document.docx Mitigation of diffuse agricultural pollution using buffer zones, ditches, ponds and subsurface bioreactors – Review Jane Hawkins and Martin Blackwell Rothamsted Research, North Wyke, Okehampton, Devon, EX20 2SB, UK Introduction Agricultural land is widely acknowledged as being a major source of environmental contaminants such as nutrients (especially nitrate (NO 3 ) and phosphorus (P)), pathogens, pesticides and sediment that contribute to diffuse pollution that can lead to contamination of surface water bodies. In order to reach the target ecological status for UK waters as outlined in the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC), a major requirement is the reduction or mitigation of DWPA. In order to assist with this the UK government Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has established a Catchment Sensitive Farming (CSF) initiative, the principle aim of which is to raise awareness of DWPA, and to encourage voluntary action by farmers to adopt measures to reduce transport of pollutants. A total of 44 mitigation methods to control DWPA have been identified by Cuttle et al. (2007). One of the methods is the establishment of riparian buffer zones to intercept the transfer of pollutants to watercourses. These have be shown to be the most cost effective approach for the reduction of P transfer from agricultural land to surface waters, compared with a range of other mitigation methods (Haygarth et al., 2009). During the past few decades the quantity of published literature on buffer zones and their functioning and design has steadily increased, but much of the research has failed to adopt a multi- functional approach, instead focussing on specific issues such as sediment and P in isolation (Dorioz et al., 2006; Owens et al.,
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Mitigation of diffuse agricultural pollution using buffer zones, ditches, ponds and subsurface bioreactors – Review
Jane Hawkins and Martin BlackwellRothamsted Research, North Wyke, Okehampton, Devon, EX20 2SB, UK
IntroductionAgricultural land is widely acknowledged as being a major source of environmental
contaminants such as nutrients (especially nitrate (NO3) and phosphorus (P)), pathogens,
pesticides and sediment that contribute to diffuse pollution that can lead to contamination of
surface water bodies. In order to reach the target ecological status for UK waters as outlined
in the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC), a major requirement is the reduction
or mitigation of DWPA. In order to assist with this the UK government Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has established a Catchment Sensitive
Farming (CSF) initiative, the principle aim of which is to raise awareness of DWPA, and to
encourage voluntary action by farmers to adopt measures to reduce transport of pollutants.
A total of 44 mitigation methods to control DWPA have been identified by Cuttle et al.
(2007). One of the methods is the establishment of riparian buffer zones to intercept the
transfer of pollutants to watercourses. These have be shown to be the most cost effective
approach for the reduction of P transfer from agricultural land to surface waters, compared
with a range of other mitigation methods (Haygarth et al., 2009).
During the past few decades the quantity of published literature on buffer zones and their
functioning and design has steadily increased, but much of the research has failed to adopt
a multi-functional approach, instead focussing on specific issues such as sediment and P in
isolation (Dorioz et al., 2006; Owens et al., 2007). Furthermore, there is still inadequate
understanding of many of the basic mechanisms and processes involved in buffer zone
functioning and in particular the compatibility of the different processes that control the
various forms of DWPA which buffers can mitigate. This has resulted in their inappropriate
and inefficient application and buffer zones have been found not to deliver their anticipated
benefits to UK water quality (Leeds-Harrison et al., 1996). Even with protocols for the
implementation of buffer zones having been described (Environment-Agency, 1996; MAFF,
1997), and although they are included in current environmental management schemes, a
strategic implementation policy with regard to buffer zone establishment for protection of
surface waters has failed to be developed. One of the failings of the protocol described by
these organisations has been their ‘broad-brush’ approach, which, in a country where buffer
strip width is largely constrained by field and farm size compared with, for example, North
America, is often impracticable. No consideration has been given to individual location
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characteristics, which has often resulted in inefficient buffer zones being established. What is
required, is a more strategic, targeted, and integrated approach, which would not only
deliver better water quality benefits, but more efficient use of land and landscape features.
One of the main problems in the UK with regard to buffer zone efficiency is the hydrological
by-passing or short circuiting of buffer zones via agricultural runoff, channelized flow and
sub-surface drainage (Leeds-Harrison et al., 1996).
Little work has been carried out on the potential role of other complementary edge-of-field
mitigation methods such as managed ditches and ponds, which may improve pollutant
removal, especially if used either alongside or instead of the more conventional use of buffer
zones. By their very nature, ditches are well placed to interact with a large proportion of
water moving from agricultural land to rivers and lakes. Simple techniques can be applied
that enable ditches to act as linear wetlands, providing the capability of water quality
improvement/pollution control together with hydrological regulation (Posthumus et al., 2008).
Evidence suggests that farm ponds could also be effective at reducing the nutrient loading of
surface waters draining from agricultural land and can also help reduce the velocity of runoff
waters, thereby helping to reduce downstream sediment losses while at the same time
attenuating flood peaks (Hawkins and Scholefield, 2002; Heathwaite et al., 2005).
Subsurface bioreactors are effectively ditches containing materials with high hydraulic
conductivity and often a high carbon (C) content that are placed below the soil surface in
such a way as to intercept contaminated groundwater, which passes through the reactive
media, and where a range of contaminants including NO3 (Robertson et al., 2005; Schipper
and Vojvodic-Vukovic, 1998) and P (Baker et al., 1998) are transformed into environmentally
benign forms or immobilised. If combined with conventional buffer zones that are subject to
by-passing by subsurface drainage, they could potentially enhance the nutrient removal
capacity of a buffer zone.
This review firstly identifies the main natural processes occurring in edge-of-field mitigation
methods that can be exploited to mitigate the environmental impact of pollutants. Secondly,
the review gives a reflection on the current use and reported efficiencies of buffers zones,
subsurface permeable reactive barriers, ditches and ponds to control DWPA. The main gaps
in our knowledge of how to successfully and optimally implement these measures are
identified.
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Processes mitigating DWPA
Although modern farming practices can often lead to the pollution of surface waters, there
are many generic natural processes occurring within the landscape features such as buffer
zones,ditches and ponds which can be exploited to mitigate the effects of DWPA including.
Table 1. Processes for amelioration of DWPA from Blackwell et. al. 2002
Agriculturally derived pollutant
AmeliorationAssociated water quality problems Natural process for
amelioration
Nutrients (especially N and P) EutrophicationToxicity
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