Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis WILLIAM D. EHMANN Professor, Department of Chemistry University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky DIANE E. VANCE Staff Development Scientist Analytical Services Organization Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant Oak Ridge, Tennessee A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York / Chichester / Brisbane / Toronto / Singapore
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Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis...Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis WILLIAM D. EHMANN Professor, Department of Chemistry University of Kentucky Lexington,
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Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis
WILLIAM D. EHMANN
Professor, Department of Chemistry University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky
DIANE E. VANCE
Staff Development Scientist Analytical Services Organization
Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant Oak Ridge, Tennessee
A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
New York / Chichester / Brisbane / Toronto / Singapore
*.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIOCHEMISTRY 1
1.1. The Discovery of Radioactivity and Evolution of Nuclear Theory 1
1.2. Forces in Matter and the Subatomic Particles 20 1.2.1. Forces in Nature 20 1.2.2. The Subatomic Particles 21
1.3. Nuclides and Natural Decay Chains 22 1.3.1. Nuclides and Symbols 23 1.3.2. Classification of Nuclides 23 1.3.3. Chart of the Nuclides 25 1.3.4. Natural Decay Chains 28 1.3.5. An Extinct Natural Decay Chain 31
CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 35
2.1. Alpha-Particle Decay 36 2.2. Beta Decay 41
2.2.1. Negatron Decay 41 2.2.2. Positron Decay 43 2.2.3. Electron Capture (EC or e) 45
2.3. Gamma Decay 46 2.3.1. Pure Gamma-Ray Emission 48 2.3.2. Internal Conversion (IC) 48 2.3.3. Pair Production (PP) 49
2.4. Branching Decays and Decay Schemes 50 2.5. Less Common Decay Modes 50
CHAPTER 3 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY AND MASS-ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS 57
3.1. Description of the Nucleus 57 3.2. Nuclear Properties 61
3.2.1. Angular Momentum and Nuclear Spin 61 3.2.2. Magnetic Moment (/A) 61 3.2.3. Parity and Symmetry 62
3.3. Models of Nuclear Structure 62 3.3.1. Shell Model (Single Particle Model) 63 3.3.2. Fermi Gas Model 65 3.3.3. Liquid Drop Model 66 3.3.4. Optical Model (Cloudy Crystal Ball Model) 67 3.3.5. Collective Model 67
3.4. Mass-Energy Relationships 67 3.4.1. Mass-Energy Equivalence 68 3.4.2. Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions 69 3.4.3. Energy Changes in Radioactive Decay 74 3.4.4. Closed-Cycle Decay for Mass-Energy Calculations 75 3.4.5. Semiempirical Binding Energy Equation 76 3.4.6. Nuclear Energy Surface Diagrams 78
CHAPTER 4 NUCLEAR REACTIONS 85
4.1. Types of Nuclear Reactions 85 4.1.1. Scattering Reactions 85 4.1.2. Other Reactions 86
10.1. General Aspects of Radiotracer Use 313 10.1.1. Assumptions Made in Tracer Studies 313 10.1.2. Factors in the Choice of a Radiotracer 314 10.1.3. Production of Radiotracers 315 10.1.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiotracer Use 316
10.2. Isotope Dilution Analysis 318 10.2.1. Theory and Calculations for DIDA 318 10.2.2. Applications of IDA 319 10.2.3. Variations of IDA 321
10.3. Tracers in the Study of Chemical Processes 323 10.3.1. Equilibrium Processes 323 10.3.2. Analytical Applications 325 10.3.3. Studies of Reaction Mechanisms 327
10.4. Other Applications of Radiotracers and Radionuclides 327 10.5. Nuclear Medicine and Pharmacy 331
10.5.1. General Aspects of Radiopharmaceutical Use 331 10.5.2. Nuclear Properties of Indicator Nuclides 332 10.5.3. In Vivo Diagnostic Procedures 338 10.5.4. In Vitro Diagnostic Testing: Radioimmunoassay 340 10.5.5. Therapeutic Uses of Radiation 342
CHAPTER 11 ION BEAM ANALYSIS AND CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY 347
11.1 Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission 347 11.1.1. Overview of the PIXE Process 348 11.1.2. Projectile Acceleration and Target Preparation 348 11.1.3. Ionization and X-Ray Emission 351 11.1.4. Detection and Analysis of X Rays 351 11.1.5. Applications of PIXE 353 11.1.6. PIXE Variations 354
11.2. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 355 11.2.1. The Scattering Reaction 356 11.2.2. Surface Analysis Using RBS 357 11.2.3. Depth Profiling Using RBS 359 11.2.4. Channeling Effects 362 11.2.5. Applications of RBS 363