rakhi

Bhagavatipaattu

The Bhagavatipaattu, the song of Bhagavati called Mutippurapaattu (the adoration of the crown of Bhagavati), and Nallammapaattu, are performed differently by Brahmins, Namboodiri's, Theyyampadi's and other castes, residing in many parts of Kerala.

A ritual of appeasement, Bhagavatippattu is generally conducted in the temples or in the homes of Namboodiri Brahmins. The honour of being priests rests exclusively with a section of Ambalavasis called Kurups or Kuruppanmaars. Every version of the ritual, does, in fact, involve the ritualistic drawing of the Mother Goddess in glowing colours made from herbs and stones.

Chaakyaar koothu

Chaakyaar koothu is one of the plays performed in temples. This is enacted in the special dance hall called Koothambalam, connected to the temples. It is performed by people belonging to the Chaakyaar community. The word koothu is derived from the Sanskrit term, Koordanam which means ‘dance’.

The Chaakyaar community is a group which earns its livelihood by performing Chaakyaar koothu and Koodiyaattam. There are many versions regarding the origin of the term Chaakyaar, The Chaakyaars are believed to be people who have been ostracized from the Namboodiri Brahmin Community. The women of the community are called Illottamma.

The Chaakyaar koothu consists of two parts of which one is action and the other narration . In the earlier days, the action part of it was known as koothu. There are different types of koothu, known by different names like Mantraangam koothu, Anguliiyaangam koothu, Parakkum koothu, Matta Vilaasam koothu etc. When more than one actor performs on the stage, it is called Koodiyaattam. If the actors are not more than one, it is called Chaakyaar koothu. Chaakyaar koothu, is the narrration of Puranic stories by the Chaakyaars who wear the attire of a joker and tell the story humourously.

Nobody knows how ancient this art form is. It is however clear from Chilappatikaaram that even during the reign of Chenkuttava

Perumaal, Chaakyaar koothu was performed.

The Koothambalam constructed for the perfomance are edifices built according to Bharata Muni’s Natyasaastra. It mentions three types of theatres which are rectangular,quadrangular and triangular. The Koothambalam of Kerala has a green room inside at one end. Just in front of the green room is the stage. The remaining portion is left for the audience to sit.

The musical instruments used for Chaakyaar koothu are Mizhaavu, Kuzhittaalam,Itaykka and Sankhu. Of this Mizhaavu is the most important. It is said that Mizhaavu can be made from copper, bell-metal, or granite. Nowadays only Mizhaavu made of copper can be seen. Mizhaavu is a huge pot upto one’s waist. Its mouth is tied firmly with animal skin. The sound of the Mizhaavu is more majestic as its size increases.

The Chaakyaar adorns his face with the usual caste mark on the forehead (pottu), In addition soot and turmeric too are smeared on the face. There is a huge earring called Kundalam on one ear. On the other ear, he wears betel leaves and geranium flowers as earrings. A pleated costume is worn. He wears girdle and bangles. The head is tied with a red cloth.

Koothu is a combination of dance and humour. As soon as the Chaakyaar comes to the stage and offers his salutations, a dance known as Chaari, starts. This dance is an offering. Hence there should be no mistakes in it. Later, prose and verse are recited and meanings given. Initially, Chaakyaar koothu was only story-telling. Each word is pronounced very slowly and in a special tune which is called Bharu Method. This special kind of pronunciation is found only in the speech of the Chaakyaars on stage. This special sound and clarity of speech are efficient to attract the attention of the distracted among the audience. It is audible, and the meaning can be grasped by the hearer.

Kalarippayattu

Kalarippayattu is the only form of the most ancient traditional systems of physical, culture, self-defence and martial techniques still in existence. It is believed to have had its origin in Kerala, the tiny state situated South West of India.

It was believed that the ‘Nayakanmar’ were given the charge of Kalaris. These Nayakanmar gradually came to be called the ‘Nayars’, in some regions, special titles like ‘Kurup’, ‘Nambiar’, ‘Panikar’ etc. The ‘Nayar’ who had charge of a particular Kalari or group of Kalaris for the training and upbringing of warriors was called the ‘Gurukkal’ (meaning teacher or instructor) of the Kalari or Kalaris. Kalaris were established in all the ancestral homes of those Nayars to impart training in the methods of welfare.

In Sanskrit language, the word ‘Khaloorika’ denotes a place where weapon training is practiced. It is believed that it was from the Sanskrit term ‘Khaloorika’, that the word ‘Kalari’ came into use in Malayalam for similar institutions imparting training in martial arts. Such institutions were there throughout the country where similar

training was imparted. In each region, they are known by different names according to the differences, in the regional languages as ‘Akhad’, ‘Garadi’ etc. All these terms are believed to have originated from the Sanskrit term ‘Khaloorika’ as in the case of the ‘Kalari’. The system of physical and weapon training imparted within the Kalari came to be called ‘Kalarippayattu'.

There are two forms of Kalari, one Vatakkan ‘Northern’ and another one Tekkan ‘Southern’. In Vatakkan, three types viz Arappukkai, Pillattaanni and Vatteel tirippu were the most important and they had wide publicity. It is believed that Sage Agastya was the Guru of Tekkan form of Kalari. The Tekkan type was more important than Vadakkan. But the use of different kinds of weapons and the beauty of performance made the Vadakkan Kalari become famous.

Kalaris were primarily of two types, the first being smaller known as ‘CheruKalari’ (cheru means small) or KuzhiKalari (kuzhi means the portions formed by caving in the earth) and the second one known as ‘AnkaKalari’ (Ankam means fight). It is called KuzhiKalari because the floor of the Kalari is built at a level

lower than the surrounding land by removing soil to achieve the necessary depth. CheruKalari or KuzhiKalari was built for the purpose of impailing physical and weapon training. It was in this Kalari that systematic training in scientific exercises in Kalarippayattu was imparted. Remnants of such ancient ‘Kalaris’ are seen at some places in Kerala even now and the similarity in size and shape they bear to each other is ample proof for the existence of this type of Kalaris throughout the region from very ancient days.

‘AnkaKalari’ was a Kalari constructed temporarily for the purpose of fighting duels to decide any quarrel between the local rulers or for a cause of revenge for some reason or other. This Kalari would be constructed in such a place as to enable all persons in the locality to arrive and witness the duel conveniently. ‘Ankathattu’ meaning a platform for fighting duels also used to be constructed for the purpose and it belonged to the same class as ‘AnkaKalari’. The platform would be constructed four to six feet above the ground level engaging famous carpenters for the work. Before the date fixed for the duel, the Ankakathattu would be handed over to the fighters after elaborate rituals.

Kathakali

Kathakali literally meaning 'story-dance' is the dance-drama of Malabar which is now culturally and politically known as Kerala’s soul. Kathakali traced its origin to the ritualistic (tantric) period of the Vedic Age and connected its growth from the popular, folk dance dramas. The early Malabari danced in the forests: His dance was a power- a mixture of his passions, erotic pleasures and inner talks with the beauteous Nature, and his natural and graceful movements, elaborate gestures, picturesque costumes, grand harmonic make-up suggested by herbal plants of the forests and the vigorous and triumphant music emerging out of the crude instruments manufactured by him.

Origin of Kathakali

It was believed that Kathakali was conceived from Krishnanaattam, the dance drama on the life and activities of Lord Krishna created by the Zamorin of Calicut. The reason for that is said as follows: Once Kottarakkara Thampuran the Raja of Kottarakkara who was attracted by the tone of the Krishnanaattam requested the

Zamorin for the loan of a troupe of performers on the eve of some festive occasion. Due to internal feuds and political rivalry between them, the Zamorin refused to send the performers and insulted with the remarks: ”It is useless to depute the troupe, because Kottarakkara Thespian’s court would be neither able to appreciate nor understand anything of the highly artistic Krishnanaattam and the high standard of the performance".

Here the political rivalry between the two chieftains leads to the art rivalry. So Kottarakkara Thampuran initiated a parallel mode of entertainment, which he called Raamanaattam which was later transformed into Aattakatha, and yet later into Kathakali while Krishnanaattam based on the story of Lord Krishna's activities, Raamanaattam described the complete story of Lord Raman. Krishnanaattam was written in Sanskrit, "the language of the Gods". Raamanaattam was in Malayalam, the language of the people. By the end of the seventeenth century, the finished product of Raamanaattam was placed before the world under the tittle Kathakali.

The costume of Kathakali has been much influenced by Chaakkyaar koothu and Koodiyattam the two older forms of dramatic representations in vogue in Kerala. The history of their origins dates back to the

period of Perumals i.e. much earlier to the introduction of Raamanaattam. The whole scheme of Abhinaya (acting) and the use of Mudras (hand poses) and gestures were bodily adopted in Kathakali from them in addition to its borrowing and refinement of facial make-up and costume. The use of colour, costume, and make-up present a unique show and create an unearthly atmosphere. Kathakali became more attractive and popular than the Chaakkyaar koothu and Koodiyattam. Moreover ,its performance was not restricted to the precincts of the temples. Kathakali had a golden period between 1665 AD and 1743 AD.

Remarkable contributions were also made by Kaartika Thirunal, the king of Travancore, to Kerala's literature, art and dance. His efforts were also directed to popularising Kathakali among the people. He instituted a tradition of arranging Kathakali performances at various festivals and on the Navaratri night.

The Art of Kathakali

Kathakali employs the four abhinayas, viz Sattvika, expression of thoughts by the efforts of the mind (Bhaava and Rasa). Aangika, conveyance of ideas by the movements of the various parts of the body (gestures).,Vaacika, spoken words, singing, shrieking, etc., and Aharya, the dress and deportment.

As in earlier dramatic forms, Raamanaattam players also sang the padas. But for the vigorous Kathakali, demanding tremendous physical exertion, singing by the actors was exacting and tiring. A change in the practice was conceived by Prince Vettathu Thampuran, who introduced a few fundamental innovations. He provided seperate singers and introduced the chenda, a percussion instrument, to announce a performance and give background sound effect. This drum's powerful and penetrating sound heightened the acting of supernatural characters appearing on the stage in hideous and fantastic make-ups. The religio-theatrical reforms brought Raamanaattam performances outside the temples for the enjoyment of all sections of the community. Masks were replaced by make-up; Mudras were accentuated, a variety of percussion instruments and characteristic costumes were introduced; singers and musicians formed an independent part of a show.

Symbols of the hand have played an important role in the art of Kathakali. With the help of Mudras, the hand poses are called in Sanskrit, a whole literary expression is reduced to elementary notions. There are sixty-four basic hand poses which connote five hundred words, while the alphabet of the eyes express emotions. Their permutations can be employed to convey any number of meanings requiring any detailed explanation in the modern concept of story-telling.

In the art of Kathakali, all emotional qualities, and psychic conditions acquire remarkable outward manifestation and mukhabhinaya (facial mime) is cunningly, sometimes lightly employed. While the Kathakali use elaborate similes and hyperboles, and fingers permute into mudras to represent words of comparison such as like, as if and same as, the eye-balls roll evanescently to tell the miracles. The face becomes the open drama in which the story is drawn in successive shades and touches of lineament.

According to the theme, a Kathakali song suggests the use of a particular Bhaava and Rasa (aesthetic delights) and the dance and mimicry are rendered most effectively in harmony with these aesthetic appeals. The powerful music heightens the moods of the actor and adds life to acting. He dances to the melodies of the song and executes the various passages with well- defined Padaghats (foot work). It provides scope for the amplification of an emotion and the abridgement of the climax of a story. The powerful footwork trembles the earth below and cuts short the final action.

As Kathakali is a story-play, interpreting a drisya kaavya, its various contrasting characters are presented. There are good and bad characters, demons and gods, wordly and unwordly role-types according to their

castes, quality and nature. Each group is distinguished from the other by specific make-ups.

Koodiyaattam

The art form Koodiyaattam is the forerunner of the dramatic arts of Kerala. The term Koodiyaattam signifies ‘Joint action’ by Chaakkyaars and Nangyaars propounding exclusively Sanskrit dramas. Literally, the name means ’composite dancing’. It is a composition of dramatics, abhinaya and dancing. It is perhaps the oldest dance-drama in existence in India.

Koodiyaattam is presented by members of the Chaakkyaar community. The word Chaakkyaar is formed from slaaghyavaakkukaar or slaaghayir giving stress to all the six qualities for good speech in them. The Chaakkyaar community preserved acting as their family duty and acquired for themselves an important position in the cultural history of Kerala. Tradition holds that there were 18 Chaakkyaar families of which 14 have been identified, among them only eight families existed now.

Koodiyaattam is presented as a votive offering in Koothambalams, special theatres put up inside the precincts of temples. The perfomance is based on Sanskrit texts. A single act of Koodiyaattam play may be staged for 10 to 15 days, each day for two or three hours. The Malabari has a small story for Koodiyaattam. It offers a peg on which the entire technique of a perfomance hangs. An interesting one-act story is woven round Arjuna, the hero of the Mahaabhaarata. It is from the Sanskrit drama ‘Subhadra Dhananjayam’ wherein Arjuna wooes Subhadra. The act begins with return of Arjuna after wooing the famous bow called Gandiiva when he is told of the exquisite beauty of Subhadra. He falls in love with her and sets out to search her. He is assisted in this by his friend and companion Kunndinya, the court jester. On the way they meet a bhoot flying away with the ballet. Arjuna bends his bow to shoot down the bhoot who drops her and flies from safety. She literally falls into Arjuna’s arms. He fails to identify her but falls in love all the same. Suddenly she disappears. Arjuna sits to search for her in Dwaarka where if she would not be found he might meet Subhadra. Such a small story may take eleven nights. It reveals its high evolved art of great artistic and dramatic potentialities. Koodiyaattam plays deal with varied situations-humorous, satirical, especially on social and official life, moralistic for the youth; serious thoughts on the life’s purpose and ribaldrous attack on sexual propensities of man. They have educative value: a whole audience responds to the theme.

The role of Vidooshaka and Chaakkyaar

In early days, a seven-act Koodiyaattam play generally took a couple of months, each act taking between 8-9 days. It is preceded by a four-day precatory actions which are confined to staapana and nirvacana. On the third day commences the purushartha in which Vidooshaka is the sole character. It’s scene is drawn from the village of illiteracy headed by a priest who is innocent of all knowledge of mantra, tantra and vidya. Discussion amongst the villagers is given in the form of a discourse high in dramatic qualities.

The Vidooshaka, who is normally a man of extraordinary skill, mimes several characters and makes the atmosphere for the play absorbingly interesting. Beyond this he does not have any role, because what he relates has no relation with the theme of the drama.

The Chaakkyaar presents in this introductory part all the essentials of the play called in Sanskrit Purushaartha, of life. It is entrenched round the social hypocrisy in four main divisions- vinoda, vancana, aasana and raajaseva. Vinoda is enjoyment of pleasures and may extend from minor to major actions of pleasures; vancana includes deception in all its minor and sublte shades, besides self-deception; aasana signifies satisfaction of the palate; and raajaseva is the service under the crown. It is on the completion of the fourth category of Purshaartha that the conversation in the story cleverly leads to the emergence of the first scene of the drama to be enacted. The Chaakkyaar applies all the wits, humors and sarcasms in his discourses. Like the consummate cartoonist, who drives from his thoughts through the lines, Chaakkyaar raises humour and the hidden meaning. Whereas Purushaartha unfolds social hypocracy on the one side, it indirectly asks for certain morals. The Chaakkyaar therefore, recognise no law in enacting this piece. Everyone, from the commoner to the king, comes under his fire. By a sacred convention for enacting this, the Chaakkyaar enjoys complete immunity, for whatever he says it in Deva sabhas and in Brahmana sabha. His observations go on uninterruptedly, and if anyone interrupts in any way, he will remove his headgear and walk off the stage. The votive offering of koothu thus comes to sudden end, indicating sacrilege and profanation of a sacred right. Such a defiled koothu requires expiatory ceremonies for its revival. In the case of Prabandham koothu of the Chaakkyaars, this introductory piece is also enacted.

The Vidooshaka translates the Sanskrit text of the play in Malayalam, so that the people may in general, understand the story. Koodiyaattam is almost free of music. The verses are chanted. To create a supernatural atmosphere with it, the chanting is in monotone. The Chaakkyaars have in it abhinaya as their main foret. They employ aangikaabhinya ‘gestural action’, vaacikabhinaya ‘narration of words in a speech’ and again aangikabhinaya.

Krishnanaattam

Krishnanaattam was the dance-drama created by the Zamorin of Calicut, which deals with the life and activities of Lord Krishna. Its technique had the foundation of the folk drama and its content had a religious inspiration. It is believed that the Zamorin had a vision of Lord Krishna who gave the chieftain a peacock feather, which became the living symbol of this dance drama. Krishnanaattam players wore a peacock feather and thus commemorated the vision of the chieftain. Krishnanaattam's pattern of art was based on the Geetha Govinda. Geetha Govinda describes the turmoil in the love life of Krishna and Radha through words spoken by Krishna, Radha and a sakhi, companion.

The stories of Krishnanaattam are borrowed from the Bhaagavata, and are meant to be performed on eight successive nights. The series commences with Avataaram, the manifestation of Vishnu in his incarnation as Krishna, and is followed by kaaliyamardana, Raasakreeda, Kamsavadham, Swayamvaram, Baanayuddham, Vividhavadham and Swargaarohanam, each dealing with one major episode in his life.

Maargamkali

Maargamkali is an ancient art form performed by the Syrian Christians of Kerala. It is most popular among the Knanaya sect of Christians.

The term Maargam is representative of the Christian Community. This word which has the meaning ‘enquiry’, ‘path’ or ‘religion’ is popular in Buddhism. The famous statement in the Bible which says “I am the path, Truth and Life.

Nobody can reach the Father without me; makes clear, the essence of the word Maargam.

The theme of the Maargamkali songs is the journey of Maar Thoma all over India.

Syrian Music and Maargamkali Songs

The Christians of Kerala, especially the Knanaya Christians, maintain their Syrian Jew Tradition in Church rituals and social observances. Their music and dance have in them strong syrian link which is easily perceived. Songs are sung in three ways:(1) They are sung in a lengthy manner. (2) They are sung in a shortened manner, and (3) They are sung by lengthening and shortening the songs. The singers are not trained musicians who are proficient in the scientific way of rendering songs. The song style practiced by emulating the priests is sung and propagated by the masters of this folk art.

Dress and Costume

Maargamkali was performed only by men. The attire of the dancers is simple. They wear Gold bordered dhoties and have turbans with gold border. A red coloured cloth serves as waist band. No ornaments are worn by these men. Since this art form is now performed by young girls, they have started wearing jewels. The coin necklace is worn around the neck. The large traditional christian earrings known as Mekkamothiram are worn in both the ears. Big broad bangles, and large anklets adorn the hands and the legs. The palms of these women dancers are reddened by applying Henna.

Presentation

Maargamkali focuses on supple and graceful body movements. Twelve players begin the dance by standing in front of a lighted lamp. These twelve are supposed to be the apostles of Jesus Christ. The lamp symbolizes Christ and Divine Radiance. In Maargamkali also, the players pay obeisance to the Guru, bow to the lamp and start dancing.

The players stand around the lamp, at a distance of about three feet away from it. Their feet are positioned in V shape and hands are joined together in a prayerful gesture. Their eyes are intently focused on the lamp.

Mohiniaattam

Mohiniaattam is a classical dance that adopts a mean between the two parallel streams of classical dances – Bharatanaatyam and kathakali – in technique and style, both fixed according to Naatya Shastra, the scriptures of the Indian classical tradition.

The fusion is remarkable because the effect created by the blending of the graceful elegance of Bharatanaatyam with the earthy vigour and dynamism of kathakali has a subtle, seductive appeal that is at once charming and alluring.

Mohiniaattam essentially is a solo dance form performed by females. However, there has been instances of three or more girls jointly performing nritta or pure dance items. Though males never used to perform there were male teachers who taught Mohiniaattam. The teacher is called Naattuvan. Literally, Mohiniaattam means the dance of the enchantress.

It is believed that, Bharata, the author of Naatya Shastra, learnt the various arts from Lord Brahma himself, the God of creation, and imparted it to his one hundred and five sons. They in turn taught the rest.

Costumes of Mohiniaattam

The costume used by Mohiniaattam dancers is not very different from the traditional or natural dress of the Kerala women. It consists of a nine yard saree, beautifully and profusely pleated that it looks more like a skirt than a saree. A matching blouse is worn. A small fan like piece is worn a little below the waist over the skirt. A melaak or covering piece is worn over the blouse sometimes.

The Mohiniaattam dancers, matching with their costume and traditions, also took a penchant for gold ornaments. Earrings like Kadukkan, Koda Kadukkan and Thoda are worn. Kaashumaala, the long necklace with Lakshmi coins is popular with the dancers. Short necklace like Poothaali, Illaka Thaali, Naagapada Thaali, Mullamottumaala, etc. are also worn.

Rings on the fingers, bangles like Katakam and Valayam, ornaments for the waist like Udyaanam, Ellas and Kingini and anklets of different design are a part of the adornment too. Besides, certain ornaments like Netti Chutti and Soorya chandram are also worn by the dancers. Netti Chutti is ornamented along the middle parting of the hair, the pendant of which lies on the upper forehead. An inch away from the Netti Chutti or forehead ornament, on either side are the soorrya or the right side and chandra on the left side representing the sun and the moon, respectively. There ornaments, made of red stones or temple jewellery represents the Devadaasi tradition of the south.

The facial make up of the dancers consists of a coat of natural or beige coloured base, rouge on the cheek and well powdered. A red pottu (rounded red mark) – on the forehead is a typical Indian sign of auspicious feminity. The eyes are blackened with kohl, brows are pencilled and the lips are reddened with lipstik.

Mohiniaattam dancers have a very attractive way of styling their hair. The entire hair is gathered upwards towards the left side of the head and tied up like a bun. White jasmine flowers are used to adorn the bun. This method of hair style is traditional to the women of Kerala.

Musical Instruments of Mohiniaattam

The music of Mohiniaattam is, as in kathakali, in the sopaanam style. The main accompaniments were Thoppimaddalam, Mukhaveena (a wind insrument) , Kuzhithaalam (a small size cymbal), Thuti and Edakka. Thuti is an instrument made out of skin of animals. It is used as sruthi (subtle tones). Edakka is an hour glass shaped percussion instrument used in the temples of Kerala. It is made out of animal membrane and played with a stick.

Today, Thoppimaddalam is replaced Mridangam. Instead of a Mukhaveena, Veena, Violin or Flute are used. Edakka and Maddalam are utilized to enhance the rhythmic effect. These instruments are used as accompaniments to vocal music. Mohiniaattam being a feminine form, softer instruments are more suited to depict the delicate sentiments.

The Repertoire

The repertoire of Mohiniaattam follows closely that of Bharata Naatyam. It is said that earlier Mohiniaattam dancers enjoyed a wide repertoire but during the period of decline of Mohiniaattam a major part of this repertoire was lost. However, after the revival of Mohiniaattam during this century, many new items have been choreographed by the present day Mohiniaattam dancers. The present Mohiniaattam repertoire consists of Cholkettu, Jathiswaram, Varnam, Padam, Kriti, Tillaana and Slokam. Slokam as an item could be performed any where, in the beginning, in the middle, or at the end, as a separate item. It could also be performed along with one of the items of the above mentioned Mohiniaattam repertoire.

The main emotion in Mohiniaattam is Sringaara or the sentiment of love is an important aspect of all Indian classical dancers, especially so in Mohiniaattam where it is given greater importance perhaps more than in other classical dance forms. Sringaara can be broadly divided into Sambhoga Sringaara and Vipralambha Sringaara, emotion of love as expressed due to union and emotion of love expressed through separation respectively.

Mohiniaattam Adavus

The basic dance steps are the adavus which are of four kinds: Taaganam, Jaganam, Dhaganam and Sammisram. The names are derived from the nomenclature called the Vaaitthaari. To these are added five stances, Mandala sthaanakas, Samam standing, Ara (half-bent), Muzhu (full), Mukkaal (three-quarters) and Kaal (quarter). The five basic gaits are those of the frog, swan, peacock, koyil and snake- Mantookapada, Hamsapada, Mayoorapada, Kukudapada and Naagabandhu. The final formation bears a strong resemblance to the dance of kathakali’s female character.

Mudiyettu

Mudiyettu is a ritualistic dance-drama presented in Bhadrakaali temples in South and Central Kerala. In the South, this is presented by a community called Marans. It is based on the Puranic story of

Darikavadham, the killing of the demon Darika.

Legends about Mudiyettu

In Primeval times, in a war between the Devas (Gods) and the Asuras (Demons) the latter were defeated and their women sought shelter in the nether world. Two of these women, Daanavathi and Daarumathi, through hard penance, propitiated Lord Brahma, and were blessed with sons to avenge the defeat of the asuras. Daanavathi's son was named Daanavendra and Daarumathi's Darika. Darika, in turn, performed rigorous austerities and was given the boon of invincibility. He also won the assurance that from every drop of blood spilled from his body a thousand mighty Darikas would rise. The only being that would destroy him was a woman.

Darika, assisted by Daanavendra, begun overpowering the gods and ruling the universe. The desperate gods sought the help of Lord Siva through Naarada, the celestial messenger. Siva produced Bhadrakaali from his third eye. Upon her creation Bhadrakaali set out with a mighty roar to Darika and his assistant Daanavendra. In her task she was jointly helped by Vetaala, a Sivabhooda, attendant, with an insatiable thirst for blood.

Bhadrakaali, aided by Vetaala and another attendant named Kooli, challenged Darika. A terrible war ensued which shook the three worlds, and the evil one was finally destroyed with the severing of his head. Not a drop of blood fell to the ground as the thirsty Vetaala drank each drop as it spurted out. Thus was the world made safe again.

Another legend tells of its origin, after the killing of Darika, Bhadrakaali was still possessed by her terrible rage. Her consort Siva, wondering how to soothe her, called some artists to draw her figure holding Darika's head, on the floor. The Goddess, on seeing the picture, directed her anger at it, and was paid homage through prayer.

Ritualistic Importance

All the early performing arts like the Mudiyettu, Tirayaattam, Teyyam, and Patayani were ritualistic offerings to the divinities. They are performed by Ambalavaasis, people who served in the temple. In Mudiyettu the special participants were the Maarars and Kurups. Generally it is performed between the months of Vrischikam and Meenam (November-March).

Kalamezhuthu

There is an announcement by drumming called Kottiyarikkal before starting the ritual Kalamezhuthu. Traditionally the Mudiyettu is preceded by a ritual performed in the form of Kalamezhuthu, a symbolic drawing of the figure of Bhadrakaali on ground purified by cowdung plaster. The figure is drawn with five colours, red, green, black, white and yellow derived from indigenous materials - rice, turmeric, green leaves from the vata tree, charcoal, etc. The artists of Kalamezhuthu believe that these five colour represent the Panchabhootam.

When the figure of four, eight, or sixteen arms is drawn, nine lamps are placed on it - one above the head, one each between the hands on either side and others around the entire length of the figure.

Banana leaves with paddy, coconut, arecanut and incense sticks are placed near the lamps on either side. In the Kalamezhuthu the Goddess is usually seated. In her hands she holds her various powerful weapons, the bell, ghanta, the shield, khethkar, sword (vaal), the demons skull (Kapala), the trident (trisoola), and the sounding anklet (chilambu). The pooja, worship, is offered by waving a lamp to the sound of a conch shell and drums. While the poojari, Kurup, recites, the image seems to emanate the energy of the Goddess and through the entire ceremony, the painting becomes a real live force pulsating with Shakti.

Kalampaattu

Kalampaattu hymns are sung in praise of the Goddess, describing her from head to foot and foot to head, kesaadipaadam and Paadaadi kesham. The lamp is placed and lit under the sacred peepul tree, outside the temple compound, where the Goddess is said to reside. Young women accompany the lamp carrying brass trays ceremoniously called Taalapoli into the temple.

Symbolically the light represents the spirit of the Goddess, and is placed at the feet of the figure of Bhadrakaali. With this the Kalampaattu ritual ends, and the place is considered consecrated. The spirit of Bhadrakaali is invoked to remain on the sacred spot through the performance of the Mudiyettu.

Performance

Before the performance begins, the Kurup wipes out the Kalamezhuthu with coconut leaves leaving the face untouched. The coloured powder is distributed among the devotees as prasaadam of the Goddess.

The songs of Mudiyettu are in the sopaana style and each song has its own raagas and taalas. Mukhari, Neelambari, Aanandabhairavi, Kaamboji, Saaveri, Mohanam and Bilaahari are some of the ragas.

Two types of chenda-Uruthichenda and veekuchenda - and cymbals are the percussion instruments used.

Drumming announces the start of the ritual, accompanied by the elathaalam (the cymbals), and the shankham (conch). In earlier days singers stood behind the tiraseela (a plain cloth curtain), and recited slokaas in praise of Siva and Bhadrakaali.

Arrangements for the performance begin with a Nilavilakku (a tall standing lamp), being placed on the ground with a stool beside it. The lamp is lit signalling the start of the arangu-keli, playing of the musical instruments. The curtain is held by two people behind the nilavilakku, and the singers and musicians, standing behind, sing the vandana-sloka, the invocation. Siva and Naarada enter the stage in a crescendo of music and a rain of flowers. Siva stands on the stool behind the curtain indicative of mount kailaas, with only the upper part of his body showing. A wooden Nandi - head held on the curtain suggests that Siva is riding his vehicle, the bull, Nandi. Naarada appears in front of the curtain.

Naarada informs Siva about Darika's misdeeds and explains how he holds the devas to ransom. He implores Siva to save the gods and humans from the asura. Darika enters behind the tirassila and dances a violent introductory dance. He mounts the stool and begins his tiranokku, literally curtain- look, repeated thrice. A burning torch held in front of him highlights his appearance. He jumps down from the stool, and with the torch flames flying high, runs across the ground with the audience watching in awe.

The actor playing Kaali comes from within the temple having received the poojari's blessings and is handed a sword and a garland from the deity. The Goddess's head, muti, is placed firmly on his head. The actor is now possessed by the Goddess and hurls challenges at Darika. A light ensures, which covers the entire length and the breadth of the temple ground. They chase each other around the central lamp and finally Bhadrakaali drives Darika behind the curtain representing his banishment to the nether regions, Paathaalam. She follows, and soon re-enters the arena with Darika's and Daanavendra's head-gear signifying their death. Mudiyettu thus symbolises both the killing of Darika and also the wearing of Kaali's crown, muti.

Three type of dances:- irunnaattam - dance by sitting, patinyaattam - dance by standing, ilakiyaatam reveals all types of movements are performed in Mudiyettu.

Oppana

This is a popular form of social entertainment among the Muslim community of Kerala prevalent all over, especially in the northern districts of Canaonore, Calicut and Malappuram.

Oppana is generally presented by females, numbering about fifteen including musicians, on a wedding day. The bride dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments is the chief spectator who sits on a peetam, around which the singing and dancing take place. While they sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride using simple steps. Two or three girls begin the songs and the rest join in chorus.

Sometime Oppana is also presented by males to entertain the bridegroom. It usually takes place just before the bridegroom leaves for the bride's residence where the Nikkaah (marriage) takes place or at the time he enters the Maniyara.

Harmonium, Thabala, Ganjira and Elathaalam are the musical instruments employed for this performance. Only the Mappilapaattu will be sung on the occasion.

The word Oppana may have been derived from an Arabic form Afna. There are two types of Oppana, one is Oppana chayal another is Oppana murukkam. When Oppana chayal is performed, they do not clap their hands. If it begins with Chayal it would also end with Chayal only.

Patayani

Patayani is one of the most colourful and spectacular folk events associated with the festivals of certain Devi temples in Pathanamthitta and Alapuzha districts of Kerala. Like all other ritualistic arts, it also had its origin in religion, but today it is viewed more as a folk art with a genuine secular appeal. Now it has popularity with Kadammanitta Kalari and it continues to be performed by the Kalaries like Ezhumattur, Othara, Kadalimangalam, Kottangal, Naranganam, Kottukavu, Pulladu, Kallissery and Kurambala.

Of the several divinities held in awe in Kerala, the foremost is Bhadrakaali. Oral tradition says that Patayani has been performed annually in Bhadrakaali temples from the time she began to be worshipped for the prosperity of the people. Besides that, they worship her with different types of Kolams, to protect them from natural calamities, serious illness, evil spirit, stench etc.

During a serious illness, well-wishers may vow to offer Patayani to the goddess as a token of gratitude when the person recovers. If an epidemic like cholera breaks out in the village, several dancers wearing the Maruta kolam come in teams and dance furiously, hoping thus to scare away the visitation.

Generally it is performed during the months of March-April on the full moon nights. The performance is presented continuously for 28 days which is reduced to 10 days and even to one day.

Participation of the village people

People who belong to all communities enthusiastically participate in the organization, supply of materials etc and making the performance a success. The dappu, a musical instrument of Patayani is made by the Parayars. Patayani masks are constructed mostly by members of the Ganaka community who have adopted this as a hereditary profession. The Thandan community collects pods of the

arecanut tree, tender palm leaves, dry coconut leaves etc, for the preparation of masks. The figures are drawn by the Kaniyar community. They also create patayani songs and sing them. The wood for the frames is gathered by the carpenters. They are also the builders of these frames. The carpenters sing and also dance, wearing the costumes. All the communities in the village where patayani is performed consider the performance as a very strong offering to the Divine.

Legends of Patayani

The killing of the demon Darika by Bhadrakaali has been a favourate theme of Kerala’s ritual dances. In Patayani however, the theme revolves not around the killing of the demon but around the mental state of Bhadrakaali after she has slain the demon. Legend has it that her surging fury did not subside even after she had done away with Darika; her uncontrollable anger raged like a fire threatening to consume the entire world. Even the gods found themselves helpless. Finally, it was left to Subramanya to suggest a solution to Siva.

In his wisdom Subramanya devised a plan whereby dancers with different Kolams (costumes) would come and dance before Bhadrakaali. This, it was hoped, would help calm her down. Subramanya’s advice was heeded and several Kolams appeared in succession before Bhadrakaali, including one of Bhadrakaali herself. Seeing herself thus recreated Devi burst into hilarity and her wrath disappeared. From then on, Patayani became a regular feature of Bhadrakaali worship to ensure her continuing good humour. People still maintain that few things, please Bhadrakaali more than this dance with Kolams.

The Kolams

In Patayani the most important Kolams are those of Bhairavi (Kaali), Kaalan (god of death), Yakshi (a goddess), Pakshi (bird), Marutha (mother goddes), Kuthira (horse) etc. Devotees of Bhadrakaali often sponsor Patayani performances in temples as a votive offering.

The Kolam will have a huge headgear with many projections and devices, and a mark for the face and a chest-piece to cover the breast and abdomen of the performer.

These Kolams with the intricately designed marks are made in a variety of shapes, colours and designs with stalks of the Arecanut fronds. A special skill is required for the construction of these Kolams. The pods of the arecanut tree are sliced and levelled and made into a kind of smooth sheet. On this the visage of the god and goddess is drawn and painted, with tender palm leaves used as embellishments. The colurs for painting Kolams are all extracted from natural sources. Red is made by grinding stones dredged from the river-bed, black is the soot from burning coconut shells, powdered turmeric produces yellow. Brushes and pens are made from the hard, fibrous stem of palm leaves.

Kolams are sometimes classified on the basis of the number of pods that go into their making, with 21, 51, 101 or even 1001 pods. The Kolams of Bhairavi which requires 1001 pods, is so massive that it has to

be carted to the place of performance. Though Kolams usually have only one face, there are examples with two or more faces.

Rituals of Patayani

In the past, the rituals and ceremonies of Patayani was completed in twenty eight days. All the cutomary rites connected with Patayani, like Chuvatuvaippu, Thappumelam, Tavati, Pulavruttam, Paradesi, Kuthira, atavi, naayaattu, Kolam, Thullal, Puppata, Appindi, Vilakku, etc. are systematized ritualistically to be performed within these twenty eight days.

There are some devotees, who after cutting cane with their bare hands wrap it over their body and dance vigorously, sometimes rolling on the floor. Blood might ooze out in plenty, but the wound would never be painful. Performers are ready for the atavi ritual only after observing strict penance for forty one days.

The Patayani festival has its beginning with the setting of a Kotimaram (flag mast), which is the best arecanut tree in the village. The ritual of the first day is Chuttuvayppu, where, with a Chuttu (country torch made of dried coconut leaves), the temple lamp is lit. The second day witnesses the performances with thappu and kayppatti (drum and palms (fingers). The third day is the day of the Ganapati kolam, Pisaachu and Marutha, who dance according to rhythmic drumming. On the fourth day is the panchakolam which are called Yakshi, Pakshi, Pisacchu, Marutha and Maatan. The Vazhipaatu Kolams dance on the fifth day. The Patayani of the sixth day is Itappatayani and that of the seventh day is Vishupatayani.

Performance

Literally the word Patayani means ‘rows of army’. The actual performance is a symbolic victory march of Kaali after vanquishing Darika. Patayani was traditionally performed by Nair’s, members of an ancient warrior race, who were wellversed in the martial training of kalarippayattu, but without the use of weapons.

The performers dressed up as Kolams, impersonating there characters, present a dance procession which usually ends at the altar of the deity. It cosists of a procession of the divine army of Bhadrakaali with other divine and semi-devine personalities.

Sometimes these dancers attain a certain frenzied state but culminates in running around and extremely vigorous dancing. There are enactments, humorous diologues and ballads whose performances at a fixed spot also take place at times.

There are singers who sing a different song for each kolam. The singing and dancing that fluctuates in tempo are accompanied by a simple drum called thappu and elathaalam.

Pulikali

This art form is performed in Trichur and Palghat districts. It is also known as Kaduvaakali.

Dancers numbering three or more dress themselves up like tigers, usually covered with yellow paint,with red and black designs on it.

There are enactments such as the tiger preying on a goat, and a tiger being hunted by a game-hunter. The made-up tigers present vigorous dancers to the loud beating of percussion instruments like udukku,thakil etc.

Theyyam

Theyyam or Theyyaattam is a pattern of hero worship performed in Kolathunaad, a territory comprising the present Cannanore District and Badagara Taluk of Kerala State. It is a ritual and a folk-dance form supported by a vast literature of folk songs. Theyyam is a corruption for Deyvam ‘God’. 'Aattam' means dance. Thus 'Theyyaattam' means the God’s Dance.

In Kolathunaad and other places (Southern portion of Kolathunaad), Theyyam is known as Thira or Thirayaattam. There, the performance is conducted on a masonry stage called Thara and the word Tharayaattam was probably changed into Thirayaattam in course of time. The term Thirayaattam itself may mean beautiful dance.

The person who plays and personifies the deity is generally called ‘Kolam’. The word Kolam means figure or shape or make-up in Tamil and Malayalam. In Tulunad, north of Kolathunaad, the custom of Kolam dance is widely prevalent as a form of worship of the Bhootas or spirits. There, the dance was conducted before the sthaanams, where the Bhoothas or the spirits used to reside.

As the result of Aryan colonization of Thuluva and Kolathunaad, the Brahmanical religion became deep rooted in this territory. The Brahminic concepts of Gods and deities were accepted by the indigenous people of Kolathunaad. But even then the old folk-cult of Velan Veriyat and spirit worship remained as a system of worship for the native. The rituals remained unchanged and the tradition was not abandoned by the people. Vishnumoorthi, Pottan, Chaamundi, Rakteshwari and Bhagavathi became new deities for the village folk of Kolathunaad along with their primitive deities of spirits and heroes.

The cult of Bhagavathi became so dominant in the social life of Kolathunaad that no village of this area could be found without a shrine or kaavu of a Bhagavathi. The Bhagavathi at Maappiticheri was known as Maappiticheri Bhagavathi and the Bhagavathi at Kannangot was known as Kannangot Bhagavathi. Many of these Bhagavathis have their own Theyyaattam or Thirayaattam at their shrines as annual festivals. Some of these Bhagavathis have big temples and daily offerings strictly conforming to the Brahmanical ritualism.

Performers

Velan is one of the castes that performs Thirayaattam or Theyyaattam in Kolathunaad. The term Vellaattam which denotes the introductory performance of the deity in the evening without ceremonial make-up and dress, represents the combination of the words Velan and Attam. Thus Velan is a noted authority of this folk dance. In Kolathunaad and other areas the Velan is known by the term Munnutton and northern areas of Kolathunaad by the term Anjutton.

Besides the communities of Velan, Malayan and Vannan are the predominant communities that perform Theyyams in Kolathunaad. Both these castes are the indigenous tribes of Kerala. Among them there are good traditional physicians and good folk-dancers. The tradition of folk-dance in Kerala was kept alive by these people. Even though they are untouchable to the Brahmins, the Theyyams performed by them were worshipped by Brahmins also. This native tradition, caused the cultural integration of the migrated Brahmins with the native people.

The other communities which perform Theyyaattams are Mavilan, Vettuvan, Pulayan and Koppalan. These tribes used to perform Theyyaattams in memory of their deceased ancestors. But these Theyyaattams are not so colourful and artistic in comparison to those of other castes like Velan, Vannaan and Malayan. The Theyyaattam by Pulayar and Vettuvar remain good examples of the spirit worship done by these tribal people.

Costumes and Make-up

One of the salient features of Theyyaattam is its colourful costume. The typical waist dress of heroes is found in Kativanoor veeran. This is called Arayota or Vattoda or Atukkum Chiraku and made out of splices of bamboos and covered by red cloth. For a few Theyyams, especially the ones played with Malayan, this waist dress is woven out of coconut leaves. The Theyyams like Vishnumoorthi and Pottan require this dress especially as they leap into the fire.

Above the waist dress the naked body is painted with different native colours. The particular system of painting the body of a Theyyam differs from that of other Theyyams. Parunthuvaal Ezhuthu (eagle’s tail) and Anchupulli Ezhuthu (five dots) are some technical terms for body painting. For painting the faces of the players Praakkezhuthu, Sankezhuthu, Naagam Thathal Ezhuthu, Varezhuthu, Narikurichezhuthu and Kattaramezhuthu are a few well known systems widely adopted. The head-dress or Muti also differs

from Theyyam to Theyyam. Some well known Mutis used for Theyyaattams are Pookkatti, Ponmuti, Vattamuti, Chattamuti, Valiyamuti, Kondalmuti, Puthachamuti, Onkaramuti and Peelimuti.

These Mutis are made out of bamboo splices and wooden planks which are covered with coloured cloth, flowers and coconut leaves. In new Mutis, peacock feathers are also used. The Theyyams of Kshetrapaalan and a few Bhagavathis use nearly 50 or 60 feet high long crowns or Mutis made out of arecanut tree and bamboo splices. These crowns are supported by long bamboos which are held by several helpers to keep the balance when placed upon the head of the player. According to the local customs, these long crowns are either covered with coloured cloth or thatched with coconut leaves. Some Theyyams of Bhagavathis wear a silver diadem of small serpents heads crowned with red flowers. A huge golden collar elaborately carved of wood and set with fancy jewels is worn in some items. The female deities wear ornaments and a wooden breast called mularu. The Theyyams of Othenan and Baali wear round crowns called kireetam. The same kireetam is used in Kathakali performance. In a few Theyyams like Pottan, masks made out of the leaf sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks are used.

The breasts of goddesses are generally covered with glittering ornaments and make-up known as Ezhutharam (Seven models). All male and female Theyyams wear bangles called Katakam and Chutakam and small anklets on the feet. In the case of Bhagavathis in Roudra mood, (fearful appearance) torches are appended to the waist and the crown produces a terrible appearance.

Musical Instruments

Drum, Cymbal, Kuzhal, Perumbara, Conch, Cherututi, Utukku and Chermangalam are well known musical instruments used in Theyyaattam. The rhythm of the playing of these instruments varies from Theyyam to Theyyam. The continuous playing with measured interludes helps to make the performance very interesting. According to the rhythm of the instruments, the same instrumental players recite Thottams also of the particular deity.

The Thottam or the song related to the particular Theyyam deity is recited by the player and by the singers in the background.

Performance

The Theyyam dance is classified as Thaandava or the masculine and Laasya or the feminine. Both styles are adopted in Theyyaattam according to the context and character of the deity. Inward, outward and circular movements with agile and light steps give these dances a more graceful style. The measures and steps of the dances correspond to the words of the song. Chekor Kalasam, Onnaam Kalasam, Eduthu Kalasam, Chavitti Thullal, Parakkam and Thiriyal denote the various processes of the dance.

Generally, this festival and its performances continue for three days. On the night of the first day, the performance starts at the kaavu with drumbeats. After this, there is the kolam dance and the Thottam which reveal the summary of the rituals that would be performed on the next day.

The pooja is conducted to the deities, who are not only in the temple but also outside the sanctum–sanctorum. As a prelude to the performance, the ilamkolam or vellaattukolam arrive with kotivilakku in their hands. Their make-up is very simple. No formal make-up is made on the face.

The player prays for the appearance of the particular deity. The prayer or murmuring is called orayal or prophecy. He recites a few lines and requests for the presence of the deity, which is called Varavili. Each Theyyam has its own separate varavili or praising the deity. On concluding the Varavili, the player begins the dance with its several attractive kalaasams.

Finally, he distributes Adayaalam or Kuri (Powder of turmeric) to his devotees along with rice. While giving adayaalam to his devotees, the player pronounces blessings also. If the performance is in a household shrine, the player would declare that the deity would reside in the house and create prosperity and pleasure for ever. When the Theyyam speaks during the time of bestowing blessings to the persons of different communities, the player addresses them in symbolic terms referring to their castes.

At the end of the performance the devotees donate coins to the shrine. Finally the musical instruments are played once again and the devotees throw rice towards the Theyyam and he casts off the crown in front of the shrine.

Thirayaattam

Thirayaattam, a ritual dance-drama is performed as part of festival celebrations in Kaavus, temples of the Goddess, in Kozhikode and Malappuram Districts of Kerala.One can note a vast difference between Theyyam and Thira in their rituals, Kolams, costumes, make-up, performances etc. Thira is the chief sub division of Theyyam, and so the whole perfomance is also called Theyyam-Thira. It represents a legendary social figure and deplicts its heroic exploits. Thira is a whole in itself regarding its theme and is usually presented before the main event. The perfomers of Thira, through appropriate costumes,assume the roles of the divinities they hold in veneration. The dance, to the accompaniment of indigenous instruments, takes place only at night,illuminated by torchers made of clusters of dried coconut fronds.

The word Thiram means “radiance” or ‘lustre’, and the Thirayaattam is said to cast radiance or lustre by virtue of his gorgeous array, made all the more dazzling by the blaze of the torches.

Kolams

When a Thirayaattam dancer puts on the intended garb, he becomes a kolam. Kolams of Siva or his manifestations like Kariyattan,Ghantakarna, Bhairava,

Karivilli, and Karumakan, or of Kaali as Bhagavathi, Bhadrakaali, Bhairavi, Otakaali, Naagakaali, and

Rakteswari are of primary importance. Apart from these,there are some minor characters, including a few in animal form; a minkey usually accompanies the Kolam of Bhairava and a house is the mount of Vatiman.

Make-ups

In Thirayaattam, make-up, perhaps better described as the painting of designs on the face and body, is a very elaborate process and almost a ritual in itself. The most outstanding element of the make-up is the mashi, a blacking for the eyes, prepared with great reverence, In no other theatre art of Kerala is the pigment for the eyes given such importance. The colours used for painting are white, black, red and yellow. Before submitting himself to the make-up artists, the performer ceremonially ties a piece of cloth round his head. In the dressing-room he then lies down, fully stretched. One expert attends to his face while two others, one on either side, see to the painting of the body, primarily to the chest. The artist doing the face has some freedom to innovate, but designs for the body must not differ in the slightest from the set delineation. The painting is not a solid colour but has designs wrought with fine brushes made from palm leaves. Crowns, where used, are of wood, perked up with coloured paper, peacock feathers and silk. Masks, though few, are mads of palm leaves and the bark of the arecanut tree; in each case. When a mark is used, it is of no consequence after the performance, and is merely thrown away.

Rituals and Ceremonies

Every ocassion for a Thirayaattam entails long-drawn-out rituals and ceremonies that precede the event. As soon as a temple decides to conduct its annual Thirayaattam, the keepers handover paddy for the making of the rice-flour, and oil for the preparing the mashi, to the Mootha Peruvannaan, leader of the Thirayaattam party. He passes on the oil to his wife, Mootha peruvannaathi, who, in turn, choses an auspicious day for commencing the work. She takes a purificatory bath in the morning and , wearing clothes that are freshly washed but not quite dry, lights the nilavilakku, the tall brass lamp kept in the central room of the house. Care is taken to place the lamp which is fed with a mixture of gingili and coconut oils. A well-scrubbed brass pot filler with water is kept suspended over the flame so that soot accumulates on its under surface. When the water gets quite hot the pot is removed and the soot scraped off. The pot is refilled with water and the process is repeated several times. The soot thus collected is put on a clean, dry plantain leaf and kept in safe custody.

In making the mashi, the Mootha peruvannathi exercises utmost care and piety. The belief survives that should the woman who makes the mashi be unchaste in mind or body, the soot will not adhere to the pot, and this is regarded as a very bad omen.

On the day of the Thirayaattam, the husband and wife offer prayers to the oil lamp placed in the quadrangle of the house before proceeding to the temple. The wife, the Mootha peruvannathi, carries with her the mashi neatly packed in a piece of black cloth and, on reaching the temple delivers it to her

husband. He, as the Mootha peruvannan, receives this and at once hands it over to his nephew. The significance of this act is that should anything untoward happen to the peruvannan that may interfere with his conduct of the Thirayaattam, his nephew, who in the prevalent family system is his successor, is authorised to conduct the proceedings.

On the day of the event at about 10 A.M., the dancers and musicians accompanied by local dignitaries arrive at the Kaavu simultaneously, another ceremony, that of bringing of the Kalasam, pot of sacred water is attended to by others. The Kalasam is brought in procession by the senior of the temple accompanied by drummers and pipers. On reaching the Kaavu, the chief priest receives the kalasam and sprinkles some of the water on the idol, as a token of having bathed the deity.

It is only after these preliminiaries that the actual preparations for the Thirayaattam presentation commence. The temple authorities provide the material for the painting of the dancers; the Mootha peruvannan, is given a bundle of betel leaves, one areca-nut and one measure of rice. According to the custom, he randomly draws a few leaves from the bundle and casually places the nut on these. The number of leaves taken and the specific location of the nut on them is said to give a clue to the success or otherwise of the perfomance.

The next ritual, which takes place in the dressing room is equally important. A kalam, an artistic image of the Goddess, is made with rice-flour and coloured powders in the section of the room believed to be presided over by virgo. The perfomers offer rice and flowers and prostrate themselves before the kalam. In another ceremony, a kalam is prepared at the base of a tree situated on the southern side of the temple. The principal dancer offers worship to this kalam. soon he gets transformed into a velicchapaadu, an oracle, believed to be possessed by Bhagavathi. In a frenzy he sprints to the eight quarters of the temple to pay obeisance to the eight gods housed in them. Returning to the kalam, he drives an iron nail into the tree, takes a length of rope, makes 21 knots on it, and tightly wraps it around the tree: thus , by being secured to the tree, all the unclean spirits and negative influences are rendered ineffective.

Perfmomance of Thirayaattam

The perfomance of Thira begins with the rendering of a song called Thottam which tells the story of origin of the particular Theyyam about to be enacted, its history and accomplishment. It is sung by a group of people led by the chief perfomer. The song is sung standing infront of the chamber of the deity called Kottam or Palliyara. The song is accompanied by two types of drums, cymbals and horns.

Then comes the preamble to the Thirayaattam perfomance, known as vellaattam. It comprises various dancers and physical feats done by the perfomer. For this ceremony,conducted during the day, the perfomer merely ties a pleated white cloth round the waist,and over this another that is either red or black. A design is painted on the face, and the body is smeared with turmeric paste.A head gear and some ornaments complete the outfit. Thus readied, he executes a few sketchy dance movements, and

with this his participation ends. After Vellaattam, the main ritual Thirayaattam begins.

Thirayaattam is supposed to recall the youthful aspect of the deity. The perfomer goes to the green room for costume change. After coming to the perfomance area,the perfomer wears the curious headgear and certain ornaments.This act sets the ritual rolling and it begins with the rendering of Thottam. The very entry of the kolam or the perfomer in full guise, is

characterised by high spirits. The lively demeanour, the flaming torches and the strident music all contribute to make the spectacle mysteriously enchanting. With dance steps the kolam circumambulates the Kaavu three times. By now he begins to betray signs of possession. To the devout, he personifies Bhagavathi. The excitement mounts till, finally, the torchbearers too get- infected and begin to sway and stamp in rhythm.

The next stage is the climax of the ritual called urayal. This is a spectacular event with frenzied shaking and shivering of the Theyyam. At this time the deity is believed to possess the Theyyam and after this starts Thirayaattam that include energetic dances with variations in pace. The slow dance is called Pathinjaattam and the fast dance is called Elakiyaattam.

After Elakiyaattam, the Theyyam becomes a medium for the deity to hear the grievances of devotees and offers them oracle like utterances. This is called Uriyaattu Kelpikkuka or kuri kodukkuka.There is also a practice among devotees to offer money to the Theyyam at the concluding session of the act.

The winding up of the entire event takes place the following morning, in a ceremony called the Chanthaattam.The head gear and ornaments of the Thirayaattam dancer are removed and he is made to sit down wearing a single cloth. He takes a liquid preparation known as chanthu and with his bare hands applies this to his face and body. The paint gets dissolved and is wiped off. With this, the Thirayaattam ritual is over, and the pefomer reverts to his normal self.

Traditionally Thirayaattam is the hereditary profession of only one community, the Vannaan, and each Vannaan family enjoys the right to perform the Thirayaattam annually in a specific Kaavu.

Thullal

Among the classical performing arts of Kerala, Thullal is distinct with its simplicity of presentation and its frank, outspoken wit and humour. The songs are in simple Malayalam and the techniques employed in this art are not rigid, though they are based on the classical principles of Naatya Saastra, a treatise on art originating in the 2nd century B.C. it is said to have been a modification of Koothu.

The word Thullal belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and literally means jumping, this however can be extended to mean to ‘to leap about’ or to ‘cut a caper’.

Thullal is also a genre of poetry in Malayalam. It is significant that the work is composed in metres that later became the norm for Thullal poetry. This seems to indicate that the songs for Thullal dance, at least in their structure, took their inspiration from a model that was already available. Though the Thullal dance, as we know it, came into existence less than 200years ago, the roots of its verbal component can well be traced to at least one century earlier.

Thullal is said to have been organized by Kunjan Nambiar, a veritable genius and one of the foremost poets of Kerala. Oral history records that Kunjan Nambiar accompanied the Chaakiaars on the drums when they performed their heredictary occupation of dance and drama. One day, during a temple festival, when Kunjan Nambiar was playing the drum for a Chaakiaar, he made a mistake. This incensed the Chaakiaar so much that he publicly took him to task. Crestfallen, Nambiar quietly left. Seething inwardly with anger however, he returned the following day when the same Chaakiaar was performing. Altired in a manner that itself was enough to attract attention, he presently began to sing and dance. In no time the audience turned around only to lose itself in Nambiar’s antics, leaving the Chaakiaar without spectators.

The story Kunjan Nambiar presented was a familiar one, the Kalyaanasaugandhikam from the Mahabhaaratha, but he clothed it with his own words. The Chaakiaar momentarity defeated, was silent, but later took his revenge by persuading the ruler, the Raja of Ambalapuzha, to forbid Kunjan Nambiar from performing or visiting there again.

There are three different types of Thullal, classified according to the metre and rhythm of the songs sung in each one and the differences in constume and dance. They are Ottan Thullal, Seethankan Thullal and Parayan Thullal.

The precise interpretation of the labels Seethankan, Parayan and Ottan is not clear, but the difference in the styles relates mainly to the metre of the poetry, the place of the singing, and the costume and adornment of the performer.

Kunjan Nambiar, for his inspiration, turned to legend and mythology but gave to each story or episode a totally contemporary slant. He took figures from the Raamaayana and Mahabhaarata, the Bhaagavatham and other Puraanas and exposed them to the modes and mores of the society of his time. He was a poet of the soil who, through the expedient of wit and satire, ruthlessly laid bare the hypocrisy that he saw around him in everyday life. Making no effort to deliver a message or spell out a moral, he was content to present the picture as he saw it, and left it to his audience to react as they wished. He excelled in fusing reality with fantasy and made his characters appear totally valid to the scenario of his time. To this day, Nambiar remains the unquestioned master of the this art.

Performance

Thullal is conceived as a solo dance. The dancers is supported by two musicians, who stand a little behind him. One of them plays the maddalam, a drum, and the other, small cymbals. Both musicians are also expected to sing along with the dancer. No stage or any other from of formal arrangement is required for the performance, which can be held with equal facility in the compound of a temple or the coutyard of a house. Unlike Kathakali and Koodiyaattam, Thullal uses no curtain for entries, exists or scenes, nor is there a formal seating arrangement. As is the practice with all of Kerala’s performing arts a lighted bell metal lamp is installed in the front of the dancer, even if the performance is held during the day. Though not strictly observed now, Parayan Thullal was generally presented in the forenoon, Seethankan in the afternoon, and Ottan after dusk.

The player sings a verse and while the lines are repeated by his musical assistant, he brings out the meaning through facial expressions, hand gestures and bodily postures. The roler of the raconteur and actor are perpetually interchanged with tremendous aesthetic effect. In one moment he is the narrator, but in the next he completely identifies himself with the narration.

In Thullal the primary importance is attributed to dance. Thoughout the performance the dance element predominates but lacks variety. In order to avoid monotony, the dancer executes some vigorous foot steps and rhythmic movement of the body.

Thullal presentations generally last for two hours and are rendered at a pitch and pace that keep on lookers thoroughly gripped. The dancer dances and sings simultaneously and this entails a long period of rigorous training, an agile body and a communicative voice. The dancer must also be gifted with a sharp memory, for he must remember long poems, some of which have over 1,000 couplets. Once memorized, it is left to the dancer’s discretion what to take from a poem, he must link lines and relate them to this theme in order to convey the literal meaning as well as his own interpretation of each poem.

The emotions pertain mainly to valour, humour, pathos, anger and devotion. Sringaara, the erotic element, is virtually absent, but is rarely missed, for the burden of the songs and the nature of the dance are hardly conducive to tender passions.

Whilst the style of dancing, singing and presentations is common to the three types of Thullal, each has its own distinctive costumes and ornaments.

Seethankanthullal

The songs and dance in this form of thullal are slower than Ottan thullal in metre and rhythm and in tempo. The dancer uses a piece of black cloth tied tightly round the head and this is circled with a band of tender, palm leaves giving the impression of a crown. Ornaments representing the full-blown lotus, made once more of palm leaf, adorn the upper arms and wrists, ankle belts, and the feet. The chest is

covered with a profusion of bead necklaces and over this is tied a cross-belt. A red cloth is draped round the waist and a long length of white cloth, rather like a bandage, is looped again and again around a waist-string and fixed above this.

Parayan Thullal

This is the slowest in tempo among the three thullals. Even the stance and posture of the performer is different from that of the two thullals. In this, the dancer stays erect and explains the meaning of the songs by gestures. There is very little dance element as well as action.

The dancer wears a conical crown that is topped with the hood of a serpent. The eyes are boldly coutlined in black to heighten their expression and the body is anointed with sandal paste. The legs are covered with a red cloth over which is tied a white cloth that falls down to the knees. Necklaces and ankle-bells, as in the case of Seethankan, complete the outfit.

Ottan Thullal

This is the most popular among the Thullals. In this performance, the actor wears a long tape of cloth of white and red colour looped around a waist – string to form a knee – length skirt. A chest plate adorned by various types of coloured beads, glass and tinsel, and other ornaments are used. Wooden bangles painted with bright colours are worn on the wrist and wooden ornaments are worn on the shoulders. Tinkling bells are tied to the legs just above the calf. A black cloth is tied round the head and over this is worn a very decorative crown representing a many- headed serpent. The real distinguishing feature of Ottan Thullal is the painting of the face. This is done as in the paccha type Kathakali make-up, and accentuated with a bold white line running around it. The lips are reddened, the eyes and eyebrows thickly blackened, and a caste mark is added to the centre of the brow. The metre and rhythm of Ottan thullal songs are fastpaced and the dance too has a high tempo.

In a presentation, the Thullal dancers abides by a set sequence of preliminaries before beginning the actual performance. These carry names such as Mannarang, Ganapathi, Pallivattam and Bhoopathi and are all items of decorative dance with a lot of footwork and no symbolic meaning to convey. The steps and movemnts are unique to each piece. The purpose is similar to the Todayam of Kathakali, but unlike the latter, singing is absent. The opening, Mannarang, is danced with the performer’s back to the audience, and it is only after completing this that he faces them. After this he begins the dance, prefaced with a Shloka from the scriptures. Another Shloka is offered at the conclusion of the performance.

The style of singing in Thullal follows the raga and tala prescribed by Kunjan Nambiaar. Though distinctive, employ Chaste Carnatic ragas. These include common ones like the Bilaahari, Shankaraabharanam Kaambhoji, Naattakurunji, Mohanam, Aanandabhairavi and Punnagavaraali, and also some rare and practically defunct modes like the Indisa and Indolam. The thaala, or rhythmic component, too, is varied and on occasions a single presentation may utilize a garland or medley of thaalams. All this indicates Kunjan Nambiar’s great facility and familiarity with the intricacies of music.

Being an art of commucation, Thullal too, makes use of the gesture –language. Hand gestures are employed to support facial expression, and though these follow the traditions of Koodiyaattam and Kathakali, they appear in a very elementary and sketchy manner. As in all of Kerala’s evolved theatre forms, these are taken from the Harsha Lakshanadeepika. It is however vaachika or the word – spoken or sung -that permeates Thullal.

After Kunjan Nambiaar, thullal poetry was attempted by some other poets and today there are over 100 pieces in the tradition. Inspite of this, no more than ten thullals, all of them by Kunjan Nambiar, can be said to have stood the test of time by continuing to be favourites with performers and audiences alike.