of rapid
manufacturing within the automotive industry has been largely limited to the niche market
of high performance vehicles and concept cars.
Lamborghini worked with CRP Technology to manufacture a carbon fibre headlight
washer cover flap for its Gallardo sports car using SLS. The aerodynamic and aesthetic
requirements of the high speed vehicle demanded dimensional precision and reliability in a
variety of environmental situations. While this represents the successful application of rapid
manufacturing in the manufacture of consumer automobiles, it must be noted that the initial
production run was for only one hundred vehicles.43
Knight discusses research conducted by MG Rover and Loughborough University to
assess various automotive applications of rapid manufacturing, including seats, steering
wheels, and hand breaks customized to fit individual drivers. While the ability to create
accurate part geometry exists, researchers believe there is a need to ensure the repeatability
of mechanical properties before utilizing the technology for structural and safety
applications.44
Hyundai collaborated with Freedom of Creation to manufacture aesthetic floor
carpeting for the QarmaQ concept car using SLS.45
2.2.3 Bone Scaffolds
Despite the success of their titanium cranial implant, Janssens and Poukens
addressed the need for implants to be constructed of materials featuring biocompatibility
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and the ability to support bone growth rather than simply replace it. Cooke researched the
use of stereolithography to manufacture porous structure for tissue engineering applications.
Cooke’s study developed bespoke bone scaffolds using biocompatible, biodegradable
material to support cell regeneration in animals with promising results.46
2.2.4 Drug Delivery
Harris and Savalani have discussed the use of rapid manufacturing technologies to
provide effective, personalized methods of drug delivery. They postulate that the ability of
SLS or 3D-Printing to create functionally graded materials may enhance the drug release
rate of oral pharmaceuticals by optimizing the density and diffusivity of each pill. Further,
they suggest that the ability to manufacture each tablet individually would allow for patient
customization, as a single tablet containing multiple drugs with personalized dosages and
delivery times may replace the need to take multiple pills throughout the day.47
2.2.5 Construction
Others have examined the potential to apply rapid manufacturing techniques to
large scale construction projects. Soar explains that the construction of buildings and other
structures is well suited for rapid manufacturing because of its ability to produce
functionally graded and optimized designs, provide individual customization, and reduce
the need for assembly by integrating features such as wiring or ducting.48 While this
demand for customization and flexibility are supported by rapid manufacturing principles,
the technology required to meet such demand is still in infancy. Khoshnevis cites the
unsuitability of existing technologies as the primary factor limiting widespread uptake
within the construction industry, notably the low deposition rate of existing technologies
and the inability to deliver a wide range of materials simultaneously.49
2.3 Feasibility of Implementing Rapid Manufacturing at the Firm Level
In addition to the numerous examples of rapid manufacturing applications, the
feasibility of implementing the technology for specific parts or for individual firms has been
widely documented.
Hopkinson examined the production economics of rapid manufacturing compared to
traditional injection molding at the part level. He considered the machine costs, labor costs,
and material costs of various rapid manufacturing technologies compared to traditional
methods (Figure 2.1).50 It must be noted that the magnitude of cost savings will vary for
different applications as the unit cost of rapid manufacturing is highly dependent upon part
geometry.
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Figure 1.1: Production Cost Comparison for Various Technologies, 3.6 g part (Hopkinson 2006).
Rufflo, et al, expanded upon Hopkinson’s study by accounting for the initial
overhead cost of the rapid manufacturing machine, as well as recurring maintenance costs,
labor costs, and other costs. He also considered the cost incurred by building impartial lines,
layers, or builds. Using the same baseline part, Rufflo found a higher per-part cost estimate
than Hopkinson’s study and also showed the effect of non-optimal build quantities (Figure
2.2). Despite finding a higher cost per part, Rufflo’s study confirms the value of rapid
manufacturing for low volume production compared to injection molding.51
Figure 2.2: Production Cost Comparison for Laser Sintering and Injection Molding, 3.6 g part
(Rufflo, et al. 2006).
Tuck and Hague examined the effect of rapid manufacturing at the firm level. In
addition to improved production economies, they note significant reductions in inventory,
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17
labor, and distribution costs. They postulate that rapid manufacturing may result in a
general reduction in overhead costs, shorter lead time to market, the near elimination of raw
materials, work in progress inventory, and finished goods inventory. They also examine a
variety of potential supply chain strategies given the freedom to manufacture in any
environment.52
Reeves has provided a methodology to assess the value of implementing rapid
manufacturing for individual businesses. He discusses the business drivers, material
considerations, and process considerations which should influence a firm’s decision to
implement rapid manufacturing. He also touches on higher level impacts, including a
reduction in supply chain and capital costs as well as reduction of lead time and the
advantage of being first to market.53
Walter, Holmström and Yrjölä discuss the potential impact of rapid manufacturing
on supply chain management by examining the many shortcomings of traditional spare
parts supply methods within the airline industry and introducing rapid manufacturing as a
potentially valuable alternative. They conclude that rapid manufacturing is especially well
suited for low volume production of parts featuring variable demand, high inventory
holding costs, and high logistics costs.54
2.4 Characteristics of Promising Applications
The preceding cases highlight many disruptive characteristics of rapid
manufacturing which have driven commercialization of the technology. These primary
characteristics are:
1. Personalization. The ability to manufacture truly personalized features has been
shown in numerous cases. Visual customization has been shown in art, aesthetic
models, and automobiles. The value of comfort and functionality achieved by the
manufacture of products to fit a consumer’s body has been shown in the cases of
hearing aids, bespoke football boots, and bone scaffolds.
2. Responsiveness. The value of speed and reduced lead times achieved by rapid
manufacturing has been widely documented and shown to be especially useful for
products which are fashionable, such as clothing, or products with variable demand,
such as spare parts.
3. Low Volume. The elimination of tooling and subsequent cost reduction is especially
valuable for applications featuring low production volumes, such as motorsports or
aerospace.
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4. Complexity. The ability to produce complex geometries which were previously
impossible to manufacture, such as optimized airflow systems, is also extremely
valuable. Rapid manufacturing also allows for the consolidation of components and
reduction of assembly costs.
2.5 Limitations of Current Technology
Despite the numerous benefits, the previous cases also highlight barriers which limit
the feasibility of implementing rapid manufacturing. While additive technologies are
continuously being researching and improved, a number of issues still remain.
1. Resolution. The precision and resolution of additive technologies limits their
feasibility for some applications, as the need for finishing or post-processing results
in additional costs.
2. Size. The build envelope of current rapid manufacturing technologies limits its
application to relatively small products. The largest additive system is capable of
building a part only 59” across.55
3. Reliability. While rapid manufacturing is able to provide some level of control and
repeatability to previously manual processes, the overall quality and reliability of the
process has yet to be qualified. If rapid manufacturing is used to produce a highly
customized functional component, each iteration may potentially require reliability
or safety testing.
4. Speed and Cost. The low deposition rate of rapid manufacturing limits its
application in large-scale projects, such as construction. And the high cost of
materials makes rapid manufacturing an unlikely replacement for high-volume, low-
value industries.
5. Materials. Current materials also limit the number of practical applications of rapid
manufacturing technology. Questions of biocompatibility restrict in vivo
applications, with only limited achievements in the field of hearing aids. The ability
to manufacturing multiple materials at the same time is also a current limitation of
the technology. And while the ability to provide functionally graded materials my
eventually prove valuable, it has yet to be commercialized.
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3 Potential Impact of Rapid Manufacturing on Current Products
This chapter will identify products and sectors which are most likely to be affected
by rapid manufacturing based on the characteristics identified in the previous chapter. It
will introduce a methodology used to evaluate the potential impact on individual products
in terms of applicability and feasibility.
Applicability refers to the ability of rapid manufacturing to add value to a product.
Value may be added by providing customization and improved responsiveness based on
consumer demand. Value may also be created through geometric optimization and part
consolidation, which may also reduce assembly and tooling costs.
Feasibility, in contrast, refers to the ability of rapid manufacturing technologies to
actually manufacture products given current or expected limitations in terms of materials,
size, resolution, reliability, and cost. In addition to identifying products which are most
likely to be impacted by rapid manufacturing, evaluating the feasibility of the most
promising applications will provide a basis for future research and improvement of rapid
technologies.
It is important to note that applicability will dictate the uptake of rapid
manufacturing more so than feasibility. Consumer demand must exist and value must be
created to justify the application of rapid manufacturing technologies. A product’s ability to
be constructed through additive means may not provide any additional value compared to
conventional methods, and would therefore not justify a shift in production style.
3.1 Methodology
To evaluate the potential impact of rapid manufacturing for a large quantity of
individual products, a consistent and transparent methodology is necessary. To date, no
such methodology has been developed and a study of such scope has not been undertaken.
This evaluation intends to provide a high level analysis of all commonly
manufactured and globally traded goods. It strives to identify products and sectors most
likely to be affected by rapid manufacturing, thus allowing conclusions to be drawn
regarding the potential impact of rapid manufacturing upon the global economy. Given
such a wide scope, a flexible methodology has been developed which may accommodate a
diverse range of products.
The proposed methodology resembles a failure mode and effect analysis, a common
engineering tool used to evaluate product reliability in terms of multiple, independent
characteristics. The simplicity of this method will provide flexibility to assess a wide variety
of products, each with very different features.56
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Characteristics presented in the previous chapter will serve as criteria for assessment.
Each individual product will be assigned a numeric score for each characteristic to quantify
the value which may be added by rapid manufacturing. These criteria scores will be
multiplied to determine a “value score” for each manufactured product. This “value score”
will enable the comparison of different goods based upon the total value received from
rapid manufacturing. While certain products will likely achieve greater value from certain
characteristics, all criteria will carry an equal weighting for mathematical simplicity, clarity,
and consistency, allowing for an unbiased comparison of different products. A weighted
scale of 1 (low value), 2 (minor value), 4 (moderate value), and 8 (high value) was used to
evaluate each characteristic.*
Once the most applicable products are identified, the feasibility of manufacture will
be assessed using a similar scale ranging from 1 (not feasible) to 8 (feasible).
3.1.1 Applicability
Consumer demand for customization is one characteristic which will continue to
drive the acceptance of rapid manufacturing technologies. However, various levels of
customization exist. Extreme customization, such as body fit or ergonomic personalization,
achieves perhaps the highest value for products requiring direct input from the user to
improve comfort or performance (value = 8). Modular personalization, resulting in
variations of shape, size, or material, is of less value than ergonomic personalization but
may significantly improve functionality (value = 4). Basic customization, such as color or
appearance, may significantly affect aesthetic qualities of a product, but is of less value than
ergonomic or modular personalization in that it has no impact on functional performance
(value = 2). Some products may achieve no value through personalization (value = 1), such
as purely functional products with little user interaction or products for which value may be
actually be achieved through standardization.
Consumer demand for responsiveness is also highly variable. Rapid manufacturing
may deliver high value for products which require immediate availability in response to
sporadic demand (value = 8), but little value for products featuring consistent demand
(value = 1). Intermediate products may be assessed in terms of fashionability, with highly
* An exponential scale was selected in preference to a linear scale to better distinguish products gaining significant value from rapid manufacture. A variety of alternate scales were also investigated to prove the robustness of the methodology, including both linear scales of [1,2,3,4], [1,3,5,7], and [1,4,7,10] and exponential scales of [1,3,9,27]and [1,4,16,64]. Use of these scales identified nearly the same products to be promising applications as the originally selected exponential scale of [1,2,4,8] with 96% consistency. The decision to calculate the “value score” through multiplication rather than addition was also investigated. The addition of exponential scales resulted in generally the same products as multiplication with 73% consistency.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
21
fashionable products receiving moderate value from rapid manufacture (value = 4) and less
fashionable products resulting in lower value (value = 2).
Value can also be achieved by enabling the production of complex products or
simplifying the number of components and labor required for assembly. Highly complex
assemblies may achieve high levels of value through rapid manufacturing (value = 8), while
simple assemblies may achieve moderate levels of value (value = 4). Complex components
may achieve some value (value = 2) while simple products offer little to no value (value = 1).
Reduction of tooling costs and the ability to deliver low production volumes is
perhaps the most disruptive aspect of rapid manufacturing. It is especially valuable for
production quantities of one (value = 8), but is also valuable for low production volumes up
to 1000 (value = 4). Medium production volumes between 1000 and 10,000 offer some
benefit (value = 2), while no benefit is achieved for mass produced products with quantities
over 10,000 (value = 1). While the scale of appropriate production quantities may change
given improvements in technology, the concept of individual, low, medium, and high
production volumes remains relevant.
3.1.2 Feasibility
Once the most promising products have been identified, each will be evaluated
based on feasibility of manufacture. Current limitations of rapid manufacturing technology
were discussed in the previous chapter will provide criteria for assessment.
The resolution of additive technologies may limit the feasibility of producing certain
products containing small features, fine detail, or requiring an exceptionally smooth surface
finish. Products requiring resolution which is achievable using current rapid technologies
are considered highly feasible (value = 8). Products requiring resolution which may be
attained assuming reasonable advancements in technology over the next decade are
considered somewhat feasible (value = 4). Products requiring significant advancements in
rapid technologies to meet resolution requirements are not feasible (value = 1).
Current rapid manufacturing technologies are also limited by the size of their build
envelope. Products measuring less than one cubic foot are considered highly feasible (value
= 8) as they are able to fit within the build envelope of a typical additive system. Assuming
reasonable advancements in additive technology over the next ten years provide build
envelopes of up to one cubic metre, medium sized products may be considered somewhat
feasible (value = 4). Extremely large products in excess of one cubic metre will require
significant advancements in rapid technologies and are not currently feasible (value = 1).
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
22
As an emerging technology, many questions still surround the reliability and
repeatability of additive processes. Non-functional products have little need for reliability
assurance and may be considered highly feasible given today’s level of technology (value =
8). Products with minimal reliability requirements may be considered somewhat feasible
(value = 4). Highly functional and high performance products, or products which must
meet strict safety requirements, will require further advancements in rapid manufacturing
processes (value = 1).
The speed and cost of manufacture also limit the application of rapid manufacturing
for certain products. The low deposition rate and high cost of material make rapid
manufacturing ill-suited for the production of large, low value products (value = 1). Small,
high-value products are more likely applications of the technology in its current form (value
= 8). Reasonable advancements in technology over the next ten years may expand the
potential applications to include larger products of lower value (value = 4), but rapid
manufacturing is unlikely to be cost effective extremely large products.
Materials represent another barrier for rapid manufacturing. While significant
advancements have been made in terms of material variety and functionality, the ability to
replicate certain material characteristics is not yet feasible. What is more, current additive
technologies lack the ability to fabricate multiple materials simultaneously. Plastic or
metallic products of single material may be considered highly feasible (value = 8), while
products requiring high performance materials or biocompatibility and products composed
of multiple materials may be considered somewhat feasible given moderate future
advancements (value = 4). Heat sensitive materials such as glass and materials featuring
unique tactile characteristics such as wood or fine textiles will require significant
improvements in current technology (value = 1).
3.2 Analysis of Current Products
The methodology described above was applied to over two thousand manufactured
products listed in the Standard International Trade Classification, Revision 3 (SITC Rev 3).
SITC Rev 3 was selected due to the completeness of global trade statistics, which will form
the basis of the economic analysis conducted in the following chapter.
The products listed in SITC Rev 3 were first evaluated based on the value which may
be added through rapid manufacturing. Full results of this analysis have been provided in
Appendix I. The most promising products were then evaluated based upon the feasibility of
manufacture, the full results of which are available in Appendix II.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
23
The following section will discuss the products identified as receiving the most value
from rapid technologies. For clarity of presentation, similar products will be grouped into
product families, each possessing similar characteristics well suited for rapid manufacture.
A detailed explanation will also address the feasibility of manufacture, as not all
applications are feasible given current or even reasonable advancements in additive
technology.
3.2.1 Medical Devices
Medical devices are perhaps the most promising application of rapid manufacturing
technology. Medical devices derive their greatest benefit from customization, as products
may be tailored to fit the recipient’s body. This includes both in-vivo products, such as
hearing aids, dental implants, and other artificial body parts, and in-vitro products, such as
spectacles and frames, walking sticks, and therapeutic or massage apparatuses. Medical
devices are also among the most feasible products to manufacture using additive methods
despite questions regarding the availability of materials and product reliability. The
applicability and feasibility of medical devices is further evidenced by the numerous
examples of commercialized applications presented in the previous chapter.
3.2.2 Art and Home Décor
Artists and designers have only recently embraced rapid manufacturing, but the
limitless design potential of additive fabrication allows the feasible production of highly
complex, customized products in volumes of one. This is especially valuable for art and
other interior decorations, especially those of high complexity featuring ornate details,
which would benefit from reduced assembly costs and are valued for their artistic qualities.
Clocks are a good application given their high level of fashion, the potential demand
for customization, and the complex assembly which may be reduced through rapid
manufacturing techniques. Lighting fixtures offer another opportunity for high aesthetic
customization. Decorative wall ornaments are perhaps the most feasible application of
rapid technology given the current technical capabilities of additive fabrication systems.
Improved resolution, speed, and material selection will continue to justify the uptake of
rapid manufacturing for this application.
Decorative woven articles, such as awnings, curtains, and tapestries, may also benefit
from high levels of aesthetic customization in terms of color, design, and shape. The ability
to manufacture in low volumes and respond to individual demand is also highly valuable.
However, the technology required to manufacture fabrics is still in infancy, and further
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
24
advancements in materials and resolution are needed to replace traditional forms of
manufacture.
Floor coverings, including hardwood, tile, carpet, or linoleum, provide an interesting
case. Currently, floor coverings are installed on-site. Raw materials are delivered to a
location and the floor covering is shaped to fit the unique interior space. In effect, floor
coverings are manufactured in volumes of one, and inherently possess both modular and
aesthetic customization. These features make it ideal for rapid manufacture, but current
technical capabilities severely limit the feasibility of such an application. Significant
improvements would be required in terms of material availability and resolution. What is
more, size and deposition rate limit the physical and financial feasibility of such an
application.
3.2.3 Jewellery
Jewellery is another application which would greatly benefit from the value
provided by customization. This includes watches, watch straps, rings, bracelets, and other
articles of metal or precious metal. The feasibility of using additive technologies for
jewellery manufacture will increase as a greater variety of materials, including precious
metals, become available for rapid manufacture.
3.2.4 Musical Instruments
The manufacture of musical instruments is another area which may be significantly
impacted by additive fabrication. Musical instruments typically feature high levels of
complexity, and rapid manufacturing would allow for a reduction in the number of
components, reduced assembly costs, and potentially optimized acoustic performance.
Instruments may also be designed to provide custom ergonomic fit for the musician or even
a signature sound. Additional research in this area is required, as material composition is a
key component of acoustic performance.
3.2.5 Sports Equipment
Another commercially viable application of rapid manufacturing is sporting goods,
including clothing and equipment. Sport offers an ideal application of rapid technologies
given the premium value associated with individual performance which is able to justify
higher development costs. This has been shown by previous examples of bespoke football
boots and applications within Formula One racing. While it is conceivable that rapid
manufacturing may someday deliver customized products to even casual athletes, the
current high cost of development restricts the market to that of high performance sports.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
25
Clothing, including footwear, safety equipment, and other high performance
garments would greatly benefit from ergonomic customization. The numerous benefits of
bespoke football boots discussed in the previous chapter may be applied to other sporting
footwear such as tennis shoes, basketball shoes, ski boots, and ice or roller skates. Safety
equipment, such as headwear and lifejackets, may also be customized for optimum
performance. While the successful commercialization of bespoke football boots reinforces
the feasibility of sports apparel, continued advancements in materials and resolution as well
as a decrease in the cost of production are necessary for industry wide uptake.
The ability to customize other sports equipment, such as tennis racquets or golf clubs,
to fit individual athletes may also result in improved performance or comfort. Other
probable applications include skis, surfboards, and saddlery. Rapid manufacturing may
allow for optimized design of high performance woven articles, such as sails or parachutes.
These articles would also benefit from aesthetic customization and reduced assembly costs.
Given the ability of rapid manufacturing to deliver highly responsive supply,
children's toys have oft been presented as a promising application. 57 However, most toys
would benefit from only minor customization, such as color and shape, and the simplicity of
most toys remains better suited for high volume manufacture. But rapid manufacturing is
well suited for more complex toys which would also benefit from ergonomic customization.
Bicycles, tricycles, and scooters, for example, would benefit from improved safety and
comfort achieved through customization, as well as a reduction in assembly costs.
3.2.6 Consumer Electronics
Consumer electronics provide another potentially promising application of rapid
manufacturing, but significant advancements in technical capabilities are required before the
production of such products is considered feasible. Consumer electronics are highly
complex and would significantly benefit from a reduction in assembly costs. They are also
increasingly viewed as fashionable, as many products offer varying levels of
customization—from aesthetic to functional. What is more, consumer electronics possess a
relatively short product lifecycles. As technologies become outdated, they are replaced by
newer models and there is a need for producers to reinvest in tooling. Rapid manufacturing
would allow for the production of highly customized products in immediate response to
consumer demand, while eliminating the need for assembly and tooling.
Telephones and mobile phones are highly fashionable and would benefit from
aesthetic customization. Headphones, earphones, and hand tools may be personalized to
comfortably fit the individual consumer, thus resulting in improved performance.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
26
However, further research is needed before additive technologies are capable of supporting
complex, electronic circuitry. Alternatively, certain consumer electronic components, such
as casings and housings, are well suited for rapid manufacture in its current form.
3.2.7 Architecture and Construction
The very nature of construction, featuring highly complex, highly customized
products in low volumes, is well suited for additive fabrication. But as previously discussed,
the slow deposition rate of current additive technologies and the inability to utilize multiple
materials simultaneously limits the feasibility of large scale construction. What is more, the
reliability of additive technologies has yet to be proven for use in such applications which
must consider structural integrity and human safety.
3.2.8 High Value Machinery
Rapid manufacturing is well suited for complex industrial machinery produced in
especially low volumes, such as hydraulic turbines or nuclear reactors. These products are
produced in very limited volumes, and would benefit greatly a reduction in part complexity,
geometric optimization, and the ability to customize features in response to unique
requirements. However, the reliability of current additive processes may be questioned for
such high performance machinery. Further, the size of such machinery is unable to be
accommodated by current build envelopes.
3.2.9 Spare Parts
Many highly complex, functional products are ill suited for rapid manufacture for a
variety of reasons. Heavy machinery and transport equipment, for example, are often
standardized and would derive little value from personal customization. They also have
long product lifecycles and stable demand, thus not benefiting from responsiveness of rapid
manufacture. What is more, these products are produced in large quantities to control
quality and reliability.
While rapid manufacturing may not be applicable for the production of complex
machinery, it offers significant value for the fabrication of spare parts and components.
Rapid manufacturing can support the agile supply of spare parts for machinery which are
highly complex and feature highly sporadic demand. Significant value is created by such
responsiveness which allows for the compression of lead time as well as the elimination of
inventory.
3.2.10 Luxury Clothing
Clothing is currently mass produced in a variety of colors, shapes, and sizes to
provide consumers with some level of modular customization. Rapid manufacturing,
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
27
however, may potentially allow for entirely bespoke wardrobes. While a demand for
rapidly manufactured clothing may exist, the feasibility of such an application may be
difficult to realize. Significant advancements in materials technology and machine
resolution are required to make the fabrication of clothing feasible.
Luxury garments, such as suits, jackets, and dresses, provide a potentially good
application given their high levels of customization, low volume of production, high
fashionability, and short product life cycle. Bespoke suits and dresses are among the only
forms of clothing which are not mass produced today, resulting in justifiably higher costs.
In addition to providing customized products responsively, the ability to manufacture
without the need for assembly would be beneficial. While demand for such an application
clearly exists, technical capabilities limit the feasibility of manufacturing fine textiles.
3.2.11 Vehicles
Luxury recreation vehicles such as yachts, cruise ships, and campers, possess many
characteristics which make them ideal candidates for rapid manufacture. While all types of
vehicle would benefit from aesthetic and modular customization and a reduction in
assembly costs, recreation vehicles tend to be produced in lower volumes which are more
conducive to rapid manufacture.
Automobiles were also identified as a promising application given their high
potential for customization and potential reduction of assembly costs through design
optimization. Motorcycles would likely achieve even greater benefits from ergonomic
customization including improved comfort, safety, and performance.
While recreational vehicles possess many intriguing characteristics, the need to meet
strict safety and reliability requirements may be difficult given both potentially significant
variations in design as well as the unproven nature of rapid manufacturing. What is more,
the feasibility of producing full size passenger and recreational vehicles is currently limited
as the size of such products is unable to be accommodated by the build envelope of current
systems. Certain components, such as body panels or seats, are slightly more practical than
an entire vehicle, but even these components are currently not feasible given current
technical limitations.
3.2.12 Unpromising Applications
A wide range of products will likely be unaffected by the advent of rapid
manufacturing. Highly functional products, raw materials, and simply worked products are
likely to achieve little value from additive fabrication. Some of these products may gain
value from possessing a standard shape and size, while others tend to be consumed in
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
28
extremely high volumes. For both reasons, mass production provides a more suitable form
of manufacture. Complex industrial machinery and scientific instrumentation are typically
valued for their functional rather than ergonomic characteristics. The same can be said for
simple products such as screws, paperclips, or bottle caps. Raw materials including plastics
in primary form, yarn and fabric, plywood and other simply worked wood, and bulk metal
products such as tubing, piping, wire, sheets, and ingots are unlike to be impacted.
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29
4 The Next Industrial Revolution?
The previous chapter identified a variety of products possessing characteristics well
suited for additive fabrication and evaluated the feasibility manufacture given current or
reasonable advancements in additive technology. This chapter will attempt to quantify the
potential impact on global trade which may result from mass uptake of rapid manufacturing
for those products identified.
4.1 Manufacturing and the Global Economy
Continued advancements in transportation, communication, and information
technology coupled with the reduction of policy barriers and liberalization of trade has
enabled the development of a global economic system more closely integrated than ever
before.58 Manufacturing is a critical component of the global economy, accounting for over
two-thirds of global trade.59
OECD Trade Balance
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Figure 2.1: OECD Trade Balance with Rest of the World (Euromonitor International 2008).60
An ever increasing portion of global trade is taking place between developed and
developing nations, but the nature of trade is very imbalanced. Members of the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, or OECD, tend to export high
value products, such as machinery, transport equipment, and chemicals, while emerging
nations tend to export basic manufactured goods and mineral fuels (Figure 4.1). The balance
of basic and miscellaneous manufactured exports has slowly moved from developed to
developing nations over the past twenty years as emerging economies are able to leverage
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
30
their comparative advantage in labor to ma-nufacture articles at lower costs. This shift in
production is often perceived as a threat to developed nations, thus prompting many to
proclaim rapid manufacturing the savoir for western industry. But, as discussed in the
previous chapter, not all manufactured products are well suited for rapid manufacture.
4.2 The Perceived Impact of Rapid Manufacturing
The potentially disruptive nature of rapid manufacturing is evident given its
fundamental differences with mass production. This has driven many to assert that rapid
manufacturing will result in “the next industrial revolution” or claim that it will enable “a
manufacturing renaissance” in developed nations. 61 While common in literature, these
claims remain largely unsubstantiated. A vast majority of literature on rapid manufacturing
is dedicated to technical attributes of additive technology. Novel applications are becoming
increasingly common, while case studies examining the economic or operational impact at
the firm level remain infrequent. Larger, industry-wide analyses are even less common, and
the wider impact of rapid manufacturing on global economy and society has yet to be
examined.
In Rapid Manufacturing: An Industrial Revolution for the Digital Age, Hopkinson, Hague,
and Dickens provide arguably the most complete explanation of rapid manufacturing
technology and applications to date. They evaluate the potential impact of rapid
manufacturing upon consumers and business, as well as its potential impact on how
products are designed and distributed. However, their focus remains largely constrained to
the individual firm—a very relevant subject, but far from the “next industrial revolution”
touted in their introduction.62 Tuck and Hague state that “the ability to remove [logistic,
labour, and stock holding] costs could also affect the manufacturing environment on a
global scale, by reuniting manufacturing to the country of origin, as labour costs are no
longer a burden.” However, they make no attempt to quantify such claims.63
Following a thorough analysis of additive technologies, McMains offers the
following, similar conclusion: “The ability to make customized products with fast
turnaround times might even reverse the current trend throughout U.S. industry toward
offshore manufacturing.”64 However, no evidence is offered to support such a claim aside
from her explanation of basic rapid prototyping technologies and materials. Knight offers
the same, unsubstantiated conclusion: “As rapid manufacturing requires no tooling, the
technology could cut manufacturer's costs, and ultimately help to reverse the trend of
production moving to China and India.”65
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
31
But to what extent will rapid manufacturing impact global trade? What products
and sectors are most likely to be affected? Will some countries be more impacted than
others? Is rapid manufacturing truly capable leading a manufacturing renaissance in
developed nations?
4.3 The Real Impact of Rapid Manufacturing
The ability of developed and developing nations to manufacture domestically will
undoubtedly impact the current magnitude of global trade, potentially disrupting the level
of surpluses and deficits of individual nations and within individual sectors. Having
identified a variety of products for which additive fabrication is most applicable and most
feasible, the potential economic impact of large scale adoption may be quantified. Trade
statistics from 2005 will be analyzed as recorded by the United Nations’ Commodity Trade
Statistics Database. This year was chosen given its high level of completeness relative to
subsequent years.
4.3.1 Potential Magnitude
Seventy products and product types were identified in the previous chapter for
which rapid manufacturing is most applicable. These products represent 10.79% of globally
traded manufactured articles by value. Of those, only thirty-nine products were identified
as feasible given reasonable advancements in rapid manufacturing technology, representing
only 2.05% of globally traded manufactured goods by value. Such a magnitude is unlikely
to be considered revolutionary, but closer examination reveals a disproportionate impact
upon individual countries and sectors.
In 2005, a US$587 billion dollar trade deficit existed between OECD nations and non-
OECD nations for all traded commodities including fossil fuels, agriculture, raw materials,
and manufactured goods. Manufactured goods represented eighteen percent of the total
deficit, or US$106 billion. This deficit is largely a result of basic and miscellaneous
manufactured articles which are increasingly produced by non-OECD nations, as previously
shown in Figure 4.1. In 2005, basic and miscellaneous manufactured articles represented a
$284 billion dollar trade surplus for developing nations, while high value manufactures
imported from OECD nations represent a US$178 billion dollar deficit.66
When viewed in terms of trade deficit between developed and emerging nations, the
potential impact of rapid manufacturing appears more significant. A majority of the feasible
products identified as being well suited for rapid manufacture are categorized as basic or
miscellaneous manufactures by the standard international trade classification. These
products represent over 20%, or US$21 billion, of the total manufacturing trade deficit
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
32
between OECD and non-OECD nations, and nearly 4% of the total trade deficit between
developed and emerging economies.
4.3.2 Impact on Products and Sectors
Not all products and sectors will be equally impacted by rapid manufacturing.
Luxury and recreational products will most likely be affected, while high value
manufactures such as medical devices will remain largely unaffected. Trade statistics and
analysis by product are provided in Appendix III.
Artistic products, including statues and sculpture, and other products of home décor,
including lamps, chandeliers, and clocks, will be significantly affected by the uptake of rapid
manufacturing. These products represent US$40 billion worth of international trade, of
which nearly 30%, or US$11.7 billion, takes place between OECD and non-OECD nations.
Not all artistic products will be impacted, however, as wood products, ornamental ceramic
products, floor coverings, and woven articles including tapestries and curtains, require
significant advancements in rapid manufacturing technology to support industry-wide
uptake.
Musical instruments may also be significantly impacted by the uptake of rapid
manufacturing. The trade of musical instruments which may be manufactured using
additive methods represents a US$2.7 billion dollar industry, one-third of which, or US$0.9
billion, takes place between developed and developing nations.
The trade of sports equipment, including saddlery, sails, skis, golf equipment, and
tennis equipment, will also be considerably affected. These applications represent an US$8.7
billion dollar industry, nearly 30% of which takes place between OECD and non-OECD
nations. While rapid manufacturing has already been used to produce custom sports
footwear, this will most likely remain a niche application as cost constraints limit the
feasibility of mass-market acceptance.
The trade of jewellery products which may be impacted by rapid manufacture
represents a US$51 billion industry, of which US$3.7 billion takes place between developed
and developing nations.
Medical devices, including spectacles and frames, hearing aids, artificial teeth, and
other prosthetic implants, will remain largely unaffected. For these products, over 95% of
global trade is conducted among developed nations. The trade deficit between OECD and
non-OECD nations represents just US$1.6 billion of the US$34 billion dollar industry.
As previously discussed, consumer electronics, high value machinery, and luxury
clothing will not likely be affected as significant advancements in additive technology are
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
33
required to enable industry wide uptake. Perhaps the most promising consumer electronic
is headphones and earphones, which, like hearing aids, may be customized to provide a
more comfortable fit and improved acoustic performance. Headphones and earphones
represent a US$3.6 billion industry, of which $1.2 billion takes place between developed and
developing nations.
4.3.3 Impact on Individual Nations
The belief that high-wage economies will benefit from additive fabrication due to the
elimination of labor and assembly costs is overly simplistic, as not all countries will be
uniformly impacted by the uptake of rapid manufacturing. Also, the notion that developing
countries may benefit from the ability to manufacture domestically is oft overlooked. In
reality, rapid manufacturing provides variable advantages and disadvantages for both the
consumers and producers of individual nations. Trade statistics and analysis by country are
provided in Appendix IV.
As previously stated, products well suited for rapid manufacturing account for
nearly 20% of the manufacturing trade deficit between developed and developing nations.
Thus, to some extent, assertions that rapid manufacturing can “stop the trend” of
production moving overseas is justified. But it must be noted that cost reduction is not the
only factor which will drive the adoption of rapid manufacturing. Rather, additive
fabrication will be adopted for applications that derive value from customization,
responsiveness, or geometric optimization. Consumers seeking these attributes typically
reside in more developed nations. Consider that while OECD countries import over 70% of
all globally traded manufactured goods and commodities, they import an even higher
portion—over 80%—of products identified as potential applications for rapid manufacturing
based on value.
Thus, it can be argued that developed nations have the tendency and ability to
consume more luxury and recreational goods, such as art, jewellery, musical instruments
and sports equipment. In fact, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France,
and Japan are the top five importing nations for those products described. Given the
geographic freedom allowed by rapid manufacturing, the production of these products will
conceivably shift to the nations of consumption negatively affecting nations which currently
specialize in these manufactures, regardless of their level of economic development.
Switzerland represents a developed nation which may ultimately be harmed by a
world wide uptake of rapid manufacturing. Switzerland is a model high-wage economy,
routinely ranking among the highest nations in terms of gross national income per capita.67
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
34
However, Switzerland is also the world’s largest exporter of watches and clocks with nearly
US$10 billion exported in 2005. As illustrated in the previous chapter, watches and clocks
possess many characteristics which make them well suited for additive fabrication. The
ability for countries to manufacture watches and clocks domestically represents an
especially significant risk to Switzerland’s second largest exported commodity as well as
their marginal trade surplus of US$4.4 billion.
Italy provides another example of a high-wage economy which may be negatively
impacted by rapid manufacturing. Italy is the world’s largest exporter of both spectacles
and jewellery—two products which may gain immense value from the customization
provided by rapid manufacturing. Italy’s current manufacturing trade deficit of US$11.9
billion may potentially increase by over 50% to US$18.6 billion given the advent of rapid
manufacturing and subsequent reduction of its two primary exports.
The adoption of rapid manufacturing will also negatively impact numerous Asian
economies currently specializing in the supply of generic luxury and recreational goods.
Countries such as China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, and Thailand stand to be impacted
to varying degrees.
Chinese manufactures will be most severely impacted as nearly 17% of China’s
US$102 billion dollar trade surplus is composed of luxury and recreational products. This
represents US$17 billion in trade surplus which may be eliminated if their trading partners
adopt rapid manufacturing. Indonesia, another net exporter, will also be negatively
impacted. Nearly 2% of Indonesia’s US$28 billion dollar surplus, US$0.5 billion, may be
eliminated given the rise of rapid manufacturing.
Asian nations which are net importers will generally be negatively impacted. The
elimination of luxury and recreational products as manufacturing exports may cause Hong
Kong’s current trade deficit grow by over 50%, from US$8 billion to US$12 billion. Likewise,
Thailand’s trade deficit may grow 20%, from US$8 billion to US$10 billion, and India’s
deficit may grow 7%, from US$46 billion to US$50 billion.
However, not all developing nations will be negatively impacted. Net exporters
featuring a strong industrial base of transport equipment and heavy machinery, such as
Brazil and Russia, will be largely unaffected by the uptake of rapid manufacturing. These
nations will see less than a one-percent change in their current surplus of manufactured
goods. But as their economies continue to grow and prosper, the consumers of Brazil and
Russia will increasingly benefit from the ability to manufacture luxury and recreational
products domestically.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
35
The potential impact upon developed nations which are net exporters is also highly
variable. Some net exporters will gain substantially from the ability to manufacture
previously imported luxury goods. Given the proposed uptake of rapid manufacturing,
Japan’s current trade surplus could grow from US$79 billion to US$85 billion. Germany,
however, will remain largely unaffected. Its current trade surplus may grow from US$197
billion to US$198 billion—a change of less than one percent.
Net importers, such as France, the United Kingdom, and the United States will
significantly benefit from the ability to produce luxury and recreational products
domestically. France may see up to a 3.4% reduction in its trade deficit, from US$42 billion
to US$40 billion. The US trade deficit may fall from US$828 billion to US$805 billion and the
UK trade deficit may fall from US$131 billion to US$128 billion, reductions of 2.8% and 2.4%
respectively.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
36
5 Conclusion
The disruptive nature of rapid manufacturing is evident given its ability to deliver
truly customized or optimized products quickly and in small volumes. Further, the
elimination of labor costs allow for geographically unconstrained production and
distribution. Continuing advancements in additive technology and an expanding number of
practical applications have led many to speculate that rapid manufacturing may result in a
second industrial revolution and manufacturing renaissance in high income nations. While
rapid manufacturing will undoubtedly impact individual products, its impact upon
industrial sectors and nations has been shown to be highly variable.
The industrial revolution of the 1700s was enabled by new technologies and new
ways of thinking, but it was only a revolution because of the significant social and economic
changes which changed the how people lived, where people worked, and what people
consumed. As a disruptive technology, rapid manufacturing has the potential to redefine
our present conceptions of manufacturing as it removes many of the limitations inherent in
the current global manufacturing system. It will undoubtedly impact numerous products in
terms of design and production and fundamentally change what people consume and how
people live.
But the impact of rapid manufacturing will be much greater for certain products and
sectors. Luxury and recreational goods will be most significantly impacted given the high
value associated with customization and a reduction in part complexity and assembly costs.
The uptake of additive technology may also impact the balance of trade between developed
and developing nations, as well as among developed nations. The degree to which
economies of individual nations will be impacted has been shown to be highly variable.
However, consumers in all nations stand to benefit as rapid manufacturing will
undoubtedly result in improved product performance, increased consumer comfort, and
novel business models—all of which will deliver increased value to the customer. While the
balance of global trade will be impacted by rapid manufacturing, the outsourcing of most
low-value, labor intensive industries will be unaffected. Highly functional products, raw
materials and simply worked products are better suited for mass production, as they gain
little value from rapid manufacture.
However, as Clayton Christensen contends, radical innovation tends to create new
markets of customers whose needs are initially unknown to themselves and
manufacturers.68 This is perhaps the most exciting aspect of rapid manufacturing, as
freedom from the design constraints inherent in traditional subtractive manufacture will
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
37
undoubtedly result in a multitude of innovative products which have previously been
impossible to manufacture or not yet conceived. This study attempted to quantify the
potential impact of rapid manufacturing by evaluating current products and trade flows, but
it is impossible to quantify the impact of products yet to be imagined.
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
38
6 Future Work
Given that this study attempted to evaluate the potential impact of rapid
manufacturing upon the global economy, it relied upon a methodology designed to
accommodate a wide variety of products and characteristics. A better understanding of how
rapid manufacturing may impact specific products or industries may be achieved by
tailoring the methodology to meet the demands of specific products. This may be
accomplished by weighting the criteria so characteristics which are considered more
valuable for a particular industry have greater influence. Further investigation into specific
industries is highly encouraged, as it may reveal a more accurate assessment of which
products may be affected by rapid manufacturing, and thus allow a more accurate analysis
of how additive technology will impact the global economy.
Spare parts were identified as a potential application of rapid manufacturing given
the high value associated with responsiveness, reduction in part complexity, and low
volume. Unfortunately, the standard trade classification index does not provide a
classification for spare parts thus making its magnitude impossible to quantify in the same
context as other products. However, the SITC Rev 3 provides numerous sub classifications
for generic “parts.” While these generic classifications may include spare parts as well as
regular uncategorized components, their magnitude represents over 25% (US$1.77 trillion)
of globally traded manufactured goods. This represents a significant opportunity for rapid
manufacturing, especially considering that all other applicable products identified as
feasible represent only 2% (US$0.14 trillion) of globally traded manufactured goods. For this
study, the value of a generic “parts” classification were considered only when listed as a
subclassification of products identified as a potential applications of rapid manufacturing.
While rapid manufacturing represents a fundamentally different approach to
traditional manufacturing, it may be successfully integrated with systems of mass
production to deliver value for certain components. This study largely analyzed the ability
of rapid manufacturing to create finished products in their entirety. A closer evaluation of
“parts” may also reveal components of mass produced products which may be impacted by
rapid manufacturing. The magnitude of this impact is unable to be quantified given the lack
of detail regarding “parts” within the SITC Rev 3.
62119 Other materials of unvulcanized, compounded rubber
2 1 1 1 2
6212 Oth.forms unvulcd.rubber 62121 "Camel-back" strips for retreading rubber tyres 1 1 1 2 2 62129 Other forms and articles of unvulcanized rubber 1 1 1 2 2 6213 Vulcanized rubber 62131 Vulcanized rubber thread and cord 1 1 1 1 1
62132 Plates, sheets, strip, rods and profile shapes, of unhardened vulcanized 1 1 1 1 1
62133 Plates, sheets, strip, rods and profile shapes, of unhardened vulcanized
1 1 1 1 1
6214 Vulc.rubber tubes,pipes
62141 Tubes,pipes,hoses,of unhard.vulc. rubber, not reinforced
4 1 1 1 4
62142 Tubes,pipes,hoses,of unhard.vulc. rubber, reinf./comb. only with metal
4 1 4 1 16
62143 Tubes,pipes,hoses,of unhard.vulc. rubber, reinf./comb. only with textile
4 1 4 1 16
62144 Tubes,pipes,hoses,of unhard.vulc. rubber, reinf./comb. with other materia 4 1 4 1 16
62145 Tubes,pipes,hoses,of unhard.vulc. rubber, with fittings
4 1 4 1 16
625 RUBBER TYRES,TUBES,ETC.
6251 Tyres, pneumatic, new, of a kind used on motor cars (including station wa
4 1 4 1 16
6252 Tyres, pneumatic, new, of a kind used on buses or lorries
4 1 4 1 16
6253 Tyres, pneumatic, new, of a kind used on aircraft 4 1 4 4 64 6254 Tyres,pneum.new,cycles
62541 Tyres, pneumatic, new, of a kind used on motorcycles
4 1 4 1 16
62542 Tyres, pneumatic, new of a kind used on bicycles 4 1 2 1 8 6255 Other pneumatic tyres
62551 Tyres, pneumatic, new, other, having a "herring-bone" or similar tread
4 1 2 1 8
62559 Tyres, pneumatic, new, other 4 1 2 1 8 6259 Other tyres,tubes etc. 62591 Inner tubes 1 1 4 1 4 62592 Retreaded tyres 2 1 2 2 8
62594 Solid or cushion tyres, interchangeable tyre treads and tyre flaps
2 1 1 2 4
629 ARTICLES OF RUBBER, NES 6291 Hygienic,pharm.rubbr.art 62911 Sheath contraceptives 2 1 1 1 2
62919 Other hygienic or pharmaceutical articles of unhardened vulcanized rubber
2 1 1 1 2
6292 Vulc.rubber belting
62921 Conveyor or transmission belts, of vulcanized rubber, V-belts
1 1 1 4 4
62929 Conveyor or transmission belts, of vulcanized rubber, other
1 1 1 4 4
6299 Hard rubber etc.,nes
62991 Hard rubber (e.g., ebonite), in all forms (including waste and scrap); ar
2 1 1 1 2
62992 Articles of unhardened cellular vulcanized rubber, n.e.s.
2 1 1 1 2
62999 Articles of unhardened non-cellular vulcanized rubber, n.e.s.
2 1 1 1 2
63 CORK, WOOD MANUFACTURES 633 CORK MANUFACTURES 6331 Articles of natural cork 63311 Corks and stoppers 1 1 1 1 1 63319 Articles of natural cork, other than corks or stoppers 1 1 1 1 1 6332 Agglmrtd.cork,cork artcl
63321 Blocks, plates, sheets, strip; tiles and solid cylinders of agglomerated 1 1 1 1 1
63329 Articles of agglomerated cork, not of 633.21 1 1 1 1 1 6349 Wood, simply shaped, nes
63491 Hoopwood; split poles; piles, pickets and stakes of wood, pointed but not
2 1 1 1 2
63493 Wood wool; wood flour 1 1 1 1 1 635 WOOD MANUFACTURES, NES 6351 Packings,pallets etc.
63511 Packing cases, boxes, crates, drums and similar packings, of wood; cable-
1 1 1 1 1
63512 Pallets, box pallets and other load boards, of wood 1 1 1 1 1
6352 Casks, barrels, vats, tubs and other coopers' products and parts thereof,
4 1 4 4 64
6353 Buildrs.joinery,wood etc 63531 Windows, French windows and their frames 4 2 4 2 64
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
40
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63532 Doors and their frames and thresholds 4 2 4 2 64 63533 Shingles and shakes 2 2 4 2 32 63539 Other builders' joinery and carpentry of wood 4 2 4 2 64 6354 Wood,domest.use ex.furnt
63541 Wooden frames for paintings, photographs, mirrors or similar objects
4 2 2 2 32
63542 Tableware and kitchenware, of wood 2 2 1 1 4
63549 Wood marquetry and inlaid wood; caskets and cases for jewellery or cutler
4 2 4 2 64
6359 Manufact.articl.wood,nes
63591 Tools, tool bodies, tool handles, broom or brush bodies and handles, of w 8 1 2 2 32
63599 Other articles of wood 2 1 2 1 4 64 PAPER,PAPERBOARD,ETC. 641 PAPER AND PAPERBOARD 6411 Newsprint, in rolls or sheets 2 8 1 1 16 6412 Paper,paperbrd.uncoated 64121 Handmade paper and paperboard 2 1 1 1 2
64122 Paper and paperboard of a kind used as a base for photosensitive, heat-se
2 1 1 1 2
64123 Carbonizing base paper 2 1 1 1 2 64124 Wallpaper base 2 1 1 1 2
64125 Other paper and paperboard, weighing less than 40 g/m2, not containing fi
2 1 1 1 2
64126 Other paper and paperboard, weighing 40 g/m2 or more but not more than 15
2 1 1 1 2
64127 Other paper and paperboard, weighing more than 150 g/m2, not containing f
2 1 1 1 2
64129 Other paper and paperboard, of which more than 10 % by weight of the tota
2 1 1 1 2
6413 Paper,paperbd,coated,etc
64131 Carbon paper, self-copy paper and other copying or transfer papers (inclu
2 1 1 1 2
64132 Paper for writing or printing, coated, weight < 150 g/m2 2 1 1 1 2
64133 Paper for writing or printing, coated, weight > 150 g/m2
2 1 1 1 2
64134 Paper for writing or printing, coated, obtained by a mechanical process
2 1 1 1 2
6414 Kraft paper,brd,uncoated 64141 Kraft paper, uncoated, in rolls or sheets 2 1 1 1 2 64142 Sack kraft paper, uncoated, in rolls or sheets 2 1 1 1 2
64146 Kraft paper,uncoated, in rolls or sheets, n.e.s., weight < 150 g/m2
2 1 1 1 2
64147 Kraft paper,uncoated, in rolls or sheets, n.e.s., 150 g/m2 < weight < 225 2 1 1 1 2
64148 Kraft paper,uncoated, in rolls or sheets, n.e.s., weight > 225 g/m2
2 1 1 1 2
6415 Paper,paperbd,unctd,bulk
64151 Semi-chemical fluting paper, uncoated (corrugating medium), in rolls or s
2 1 1 1 2
64152 Sulphite drapping paper, uncoated, in rolls or sheets 2 1 1 1 2
64153 Vegetable parchment, greaseproof papers, tracing papers and glassine and
2 1 1 1 2
64154 Multi-ply paper and paperboard, uncoated, in rolls or sheets
2 1 1 1 2
64155 Cigarette paper, n.e.s. 2 1 1 1 2
64156 Filter-paper and paperboard, uncoated; felt paper and paperboard, uncoate
2 1 1 1 2
64157 Other paper and paperboard, uncoated, weighing 150 g/m2 or less
2 1 1 1 2
64158 Other paper and paperboard, uncoated, weighing more than 150 g/m2 but les
2 1 1 1 2
64159 Other paper and paperboard, uncoated, weighing 225 g/m2 or more
2 1 1 1 2
6416 Paper,paperbrd,corrg,etc
64161 Sack kraft paper, cr ped or crinkled, whether or not embossed or perforat
2 1 1 1 2
64162 Other kraft paper, in rolls or sheets, cr ped or crinkled, whether or not
2 1 1 1 2
64163 Toilet or facial tissue stock, towel or napkin stock and similar paper of
2 1 1 1 2
64164 Paper and paperboard, corrugated (with or without glued flat surface shee
2 1 1 1 2
64169 Paper, cr ped, crinkled, embossed or perforated, in rolls or sheets, n.e.
2 1 1 1 2
6417 Paper,paperbd,coated nes
64171 Paper and paperboard coated, impregnated or covered with plastics (exclud
2 1 1 1 2
64172 Other paper and paperboard coated, impregnated or covered with plastics ( 2 1 1 1 2
64173 Paper,tarred, bituminized or asphalted, in rolls or sheets
64176 Other kraft paper and paperboard, coated with kaolin (China clay) or othe
2 1 1 1 2
64177 Other paper and paperboard coated with kaolin (China clay) or other inorg
2 1 1 1 2
64178 Gummed or adhesive paper and paperboard 2 1 1 1 2 6419 Convrtd.paper,pprbrd,nes
64191 Paper and paperboard, laminated internally with bitumen, tar or asphalt,
2 1 1 1 2
64192 Other composite paper and paperboard (made by sticking flat layers of pap
2 1 1 1 2
64193 Filter blocks, slabs and plates, of paper pulp 2 1 1 1 2
64194 Wallpaper and similar wall coverings; window transparencies of paper
2 1 1 1 2
642 PAPER,PAPERBOARD,CUT ETC 6421 Containers,etc.of paper
64211 Cartons, boxes and cases, of corrugated paper or paperboard
2 1 2 1 4
64212 Folding cartons, boxes and cases, of non-corrugated paper or paperboard
2 1 2 1 4
64213 Sacks and bags, of paper or paperboard, having a base of a width of 40 cm
2 1 2 1 4
64214 Other sacks and bags, including cones, of paper or paperboard
2 1 2 1 4
64215 Other packing containers, including record sleeves, of paper or paperboar
2 1 2 1 4
ID Product Cu
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64216 Box files, letter trays, storage boxes and similar articles, of a kind us
2 1 2 1 4
6422 Stationery,etc. 64221 Envelopes 2 1 2 1 4
64222 Letter-cards, plain postcards and correspondence cards
2 2 2 1 8
64223 Boxes, pouches, wallets and writing compendiums, of paper or paperboard,
2 1 2 1 4
6423 Registers,acct.books,etc
64231 Registers, account books, notebooks, order books, receipt books, letter p
2 1 2 1 4
64232 Exercise books 2 1 2 1 4
64233 Binders (other than book covers), folders and file covers
2 1 2 1 4
64234 Manifold business forms and interleaved carbon sets
2 1 2 1 4
64235 Albums for samples or for collections 2 2 2 1 8
64239 Book covers; blotting pads and other articles of stationery, n.e.s.
2 2 2 1 8
6424 Paper,paperboard,cut,nes
64241 Cigarette paper, cut to size, whether or not in the form of booklets or t
2 1 1 1 2
64242 Carbon paper, self-copy paper and other copying or transfer papers, cut t
2 1 1 1 2
64243 Toilet paper, cut to size, in rolls or in sheets 2 1 1 1 2 64244 Gummed or adhesive paper, in strips or rolls 2 1 1 1 2 64245 Filter paper and paperboard, cut to size or shape 2 1 1 1 2
64248 Paper and paperboard, of a kind used for writing, printing or other graph
2 1 1 1 2
6429 Artcls,pulp,papr,brd nes
64291 Bobbins, spools, cops and similar supports of paper pulp, paper or paperb
2 1 1 1 2
64292 Cards, not punched, for punch card machines, whether or not in strips
2 1 1 1 2
64293 Trays, dishes, plates, cups and the like, of paper or paperboard
2 1 1 1 2
64294 Handkerchiefs, cleansing tissues, towels, serviettes, tablecloths, bed sh
2 1 1 1 2
64295 Sanitary towels and tampons, napkins (diapers) and napkin liners for babi
2 1 1 1 2
64299 Other articles of paper pulp, paper, paperboard, cellulose wadding or web
65112 Yarn of carded wool, containing 85% or more by weight of wool, not put up
2 1 2 1 4
65113 Yarn of combed wool, containing 85% or more by weight of wool, not put up
2 1 2 1 4
65114 Yarn of fine animal hair (carded or combed), not put up for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65115 Yarn of coarse animal hair or of horsehair (including gimped horsehair ya
2 1 2 1 4
65116 Yarn containing 85% or more by weight of wool or of fine animal hair, put
2 1 2 1 4
65117 Yarn of carded wool containing less than 85% by weight of wool, not put u
2 1 2 1 4
65118 Yarn of combed wool containing less than 85% by weight of wool, not put u
2 1 2 1 4
65119 Yarn of wool or of fine animal hair, containing less than 85% by weight o
2 1 2 1 4
6512 Cotton sewing thread 65121 Cotton sewing thread, not put up for retail sale 2 1 2 1 4 65122 Cotton sewing thread, put up for retail sale 2 1 2 1 4 6513 Cotton yarn,excl. thread
65131 Cotton yarn (other than sewing thread), containing 85% or more by weight
2 1 2 1 4
65132 Other cotton yarn (other than sewing thread), put up for retail sale 2 1 2 1 4
65133 Cotton yarn (other than sewing thread), containing 85% or more by weight
2 1 2 1 4
65134 Cotton yarn (other than sewing thread), containing less than 85% by weigh
2 1 2 1 4
6514 Thread of man-made fibre
65141 Sewing thread of synthetic filaments, whether or not put up for retail sa
2 1 2 1 4
65142 Sewing thread of artificial filaments, whether or not put up for retail s
2 1 2 1 4
65143 Sewing thread of synthetic staple fibres, whether or not put up for retai
2 1 2 1 4
65144 Sewing thread of artificial staple fibres, whether or not put up for reta
2 1 2 1 4
6515 Synth.filament yarn,bulk
65151 Filament yarn (other than sewing thread), of nylon or other polyamides, n
2 1 2 1 4
65152 Filament yarn (other than sewing thread) of polyesters, not put up for re
2 1 2 1 4
65159 Other synthetic filament yarn (other than sewing thread), not put up for
2 1 2 1 4
6516 Oth.synth.filament yarn
65161 Yarn of synthetic filaments (other than sewing thread), put up for retail 2 1 2 1 4
65162 High tenacity yarn of nylon or other polyamides or of polyesters (other t
2 1 2 1 4
65163 Other synthetic yarn, single, untwisted or with a twist not exceeding 50
2 1 2 1 4
65164 Other synthetic yarn, single, with a twist exceeding 50 turns per metre,
2 1 2 1 4
65169 Other synthetic yarn, multiple (folded) or cabled, not put up for retail
2 1 2 1 4
6517 Artif.filament yarn, nes
65171 Yarn of artificial filaments (other than sewing thread), put up for retai
2 1 2 1 4
65172 Textured artificial filament yarn, not put up for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65173 High tenacity yarn of viscose rayon, not put up for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65174 Other yarn, single, of viscose rayon, untwisted or with a twist not excee
2 1 2 1 4
65175 Other artificial filament yarn, single 2 1 2 1 4
65176 Other artificial filament yarn (other than sewing thread), multiple (fold
2 1 2 1 4
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
41
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65177 Artificial monofilament of 67 decitex or more and of which no cross-secti
2 1 2 1 4
6518 Yarn,staple fibres, etc.
65181 Yarn containing > 85% synthetic fibres, for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65182 Yarn containing > 85% synthetic fibres, not for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65183 Yarn containing < 85% synthetic fibres, for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65184 Yarn containing < 85% synthetic fibres, not for retail sale
2 1 2 1 4
65185 Yarn (other than sewing thread) of artificial staple fibres, put up for r
2 1 2 1 4
65186 Yarn (other than sewing thread) containing 85% or more by weight of artif
2 1 2 1 4
65187 Yarn (other than sewing thread) of artificial staple fibres containing le
2 1 2 1 4
65188 Synthetic monofilament of 67 decitex or more and of which no cross-sectio
2 1 2 1 4
6519 Yarn,textile fibres, nes
65191 Metallized yarn, being textile yarn, or strip or the like of heading 651.
2 1 2 1 4
65192 Silk yarn (other than yarn spun from silk waste), not put up for retail s
2 1 2 1 4
65193 Yarn spun from silk waste, not put up for retail sale 2 1 2 1 4
65194 Silk yarn and yarn spun from silk waste, put up for retail sale; silkworm
2 1 2 1 4
65195 Slivers, rovings, yarn and chopped strands, of glass fibres
2 1 2 1 4
65196 Flax yarn 2 1 2 1 4
65197 Yarn of jute or of other textile bast fibres of group 264
2 1 2 1 4
65199 Yarn of other vegetable textile fibres; paper yarn 2 1 2 1 4 652 COTTON FABRICS, WOVEN 6521 Cotton gauze,etc.woven
65211 Cotton gauze (other than narrow fabrics of subgroup 656.1)
2 2 2 1 8
65212 Terry towelling and similar woven terry fabrics, of cotton (other than fa
2 2 4 1 16
65213 Other terry towelling and similar woven terry fabrics, of cotton (other t
2 2 4 1 16
65214 Pile fabrics, woven, of cotton (other than terry towelling or similar wov
2 2 4 1 16
65215 Other pile and chenille fabrics, woven, of cotton (other than terry towel
67241 Ingots of iron (other than iron of heading 671.33) or n/a steel
1 1 1 1 1
67245 Other primary forms of iron (other than iron of heading 671.33) or n/a st
1 1 1 1 1
67247 Ingots and other primary forms of stnls steel 1 1 1 1 1 67249 Ingots and other primary forms of other alloy steel 1 1 1 1 1 6726 Semi-finish.iron,steel
67261 Semi-fin. prod. of iron or n/a steel< 0.25% of carbon, spec. rectangular
1 1 1 1 1
67262 Semi-fin. prod. of iron or n/a steel< 0.25% of carbon, other rectangular
1 1 1 1 1
67269 Semi-fin. prod. of iron or n/a steel< 0.25% of carbon, of other shapes
1 1 1 1 1
6727 Semi-fin. prod. of iron or n/a steel> 0.25% or more of carbon
68423 Aluminium plates, sheets and strip, of a thickness exceeding 0.2 mm
1 1 1 1 1
68424 Aluminium foil (whether or not printed or backed with paper, paperboard,
1 1 1 1 1
68425 Aluminium powders and flakes 1 1 1 1 1 68426 Aluminium tubes and pipes 1 1 1 1 1
68427 Aluminium tube and pipe fittings (e.g., couplings, elbows, sleeves)
2 1 2 1 4
685 LEAD 6851 Lead,lead alloy,unwrght. 68511 Unrefined lead and lead alloys 1 1 1 1 1 68512 Refined lead 1 1 1 1 1 6852 Lead,lead alloys, worked 68521 Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire 1 1 1 1 1
68522 Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes
1 1 1 1 1
68524 Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (e.g., couplings, elbows, sle
68981 Cobalt mattes and other intermediate products of cobalt metallurgy; cobal
1 1 1 1 1
68982 Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and scrap; powders
1 1 1 1 1
68983 Titanium, unwrought; titanium waste and scrap; powders
1 1 1 1 1
68984 Zirconium, unwrought; zirconium waste and scrap; powders
1 1 1 1 1
6899 Base metal nes,wst,scrap
68991 Beryllium, unwrought; beryllium waste and scrap; powders
1 1 1 1 1
68992 Bismuth and articles thereof (including waste and scrap)
1 1 1 1 1
68993 Antimony and articles thereof (including waste and scrap)
1 1 1 1 1
68994 Manganese and articles thereof (including waste and scrap)
1 1 1 1 1
68995 Chromium and articles thereof (including waste and scrap)
1 1 1 1 1
68996 Germanium and articles thereof (including waste and scrap)
1 1 1 1 1
68997 Vanadium and articles thereof (including waste and scrap) 1 1 1 1 1
68998 Other base metals, unwrought; waste and scrap; powders
1 1 1 1 1
68999 Cermets and articles thereof (including waste and scrap)
1 1 1 1 1
69 METALS MANUFACTURES,NES 691 METALLIC STRUCTURES NES 6911 Metal structures,parts 69111 Bridges and bridge sections, of iron or steel 4 1 8 8 256 69112 Towers and lattice masts, of iron or steel 4 1 8 8 256
69113 Doors, windows and their frames and thresholds for doors, of iron or stee
4 2 4 2 64
69114 Equipment for scaffolding, shuttering, propping or pit-propping, of iron
1 1 4 2 8
69119 Other structures and parts of structures, of iron or steel
1 1 4 2 8
6912 Aluminium structure,prts
69121 Doors, windows and their frames and thresholds for doors, of aluminium
4 2 4 2 64
69129 Aluminium structures and parts of structures, n.e.s.; aluminium plates, r
Domestic cooking appliances (e.g., kitchen stoves, ranges, cookers, barbecues, braziers, gas rings) and plate warmers, non-electric, of iron or steel
2 2 8 1 32
69732
Domestic stoves (other than cooking appliances), grates and similar non-electric space heaters (including those with subsidiary boilers for central heating), of iron or steel
2 2 8 1 32
69733 Parts, of iron or steel, of the appliances of headings 697.31 and 697.32
2 8 2 2 64
69734
Cooking or heating apparatus of a kind used for domestic purposes, non-electric, and parts thereof, of copper
2 2 8 1 32
6974
Table, kitchen or other household articles, and parts thereof, n.e.s., of iron, steel, copper or aluminium; iron or steel wool; pot scourers and scouring or polishing pads, gloves and the like, of iron, steel, copper or aluminium
69741 Household articles and parts thereof, n.e.s., of iron or steel
4 2 4 1 32
69742 Household articles and parts thereof, n.e.s., of copper
4 2 4 1 32
69743 Household articles and parts thereof, n.e.s., of aluminium
4 2 4 1 32
69744 Iron or steel wool; pot scourers and scouring or polishing pads, gloves a
1 1 2 1 2
6975 Sanitary ware,parts nes
69751 Sanitary ware and parts thereof, n.e.s., of iron or steel
2 1 1 1 2
69752 Sanitary ware and parts thereof, n.e.s., of copper 2 1 1 1 2 69753 Sanitary ware and parts thereof, n.e.s., of aluminium 2 1 1 1 2 6978 H.hold appliancs,etc.nes
69781 Mechanical appliances, hand-operated, weighing 10 kg or less, used in the
2 2 8 1 32
69782 Statuettes and other ornaments, of base metal; photograph, picture or sim
6994 Springs,leaves,metal 69941 Springs and leaves for springs, of iron or steel 1 1 1 1 1 69942 Copper springs 1 1 1 1 1 6995 Misc.articles,base metal
ID Product Cu
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69951 Flexible tubing of base metal, with or without fittings
2 1 2 1 4
69952 Bells, gongs and the like, non-electric, and parts thereof, of base metal
2 2 2 8 64
69953 Stoppers, caps and lids (including crown corks, screw caps and pouring st
2 1 2 2 8
69954 Sign-plates, name-plates, address-plates and similar plates, numbers, let
4 2 1 2 16
69955 Wire, rods, tubes, plates, electrodes and similar products, of base metal
2 1 2 1 4
6996 Articles iron,steel,nes 69961 Anchors, grapnels and parts thereof, of iron or steel 1 1 2 4 8 69962 Cast articles of non-malleable cast iron, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69963 Cast articles of other iron or steel, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4
69965 Articles of iron or steel, forged or stamped, but not further worked, n.e
4 1 1 1 4
69967 Articles of iron or steel wire, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69969 Articles of iron or steel, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 6997 Articles nes,copper,etc. 69971 Chain of copper and parts thereof 2 1 4 1 8 69973 Articles of copper, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69975 Articles of nickel, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69976 Articles of lead, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69977 Articles of zinc, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69978 Articles of tin, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69979 Articles of aluminium, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 6998 Articles cobalt,etc.,nes 69981 Cobalt, wrought, and articles of cobalt, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69983 Cadmium, wrought, and articles of cadmium, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4 69985 Titanium, wrought, and articles of titanium, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4
69987 Zirconium, wrought, and articles of zirconium, n.e.s.
4 1 1 1 4
6999 Articls.tungsten,etc.nes
69992 Molybdenum, wrought, and articles of molybdenum, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4
69993 Tantalum, wrought, and articles of tantalum, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4
69994 Magnesium, wrought, and articles of magnesium, n.e.s.
4 1 1 1 4
69995 Beryllium, wrought, and articles of beryllium, n.e.s. 4 1 1 1 4
69999 Base metals, wrought, n.e.s., and articles of these metals, n.e.s.
71381 Other spark-ignition reciprocating or rotary internal combustion piston e
1 1 8 1 8
71382 Other compression-ignition internal combustion piston engines (diesel or
1 1 8 1 8
7139 Parts,nes.IC.piston engs
71391
Parts, n.e.s., for the engines of subgroups 713.2, 713.3 and 713.8, suitable for use solely or principally with spark-ignition internal combustion piston engines
1 8 4 1 32
71392
Parts, n.e.s., for the engines of subgroups 713.2, 713.3 and 713.8, suitable for use solely or principally with compression-ignition internal combustion piston engines
1 8 4 1 32
714 ENGINES,MOTORS NON-ELECT 7144 Reaction engines 71441 Turbojets 1 1 8 4 32 71449 Reaction engines other than turbojets 1 1 8 4 32 7148 Gas turbines, nes 71481 Turbopropellers 1 1 8 4 32 71489 Other gas turbines 1 1 8 4 32 7149 Parts,jet,gasturbine eng 71491 Parts for turbojets or turbopropellers 1 8 4 4 128 71499 Parts for the gas turbines of heading 714.89 1 8 4 4 128 716 ROTATING ELECTRIC PLANT 7161 Electric motors of an output not exceeding 37.5 W 1 1 8 1 8
7162 Motors (other than motors of an output < 37.5 W) and generators, DC
1 1 8 1 8
7163 Elec.motors,genrators.AC
Rapid Manufacturing and the Global Economy
47
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71631 AC motors (including universal (AC/DC) motors, but excluding motors of an
72511 Machinery for making pulp of fibrous cellulosic material
1 1 8 2 16
72512 Machinery for making or finishing paper or paperboard
1 1 8 2 16
7252 Oth.pulp,paper,makng mch 72521 Cutting machines 1 1 8 2 16 72523 Machines for making bags, sacks or envelopes 1 1 8 2 16
72525 Machines for making cartons, boxes, cases, tubes, drums or similar contai
1 1 8 2 16
72527 Machines for moulding articles in paper pulp, paper or paperboard
1 1 8 2 16
72529 Other machinery for making up paper pulp, paper or paperboard
1 1 8 2 16
7259 Parts,paper mill etc.mch 72591 Parts of the machines of subgroup 725.1 1 8 8 2 128 72599 Parts of the machines of subgroup 725.2 1 8 8 2 128 726 PRINTNG,BOOKBINDNG MACHS 7263 Typesetting,mch,type etc
72631 Machinery, apparatus and equipment (other than the machine tools of subgr
1 1 8 2 16
72635 Printing type, blocks, plates, cylinders and other printing components; b
72811 Machine tools for working stone, ceramics, concrete, asbestos-cement or l
1 1 4 2 8
72812 Machine tools (including machines for nailing, stapling, glueing or other
1 1 8 2 16
72819 Parts and accessories suitable for use solely or principally with the mac
1 1 8 2 16
7283 Oth.mineral working mach
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72831 Machinery for sorting, screening, separating or washing earth, stone, ore
1 1 8 2 16
72832 Machinery for crushing or grinding earth, stone, ores or other mineral su
1 1 8 2 16
72833 Machinery for mixing or kneading earth, stone, ores or other mineral subs
1 1 8 2 16
72834 Machinery for agglomerating, shaping or moulding solid mineral fuels, cer
1 1 8 2 16
72839 Parts of the machinery of subgroup 728.3 1 8 8 2 128 7284 Mach.appl.spcl indus nes
72841 Machines for assembling electric or electronic lamps, tubes or valves or 1 1 8 2 16
72842 Machinery for working rubber or plastics or for the manufacture of produc
1 1 8 2 16
72843 Machinery for preparing or making up tobacco, n.e.s.
1 1 8 2 16
72844 Presses for the manufacture of particle board or fibre building board of
1 1 8 2 16
72846 Machinery for treating metal (including electric wire coil-winders), n.e.
1 1 8 2 16
72847 Machinery and apparatus for isotopic separation, and parts thereof, n.e.s
1 1 8 2 16
72849 Machinery having individual functions, n.e.s. 1 1 8 2 16 7285 Parts publc wrk mach etc 72851 Parts for the machines of heading 728.41 1 8 8 2 128 72852 Parts for the machines of heading 728.42 1 8 8 2 128 72853 Parts for the machines of heading 728.43 1 8 8 2 128
72855 Parts, n.e.s., for the machines of headings 723.48, 727.21, 728.44, 727.4
1 8 8 2 128
73 METALWORKING MACHINERY 731 METAL REMOVAL WORK TOOLS 7311 Mach.tools,metal removal
73111
Machine tools for working any material by removal of material, operated by laser or other light or photon beam processes
1 1 8 2 16
73112 Machine tools for working any material by removal of material, operated by ultrasonic processes
1 1 8 2 16
73113 Machine tools for working any material by removal of material, operated by electrodischarge processes
1 1 8 2 16
73114
Machine tools for working any material by removal of material, operated by electrochemical, electron beam, ionic beam or plasma-arc processes
76481 Reception apparatus for radio-telephony or radio-telegraphy, n.e.s.
1 1 8 2 16
76482 Television cameras 4 2 8 1 64
76483 Radar apparatus, radio navigational aid apparatus and radio remote contro
2 2 8 2 64
7649 Parts,telecommun. equipt
76491 Parts and accessories suitable for use solely or principally with the app
1 8 8 1 64
76492 Parts and accessories suitable for use solely or principally with apparat
1 8 8 1 64
76493 Parts and accessories suitable for use solely or principally with the app
1 8 8 1 64
76499 Parts and accessories suitable for use solely or principally with the app
1 8 8 1 64
77 ELEC MCH APPAR,PARTS,NES 771 ELECT POWER MACHNY.PARTS 7711 Transformers, electrical 77111 Liquid dielectric transformers 1 1 8 4 32 77119 Other electrical transformers 1 1 8 4 32 7712 Oth.elec power mach,part 77121 Static converters (e.g., rectifiers) 1 1 8 4 32 77123 Ballasts for discharge lamps or tubes 1 1 8 4 32 77125 Other inductors 1 1 8 4 32 77129 Parts of the electric power machinery of group 771 1 8 8 4 256 772 ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT 7722 Printed circuits 1 1 8 1 8
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7723 Electric resistors,parts 77231 Fixed carbon resistors, composition- or film-type 1 1 8 1 8 77232 Other fixed resistors 1 1 8 1 8
77233 Wire-wound variable resistors (including rheostats and potentiometers)
1 1 8 1 8
77235 Other variable resistors (including rheostats and potentiometers)
1 1 8 1 8
77238 Parts for the electrical resistors of subgroup 772.3 1 8 8 1 64 7724 Switch.apparatus,1000v+ 77241 Fuses for a voltage exceeding 1,000 V 1 1 8 1 8
77242 Automatic circuit-breakers for a voltage exceeding 1,000 V but less than 1 1 8 1 8
77243 Other automatic circuit-breakers 1 1 8 1 8 77244 Isolating switches and make-and-break switches 1 1 8 1 8
77245 Lightning arresters, voltage limiters and surge suppressors for a voltage
1 1 8 1 8
77249 Other electrical apparatus for switching or protecting electrical circuit
1 1 8 1 8
7725 Switch.apparatus,<1000v 77251 Fuses for a voltage not exceeding 1,000 V 1 1 8 1 8
77252 Automatic circuit-breakers for a voltage not exceeding 1,000 V
1 1 8 1 8
77253 Other apparatus for protecting electrical circuits, for a voltage not exc
1 1 8 1 8
77254 Relays for a voltage not exceeding 1,000 V 1 1 8 1 8 77255 Other switches for a voltage not exceeding 1,000 V 1 1 8 1 8 77257 Lamp-holders 1 1 8 1 8 77258 Plugs and sockets 1 1 8 1 8
77259 Other electrical apparatus for switching or protecting electrical circuit
1 1 8 1 8
7726 Elec.control panels etc.
77261 Boards, panels (including numerical control panels), consoles, desks, cab
77511 Household- or laundry-type washing machines (including machines which bot
4 2 8 1 64
77512 Clothes-drying machines, each of a dry linen capacity not exceeding 10 kg
4 2 8 1 64
7752 Dom.refrigeratrs,freezrs
77521 Refrigerators, household-type (electric or other), whether or not contain
4 2 8 1 64
77522 Deep-freezes, household-type (electric or other) 4 2 8 1 64 7753 Dishwashing machines of the household type 4 2 8 1 64 7754 Elec.shavers,clipprs,pts 77541 Shavers with self-contained electric motor 4 2 8 1 64 77542 Hair clippers with self-contained electric motor 4 2 8 1 64
77549 Parts for shavers and hair clippers with self-contained electric motor
4 2 8 1 64
7757 Dom.elect-mechanicl appl
77571 Vacuum cleaners and floor-polishers, electromechanical, domestic, with se
4 2 8 1 64
77572 Food grinders and mixers; fruit or vegetable juice extractors, electromec
4 2 8 1 64
77573 Other electromechanical domestic appliances, with self-contained electric
4 2 8 1 64
77579 Parts of the electromechanical domestic appliances falling within subgrou
4 8 8 1 256
7758 Electro-thermic appl nes
77581 Electric instantaneous or storage water heaters and immersion heaters
2 1 8 1 16
77582 Electric space-heating apparatus and electric soil-heating apparatus
2 1 8 1 16
77583 Electrothermic hairdressing or hand-drying apparatus
2 1 8 1 16
77584 Electric smoothing-irons 2 1 8 1 16 77585 Electric blankets 2 1 8 1 16
77688 Parts of the devices of subgroup 776.3 and of the mounted piezoelectric c
1 8 8 1 64
77689 Parts of the articles of subgroup 776.4 1 8 8 1 64 778 ELECTRIC.MACH.APPART.NES 7781 Batteries,accumulators 77811 Primary cells and primary batteries 1 2 8 1 16 77812 Electric accumulators (storage batteries) 1 2 8 1 16 77817 Parts of primary cells and primary batteries 1 1 8 1 8 77819 Parts of electric accumulators 1 1 8 1 8 7782 Electric lamps,bulbs etc
77821 Filament lamps (other than flash bulbs, infrared and ultraviolet lamps an
2 1 8 1 16
77822 Discharge lamps (other than ultraviolet lamps) 2 1 8 1 16 77823 Sealed-beam lamp units 2 1 8 1 16 77824 Ultraviolet or infrared lamps; arc lamps 2 1 8 1 16 77829 Parts of the lamps of subgroup 778.2 2 1 8 1 16 7783 Automotive electrc.equip
77831 Electrical ignition or starting equipment of a kind used for spark-igniti
1 1 8 1 8
77833 Parts of the equipment of heading 778.31 1 8 8 1 64
77834 Electrical lighting or signalling equipment (excluding articles of subgro
2 1 8 1 16
77835 Parts of the equipment of heading 778.34 1 8 8 1 64 7784 Electro-mech.hand tools 77841 Drills of all kinds 8 1 8 1 64 77843 Saws 8 1 8 1 64 77845 Other tools 8 1 8 1 64
77848 Parts of the electromechanical hand tools of subgroup 778.4 2 8 4 1 64
7786 Electrical capacitors
77861 Fixed capacitors designed for use in 50/60 Hz circuits and having a react
7841 Chassis fitted with engines, for the motor vehicles of groups 722, 781, 7
1 4 4 1 16
7842 Motor vehicle bodies
78421 Bodies (including cabs), for the motor vehicles of group 781
4 4 8 1 128
78425 Bodies (including cabs), for the motor vehicles of groups 722, 782 and 78
4 4 8 1 128
7843 Other parts,motor vehicl
78431 Bumpers and parts thereof, of the motor vehicles of groups 722, 781, 782
4 4 4 1 64
78432 Other parts and accessories of bodies (including cabs), of the motor vehi
4 4 4 1 64
78433 Brakes and servo-brakes and parts thereof, of the motor vehicles of group 1 2 8 1 16
78434 Gearboxes of the motor vehicles of groups 722, 781, 782 and 783
1 2 8 1 16
78435 Drive-axles with differential, whether or not provided with other transmi
1 2 8 1 16
78436 Non-driving axles and parts thereof, of the motor vehicles of groups 722,
1 2 4 1 8
78439 Other parts and accessories of the motor vehicles of groups 722, 781, 782
2 4 4 1 32
785 CYCLES,MOTORCYCLES ETC. 7851 Motorcycles etc.
78511 Motor cycles (including mopeds) and cycles fitted with an auxiliary motor 8 4 8 1 256
78513 Motor cycles and cycles fitted with an auxiliary motor, with or without s
8 4 8 1 256
78515 Motor cycles and cycles fitted with an auxiliary motor, with or without s
8 4 8 1 256
78516 Motor cycles and cycles fitted with an auxiliary motor, with or without s
8 4 8 1 256
78517 Motor cycles and cycles fitted with an auxiliary motor, with or without s
8 4 8 1 256
78519 Other motor cycles (including mopeds) and cycles fitted with an auxiliary
8 4 8 1 256
7852 Bicycles and other cycles (including delivery tricycles), not motorized
8 4 8 1 256
7853 Invalid carriages,parts
78531 Invalid carriages, whether or not motorized or otherwise mechanically pro
2 4 8 2 128
78535 Parts and accessories of motor cycles (including mopeds)
4 8 8 1 256
78536 Parts and accessories of invalid carriages 2 8 8 1 128 78537 Parts and accessories of other vehicles of group 785 4 8 8 1 256 786 TRAILERS,SEMI-TRAILR,ETC
7861 Trailers and semi-trailers of the caravan type, for housing or camping
4 2 8 2 128
7862 Trailers,transport goods
78621 Self-loading or self-unloading trailers and semi-trailers for agricultura
79281 Gliders and hang-gliders 2 2 4 2 32 79282 Balloons, dirigibles and other non-powered aircraft 2 2 4 4 64
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79283 Aircraft launching gear; deck-arrestor or similar gear; ground flying tra
1 1 8 2 16
7929 Parts,nes,aircraft,equip 79291 Propellers and rotors and parts thereof 1 8 4 4 128 79293 Undercarriages and parts thereof 1 8 8 2 128 79295 Other parts of aeroplanes or helicopters 1 8 8 4 256 79297 Other parts of the goods of group 792 1 8 8 4 256 793 SHIP,BOAT,FLOAT.STRUCTRS 7931 Yachts,sports vessls,etc
79311 Inflatable vessels (including rowing-boats and canoes)
2 2 4 1 16
79312 Sailboats, not inflatable, with or without auxiliary motor
4 2 8 2 128
79319 Non-inflatable rowing-boats and canoes and vessels for pleasure or sport,
2 2 4 1 16
7932 Ships,boats,othr.vessels 79322 Tankers of all kinds 1 1 8 8 64
79324 Fishing vessels; factory ships and other vessels for processing or preser
813 LIGHTNG FIXTURES ETC.NES 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes
81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
4 2 8 4 256
81312 Portable electric lamps designed to function by their own source of energ
4 2 8 1 64
81313 Electric table, desk, bedside or floor-standing lamps 4 2 8 2 128 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s. 4 2 8 2 128 81317 Non-electrical lamps and lighting fittings 4 2 8 2 128
8132 Illuminated signs, illuminated name-plates and the like
4 2 4 8 256
8138 Parts of the portable electric lamps of heading 813.12 (excl. storage bat
2 8 1 8 128
8139 Parts,light fittng,signs
81391 Parts, n.e.s., of the goods of subgroup 813.1 and of heading 813.2, of gl 2 8 1 8 128
81392 Parts, n.e.s., of the goods of subgroup 813.1 and heading 813.2, of plast
2 8 1 8 128
81399 Parts, n.e.s., of the goods of subgroup 813.1 and heading 813.2, of mater
2 8 1 8 128
82 FURNITURE,BEDDING,ETC. 821 FURNITURE,CUSHIONS,ETC. 8211 Convertible seats,parts 82111 Seats of a kind used for aircraft 4 2 8 4 256 82112 Seats of a kind used for motor vehicles 4 2 8 1 64
82113 Seats of cane, osier, bamboo or similar materials, whether or not upholst
88578 Other clocks, battery, accumulator or mains powered
4 4 8 2 256
88579 Clocks, n.e.s. 4 4 8 2 256 8859 Time measuring equip.nes 88591 Watch-cases and parts of watch-cases 4 4 2 2 64
88592 Watch-straps, watchbands and watch bracelets, and parts thereof, of metal
4 4 4 2 128
88593 Watch-straps, watchbands and watch bracelets and parts thereof, of materi
4 4 4 2 128
88594
Time-of-day recording apparatus and apparatus for measuring, recording or otherwise indicating intervals of time, with clock or watch movement or with synchronous motor (e.g., time-registers, time-recorders)
2 2 4 2 32
88595 Time switches with clock or watch movements or with synchronous motors
88597 Clock cases and cases of a similar type for other goods of group 885, and
4 4 4 2 128
88598 Complete watch or clock movements, unassembled or partly assembled (movem
1 2 2 2 8
88599 Clock or watch parts. n.e.s. 2 8 4 2 128 89 MISC MANUFCTRD GOODS NES 891 ARMS AND AMMUNITION 8911 Armd.fight.vehcl,weapons
89111 Tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles, motorized, whether or not fit
1 1 8 8 64
89112 Military weapons (other than revolvers, pistols and the arms of heading 8
1 1 8 4 32
89113 Swords, cutlasses, bayonets, lances and similar arms, and parts thereof a
8 1 4 4 128
89114 Revolvers and pistols (not of 891.31) 1 1 8 2 16 8912 Bomb,mines,missl.amm.etc
89121 Cartridges for riveting or similar tools or for captive-bolt humane kille 1 1 4 1 4
89122 Cartridges for shotguns 1 1 4 1 4 89123 Airgun pellets and parts of cartridges for shotguns 1 1 4 1 4 89124 Other cartridges and parts thereof 1 1 4 1 4 89129 Munitions of war and parts thereof, n.e.s. 1 1 4 1 4 8913 Non-military arms
89131 Firearms, n.e.s., and similar devices which operate by the firing of an e
4 1 8 2 64
89139 Other arms (e.g., spring, air or other gas guns and pistols, truncheons),
4 1 8 2 64
8919 Parts,accessor.of weapon 89191 Parts and accessories of revolvers or pistols 2 8 2 2 64 89193 Shotgun barrels of shotguns of heading 891.31 2 1 2 2 8 89195 Other parts of shotguns and rifles of heading 891.31 2 8 2 2 64
89199 Parts and accessories, n.e.s., of the articles of headings 891.12 and 891
2 8 2 2 64
892 PRINTED MATTER 8921 Printed books,globes etc 89212 Children's picture, drawing or colouring books 1 2 4 2 16 89213 Maps and charts in book form 1 2 4 2 16
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89214 Maps and hydrographic or similar charts of all kinds (including wall maps
1 2 1 2 4
89215 Printed books, brochures, leaflets and similar printed matter, in single
1 2 4 2 16
89216 Dictionaries and encyclopaedias, and serial instalments thereof, not in s
1 2 4 1 8
89219 Other books, brochures and similar printed matter, not in single sheets
1 2 4 1 8
8922 Newspaper,periodical,etc
89221 Newspapers, journals and periodicals, whether or not illustrated or conta
1 8 4 1 32
89229 Newspapers, journals and periodicals, whether or not illustrated or conta
89242 Printed or illustrated postcards, printed cards bearing personal greeting
1 2 1 2 4
8928 Printed matter, nes
89281 Paper or paperboard labels of all kinds, whether or not printed
1 1 1 2 2
89282 Plans and drawings for architectural, engineering, industrial, commercial
1 1 1 8 8
89283 Unused postage, revenue or similar stamps of current or new issue in the
1 1 1 1 1
89284 Calendars of any kind, printed (including calendar blocks)
1 1 2 2 4
89285 Music, printed or in manuscript, whether or not bound or illustrated
1 1 2 2 4
89286 Trade advertising material, commercial catalogues and the like
1 2 2 4 16
89287 Pictures, designs and photographs 1 2 1 1 2 89289 Printed matter, n.e.s. 1 2 1 1 2 893 ARTICLES,NES,OF PLASTICS 8931 Plastic containers etc. 89311 Sacks and bags (including cones), of plastics 2 1 1 1 2
89319 Articles for the conveyance or packing of goods, n.e.s., of plastics; sto
2 1 1 1 2
8932 Builders'ware, plastics
89321 Baths, shower-baths, wash-basins, bidets, lavatory pans, seats and covers
2 2 2 2 16
89329 Other builders' ware of plastics 2 2 2 2 16 8933 Plastic flr,wall,coverng
89331 Floor coverings of plastics, whether or not self-adhesive, in rolls or in
2 2 4 1 16
89332 Tableware, kitchenware, other household articles and toilet articles, of 4 2 1 1 8
8939 Plastic articles nes 89394 Office or school supplies of plastics 2 2 4 1 16
89395 Fittings for furniture, coachwork or the like, of plastics
2 2 2 2 16
89399 Other articles of plastics 4 2 2 1 16 894 BABY CARRIAGE,TOYS,GAMES 8941 Baby carriages and parts thereof, n.e.s. 4 2 4 1 32 8942 Children's toys
89421 Wheeled toys designed to be ridden by children (e.g., tricycles, scooters
4 4 8 1 128
89422 Dolls representing only human beings, whether or not dressed 4 4 4 1 64
89423 Parts and accessories of dolls representing only human beings
2 4 2 1 16
89424 Construction sets and constructional toys 4 4 2 1 32 89425 Toys representing animals or non-human creatures 4 4 4 1 64 89426 Toy musical instruments and apparatus 4 4 4 1 64 89427 Puzzles 4 2 2 1 16 89429 Toys, n.e.s. 4 2 4 1 32 8943 Funfair,table game artcl
89431 Video games of a kind used with a television receiver
2 2 8 1 32
89433 Articles and accessories for billiards 2 2 1 2 8
89435 Other games, coin- or disc-operated (not bowling alley equipment)
2 2 2 2 16
89437 Playing-cards 2 1 2 1 4 89439 Articles for funfair, table and parlour games, n.e.s. 2 2 2 1 8 8944 Festive articles etc.nes 89441 Lighting sets of a kind used for Christmas trees 2 2 8 1 32 89445 Other articles for Christmas festivities 2 2 4 1 16 89449 Other entertainment articles 2 2 4 1 16
8946 Roundabouts, swings, shooting galleries and other fairground amusements,
4 1 4 2 32
8947 Sports goods
89471 Fishing-rods, fish-hooks and other line tackle; fish-landing nets, butter
4 2 4 1 32
89472 Ice-skates and roller-skates (including skating boots with skates attache
8 4 4 2 256
89473 Snow-skis and other snow-ski equipment 8 4 2 2 128
89474 Water-skis, surfboards, sailboards and other water sport equipment
8 4 2 2 128
89475 Golf equipment 8 4 4 2 256
89476 Tennis, badminton or similar rackets, whether or not strung
8 4 4 2 256
89477 Gloves, mittens and mitts, specially designed for use in sports 8 4 4 2 256
89478 Articles and equipment for general physical exercise, gymnastics or athle
1 1 4 2 8
89479 Sports goods, n.e.s. 4 1 2 2 16 895 OFFICE,STATIONERY SUPPLS 8951 Base metal office suppls
89511 Filing cabinets, card index cabinets, paper trays, paper rests, pen trays
2 1 1 1 2
89512 Fittings for loose-leaf binders or files, letter clips, letter corners, p
2 1 1 1 2
8952 Pens,pencils,fountn.pens
89521
Ball-point pens; felt-tipped or other porous-tipped pens and markers; fountain-pens, stylograph pens and other pens; duplicating stylos; propelling or sliding pencils; penholders, pencil-holders and similar holders; parts (including caps and clips) of the foregoing articles (not including goods of heading 895.22 or 895.23)
2 1 4 1 8
89522 Pen nibs and nib points 2 1 1 1 2
89523 Pencils (other than pencils of heading 895.21), crayons, pencil leads, pa
2 1 2 1 4
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8959 Oth.office,statnry.suppl
89592 Slates and boards, with writing or drawing surfaces, whether or not frame
2 1 1 2 4
89593 Date, sealing or numbering stamps, and the like (including devices for pr
2 1 4 1 8
89594 Typewriter or similar ribbons, inked or otherwise prepared for giving imp
1 1 8 2 16
896 WORKS OF ART,ANTIQUE ETC 8963 Original sculptures and statuary, in any material 4 1 4 8 128 897 GOLD,SILVERWARE,JEWL NES 8972 Imitation jewellery
89721 Imitation jewellery of base metal, whether or not plated with precious me
4 2 2 2 32
89729 Imitation jewellery of other than non-precious materials
4 2 2 2 32
8973 Gold,silver jewelry,ware
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
4 4 2 4 128
89732 Articles of goldsmiths' or silversmiths' wares and parts thereof, of prec
4 4 2 4 128
89733 Articles of natural or cultured pearls or of precious or semiprecious sto
4 4 2 2 64
8974 Othr.articles,prec.metal
89741 Catalysts in the form of wire cloth or grill, of platinum or of other met
1 4 2 2 16
89749 Articles of precious metal or of metal clad with precious metal, n.e.s.
Products Identified as Feasible All Manufactured Products All Commodities
OECD Import Data Value OECD Import Data Value OECD Import Data Value
USA $35,722,597,307 USA $1,198,666,286,794 USA $1,732,320,797,682 United Kingdom $9,471,318,775 Germany $520,560,116,000 Germany $779,819,058,000 Germany $8,692,348,002 United Kingdom $363,812,393,116 Japan $515,866,387,675 France $8,071,047,547 France $301,057,569,992 United Kingdom $515,782,184,687 Japan $7,784,818,700 Japan $260,841,536,728 France $475,856,799,498 Other OECD Nations $43,042,951,375 Other OECD Nations $2,157,628,798,775 Other OECD Nations $3,370,619,939,611 Other non-OECD Nations $28,866,758,659 Other non-OECD Nations $1,996,495,285,595 Other non-OECD Nations $3,005,324,152,243 Total Import: $141,651,840,353 Total Import: $6,799,061,987,001 Total Import: $10,395,589,319,396
OECD Export Data Value OECD Export Data Value OECD Export Data Value
Switzerland $16,574,739,820 Germany $760,981,734,000 Germany $977,131,972,000 USA $12,748,585,306 USA $662,269,271,644 USA $904,339,487,215 Italy $11,550,784,102 Japan $528,101,722,138 Japan $594,940,865,790 Germany $8,053,455,002 France $293,000,954,725 France $434,354,245,109 France $6,654,782,450 Italy $292,853,750,128 United Kingdom $384,364,970,472 Other OECD Nations $33,724,894,410 Other OECD Nations $2,157,870,954,303 Other OECD Nations $3,353,516,089,012 Other non-OECD Nations $48,308,152,725 Other non-OECD Nations $2,100,080,201,374 Other non-OECD Nations $3,437,292,058,298 Total Export: $137,615,393,803 Total Export: $6,795,158,588,313 Total Export: $10,085,939,687,896
Analysis Analysis Analysis
Total OECD Imports $112,785,081,706 Total OECD Imports $4,802,566,701,405 Total OECD Imports $7,390,265,167,153 Total OECD Exports $89,307,241,090 Total OECD Exports $4,695,078,386,938 Total OECD Exports $6,648,647,629,598 OECD Trade Deficit -$23,477,840,616 OECD Trade Deficit -$107,488,314,467 OECD Trade Deficit -$741,617,537,555 Total non-OECD Imports $28,866,758,659 Total non-OECD Imports $1,996,495,285,595 Total non-OECD Imports $3,005,324,152,243 Total non-OECD Exports $48,308,152,725 Total non-OECD Exports $2,100,080,201,374 Total non-OECD Exports $3,437,292,058,298 non-OECD Trade Surplus $19,441,394,066 non-OECD Trade Surplus $103,584,915,779 non-OECD Trade Surplus $431,967,906,055 Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $21,459,617,341
Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $105,536,615,123
Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $586,792,721,805
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Feasible Art and Home Décor Feasible Consumer Electronics Feasible Medical Devices
OECD Import Data Value OECD Import Data Value OECD Import Data Value
USA $13,415,004,758 USA $671,598,866 USA $6,785,587,114 Germany $3,406,146,002 Germany $336,046,002 France $3,314,239,263 United Kingdom $2,581,342,038 United Kingdom $254,453,179 Germany $2,453,258,002 France $2,130,085,831 Rep. of Korea $215,317,047 Netherlands $2,206,937,490 Canada $1,645,399,998 Japan $212,291,287 Japan $1,962,096,773 Other OECD Nations $13,207,529,596 Other OECD Nations $1,149,018,696 Other OECD Nations $13,599,520,915 Other non-OECD Nations $6,521,960,503 Other non-OECD Nations $1,101,843,778 Other non-OECD Nations $3,873,199,117 Total Import: $42,907,468,714 Total Import: $3,940,568,843 Total Import: $34,194,838,662
OECD Export Data Value OECD Export Data Value OECD Export Data Value
Germany $3,449,330,002 Mexico $266,951,343 USA $5,531,407,819 Italy $3,098,208,982 USA $261,069,774 Switzerland $3,737,145,627 Mexico $2,168,307,890 Germany $237,860,002 France $2,932,285,828 USA $1,904,122,307 Netherlands $217,676,651 Ireland $2,732,554,791 United Kingdom $1,427,477,525 Rep. of Korea $86,293,363 Italy $2,705,732,689 Other OECD Nations $9,804,814,505 Other OECD Nations $347,075,152 Other OECD Nations $10,636,084,419 Other non-OECD Nations $15,367,517,189 Other non-OECD Nations $2,002,808,392 Other non-OECD Nations $5,017,434,595 Total Export: $37,219,778,388 Total Export: $3,419,734,665 Total Export: $33,292,645,756
Analysis Analysis Analysis
Total OECD Imports $36,385,508,223 Total OECD Imports $2,838,725,077 Total OECD Imports $30,321,639,557 Total OECD Exports $21,852,261,211 Total OECD Exports $1,416,926,285 Total OECD Exports $28,275,211,173 OECD Trade Deficit -$14,533,247,012 OECD Trade Deficit -$1,421,798,792 OECD Trade Deficit -$2,046,428,384 Total non-OECD Imports $6,521,960,503 Total non-OECD Imports $1,101,843,778 Total non-OECD Imports $3,873,199,117 Total non-OECD Exports $15,367,517,189 Total non-OECD Exports $2,002,808,392 Total non-OECD Exports $5,017,434,595 non-OECD Trade Surplus $8,845,556,686 non-OECD Trade Surplus $900,964,614 non-OECD Trade Surplus $1,144,235,478 Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $11,689,401,849
Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $1,161,381,703
Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $1,595,331,931
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Feasible Musical Instruments Feasible Jewellery Feasible Sport Equipment
OECD Import Data Value OECD Import Data Value OECD Import Data Value
USA $890,312,189 USA $11,453,873,175 USA $2,506,221,215 Japan $242,771,652 United Kingdom $4,099,173,844 Japan $853,861,287 Germany $219,285,002 Switzerland $3,573,068,778 United Kingdom $620,045,145 United Kingdom $207,791,609 Japan $3,338,993,007 France $521,456,141 Canada $117,058,813 France $1,878,023,501 Germany $484,652,002 Other OECD Nations $824,401,256 Other OECD Nations $8,797,147,363 Other OECD Nations $2,611,072,930 Other non-OECD Nations $352,950,162 Other non-OECD Nations $15,341,574,396 Other non-OECD Nations $1,675,230,713 Total Import: $2,854,570,671 Total Import: $48,481,854,052 Total Import: $9,272,539,421
OECD Export Data Value OECD Export Data Value OECD Export Data Value
USA $273,363,572 Switzerland $12,475,885,043 USA $1,000,508,260 Japan $268,029,804 Italy $5,377,399,100 Austria $553,624,854 Germany $181,296,002 USA $3,778,113,584 France $545,710,971 Belgium $135,721,192 United Kingdom $2,732,452,818 Germany $410,601,002 France $106,436,218 France $1,626,950,029 Japan $319,818,688 Other OECD Nations $492,415,016 Other OECD Nations $5,776,702,908 Other OECD Nations $1,707,813,420 Other non-OECD Nations $1,007,467,262 Other non-OECD Nations $21,313,903,144 Other non-OECD Nations $3,599,022,153 Total Export: $2,464,729,054 Total Export: $53,081,406,614 Total Export: $8,137,099,336
Analysis Analysis Analysis
Total OECD Imports $2,501,620,521 Total OECD Imports $33,140,279,668 Total OECD Imports $7,597,308,720 Total OECD Exports $1,457,261,804 Total OECD Exports $31,767,503,482 Total OECD Exports $4,538,077,195 OECD Trade Deficit -$1,044,358,717 OECD Trade Deficit -$1,372,776,186 OECD Trade Deficit -$3,059,231,525 Total non-OECD Imports $352,950,162 Total non-OECD Imports $15,341,574,396 Total non-OECD Imports $1,675,230,713 Total non-OECD Exports $1,007,467,262 Total non-OECD Exports $21,313,903,144 Total non-OECD Exports $3,599,022,153 non-OECD Trade Surplus $654,517,100 non-OECD Trade Surplus $5,972,328,748 non-OECD Trade Surplus $1,923,791,440 Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $849,437,909
Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $3,672,552,467
Trade Deficit between OECD and non-OECD Nations (Average) $2,491,511,483
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Appendix IV: Trade Statistics by Country
United States Germany United Kingdom
Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$8,049,005,362 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $1,927,982,000 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$3,249,896,420
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $5,817,701,395 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $1,506,871,000 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $1,261,059,929
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $4,106,275,885 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$783,492,001 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $1,015,494,941
8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $2,605,664,150 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $746,473,000 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $459,217,667
81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$2,328,329,708 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$627,217,001 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$397,667,145
8842 Spectacles and frames $1,808,685,289 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$446,618,001 89475 Golf equipment $364,015,309
Other Feasible Products $11,006,935,516 Other Feasible Products $2,653,695,001 Other Feasible Products $2,723,967,366 All Other Products $1,696,598,200,377 All Other Products $771,126,710,001 All Other Products $506,310,865,915
Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $5,062,484,059 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $1,776,886,000 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$2,406,807,087
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$3,348,025,333 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $1,479,451,000 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $1,579,310,076
89475 Golf equipment $763,944,369 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$779,308,001 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $445,698,227
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $727,092,231 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$718,532,001 8963 Original sculptures and statuary, in any material
$439,085,173
8963 Original sculptures and statuary, in any material
$423,268,764 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$640,600,001 89475 Golf equipment $238,304,751
8842 Spectacles and frames $393,938,024 8842 Spectacles and frames $351,638,000 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$222,365,486
Other Feasible Products $2,029,832,524 Other Feasible Products $2,307,040,001 Other Feasible Products $1,039,846,055 All Other Products $891,590,901,911 All Other Products $969,078,517,001 All Other Products $377,993,553,622
Analysis Value Analysis Value Analysis Value
Current Trade Balance -$827,981,310,467 Current Trade Balance $197,312,914,000 Current Trade Balance -$131,417,214,215 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $35,722,597,305 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $8,692,348,004 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $9,471,318,777 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $12,748,585,304 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $8,053,455,004 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $6,371,416,855 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $22,974,012,001 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $638,893,000 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $3,099,901,922 Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 2.77% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 0.32% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 2.36%
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France Japan Italy
Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$995,547,781 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$1,470,635,167 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $821,681,621
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $944,049,811 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $1,387,539,445 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$542,144,351
8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $585,477,715 89475 Golf equipment $615,103,916 8842 Spectacles and frames $449,760,101
8842 Spectacles and frames $517,323,907 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $514,125,094 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $427,166,245
81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
Other Feasible Products $1,986,222,990 Other Feasible Products $1,911,945,484 Other Feasible Products $1,085,261,508 All Other Products $467,785,751,954 All Other Products $508,081,568,978 All Other Products $380,019,711,258
Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $2,439,811,007 89475 Golf equipment $303,428,473 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$4,758,308,812
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$1,014,692,006 8982 Musical instruments nes $268,029,802 8842 Spectacles and frames $2,128,621,667
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $586,387,737 8842 Spectacles and frames $241,053,396 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $1,432,408,651
8842 Spectacles and frames $426,100,716 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$188,676,318 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$790,556,997
89473 Snow-skis and other snow-ski equipment
$368,262,115 84844 Safety headgear, whether or not lined or trimmed
$105,878,264 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$457,747,869
8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $260,095,158 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $91,649,511 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $377,812,330
Other Feasible Products $1,559,433,712 Other Feasible Products $365,072,719 Other Feasible Products $1,605,327,778 All Other Products $427,699,462,662 All Other Products $593,377,077,312 All Other Products $361,406,361,825
Analysis Value Analysis Value Analysis Value
Current Trade Balance -$41,502,554,389 Current Trade Balance $79,074,478,116 Current Trade Balance -$11,878,414,693 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $8,071,047,548 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $7,784,818,701 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $4,815,849,364 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $6,654,782,451 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $1,563,788,483 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $11,550,784,104 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $1,416,265,097 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $6,221,030,218 Total Trade Balance affected by RM -$6,734,934,740 Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 3.41% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 7.87% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 56.70%
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Switzerland China Hong Kong
Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$2,480,081,002 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $434,641,908 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$2,242,546,802
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $911,339,850 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $406,836,990 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $2,073,325,470
88599 Clock or watch parts. n.e.s. $211,054,629 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$108,258,642 8842 Spectacles and frames $453,930,066
Other Feasible Products $1,244,627,715 Other Feasible Products $394,565,591 Other Feasible Products $2,366,548,533 All Other Products $120,711,599,986 All Other Products $658,017,394,403 All Other Products $290,771,214,377
Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value
8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $6,225,563,119 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $4,692,560,275 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $3,600,311,106
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $3,669,040,095 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$2,004,581,693 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$3,165,371,363
8853 Watches,prec.metal cases $2,984,040,166 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$1,727,468,186 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $1,123,511,232
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$2,718,916,976 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$1,255,003,127 8842 Spectacles and frames $1,121,184,550
88599 Clock or watch parts. n.e.s. $233,771,498 8842 Spectacles and frames $980,515,593 76424 Headphones, earphones and combined microphone/speaker sets
$818,472,674
89732 Articles of goldsmiths' or silversmiths' wares and parts thereof, of prec
$189,716,174 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $951,834,353 89475 Golf equipment $797,683,017
Other Feasible Products $553,691,794 Other Feasible Products $7,185,346,402 Other Feasible Products $3,069,723,490 All Other Products $114,354,891,840 All Other Products $743,156,099,907 All Other Products $278,422,416,752
Analysis Value Analysis Value Analysis Value
Current Trade Balance $4,355,949,262 Total Trade Balance $102,000,647,411 Current Trade Balance -$8,041,771,554 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $5,862,082,414 Total Feasible Imports affected $1,935,367,722 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $9,389,231,361 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $16,574,739,822 Total Feasible Exports affected $18,797,309,629 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $13,696,257,432 Total Trade Balance affected by RM -$10,712,657,408 Affected Balance -$16,861,941,907 Total Trade Balance affected by RM -$4,307,026,071 Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 245.93% Affected deficit as % of Total Deficit 16.53% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 53.56%
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India Russia Indonesia
Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$164,310,505 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $156,842,429 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $30,677,826
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $68,551,472 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $95,084,493 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$12,724,707
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $38,661,442 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$84,829,286 8982 Musical instruments nes $4,968,988
8842 Spectacles and frames $24,268,711 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$38,736,285 8842 Spectacles and frames $4,638,503
8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $21,246,905 8842 Spectacles and frames $28,487,573 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$4,453,032
8853 Watches,prec.metal cases $16,058,119 81313 Electric table, desk, bedside or floor-standing lamps
$22,490,217 81313 Electric table, desk, bedside or floor-standing lamps
$4,280,662
Other Feasible Products $83,744,721 Other Feasible Products $143,004,679 Other Feasible Products $24,741,679 All Other Products $149,333,123,854 All Other Products $98,137,780,815 All Other Products $57,614,395,523
Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value Top Exported Items Value
89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$3,434,287,465 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $26,669,917 8982 Musical instruments nes $189,625,317
6122 Saddlery and harness for any animal (including traces, leads, knee-pads,
$77,815,212 69782 Statuettes and other ornaments, of base metal; photograph, picture or sim
$25,330,631 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$79,362,317
89732 Articles of goldsmiths' or silversmiths' wares and parts thereof, of prec
$53,522,351 81311 Chandeliers and other electric ceiling and wall lighting fittings (exclud
$12,172,432 76424 Headphones, earphones and combined microphone/speaker sets
$58,710,065
8963 Original sculptures and statuary, in any material
$28,662,797 81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$11,361,630 89995 Wigs, false beards, eyebrows and eyelashes, switches and the like, of hum
$52,539,614
8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $17,362,132 84844 Safety headgear, whether or not lined or trimmed
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $14,656,014 8996 Artificial aids,disabled $5,050,047 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $42,961,020
Other Feasible Products $79,218,778 Other Feasible Products $19,532,852 Other Feasible Products $83,693,668 All Other Products $99,698,642,397 All Other Products $241,344,704,661 All Other Products $85,109,838,376
Analysis Value Analysis Value Analysis Value
Current Trade Balance -$46,345,798,583 Current Trade Balance $142,744,401,111 Current Trade Balance $27,959,066,589 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $416,841,875 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $569,474,962 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $86,485,397 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $3,705,524,749 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $106,952,227 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $550,109,133 Total Trade Balance affected by RM -$3,288,682,874 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $462,522,735 Total Trade Balance affected by RM -$463,623,736 Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 7.10% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 0.32% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 1.66%
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Brazil Thailand
Top Imported Items Value Top Imported Items Value
8996 Artificial aids,disabled $231,207,435 89731 Articles of jewellery and parts thereof, of precious metal or of metal cl
$178,720,116
8842 Spectacles and frames $49,109,944 88599 Clock or watch parts. n.e.s. $131,837,529
76424 Headphones, earphones and combined microphone/speaker sets
8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $9,753,629 8854 Watches,other than p.mtl $93,050,809
89732 Articles of goldsmiths' or silversmiths' wares and parts thereof, of prec
$7,092,531 89474 Water-skis, surfboards, sailboards and other water sport equipment
$68,146,523
81315 Electric lamps and lighting fittings, n.e.s.
$6,410,257 8131 Lamps,light fittings nes $62,296,882
8982 Musical instruments nes $5,438,469 89475 Golf equipment $60,537,772
Other Feasible Products $20,186,425 Other Feasible Products $247,463,847 All Other Products $118,357,982,841 All Other Products $107,742,260,623
Analysis Value Analysis Value
Current Trade Balance $44,928,312,656 Current Trade Balance -$8,054,304,137 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $446,302,219 Total Feasible Imports affected by RM $685,873,715 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $170,705,282 Total Feasible Exports affected by RM $2,367,773,575 Total Trade Balance affected by RM $275,596,937 Total Trade Balance affected by RM -$1,681,899,860 Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 0.61% Affected Balance as % of Total Deficit 20.88%
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