1 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES IN OECD/NEA MEMBER COUNTRIES JAPAN [2010] NATIONAL NUCLEAR ENERGY CONTEXT Commercial utilisation of nuclear power in Japan started in 1966 and by 2009 there were 53 nuclear power units connected to the electricity grid. In FY2007 a total of 264 TWh of electricity, 25.6% of the total production, was generated using nuclear power. A series of light water reactors (LWRs), both pressurised water reactors (PWRs) and boiling water reactors (BWRs) have been constructed by ten electricity companies. The fast breeder reactor (FBR) have been developed by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA). A gas-cooled nuclear power plant at Tokai power station, operated by the Japan Atomic Power Company (JAPC), was shut down in March 1998, and a JAEA developed heavy water moderated, light water-cooled reactor (ATR) was shut down in 2003 and two BWRs (Hamaoka 1 and 2) were closed in 2009 for decommissioning. At the end of FY2009, 23 PWRs and 30 BWRs were in operation, with a combined electricity generating capacity of about 48 GWe. The research and development of nuclear fuel cycle technology has been performed mainly by JAEA. 27.4 Gas 25.3 Coal 11.8 Oil 25.6 Nuclear 2.3 Other 7.6 Hydro Breakdown of electricity sources (in %)
16
Embed
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT … profile 2010...1 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES IN OECD/NEA MEMBER COUNTRIES JAPAN [2010] NATIONAL NUCLEAR ENERGY CONTEXT Commercial utilisation
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES IN OECD/NEA MEMBER
COUNTRIES
JAPAN
[2010]
NATIONAL NUCLEAR ENERGY CONTEXT
Commercial utilisation of nuclear power in Japan started in 1966 and by 2009 there were 53 nuclear
power units connected to the electricity grid. In FY2007 a total of 264 TWh of electricity, 25.6% of the
total production, was generated using nuclear power.
A series of light water reactors (LWRs), both pressurised water reactors (PWRs) and boiling water
reactors (BWRs) have been constructed by ten electricity companies. The fast breeder reactor (FBR) have
been developed by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA). A gas-cooled nuclear power plant at Tokai
power station, operated by the Japan Atomic Power Company (JAPC), was shut down in March 1998, and
a JAEA developed heavy water moderated, light water-cooled reactor (ATR) was shut down in 2003 and
two BWRs (Hamaoka 1 and 2) were closed in 2009 for decommissioning. At the end of FY2009, 23 PWRs
and 30 BWRs were in operation, with a combined electricity generating capacity of about 48 GWe. The
research and development of nuclear fuel cycle technology has been performed mainly by JAEA.
27.4
Gas
25.3
Coal11.8
Oil
25.6
Nuclear
2.3
Other
7.6
Hydro
Breakdown of electricity sources (in %)
2
SOURCES, TYPES AND QUANTITIES OF WASTE
Radioactive waste in Japan is classified into two main categories according to its level of activity,
namely high-level waste (HLW) and low-level waste (LLW). Depending upon its origin, the LLW is
further sub-classified into waste from power reactors, waste containing transuranic radionuclides (TRU),
uranium waste and radioactive waste from radioisotope use, nuclear research and other related facilities (hereinafter referred to as “Waste from Research Facilities, etc.”). An additional category of very low-level
waste (VLLW) from reactor sites is also recognised.
The Reactor Regulation Law provides for the setting of upper limits on the concentrations of
radionuclides in waste authorised for disposal from reactor facilities. These upper limits have been
formulated on the basis of a report published by the Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan (NSC) and are
used in the preparation of licence applications.
At the other end of the activity scale, the NSC is discussing “clearance levels” for radioactive waste.
These are radionuclide concentrations below which waste may be released from radiological control, on
the basis of a concept set out by the Japan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC). Clearance levels have
already been published for waste from light water reactors, gas-cooled reactors, heavy water reactors, fast
breeder reactors and fuel-cycle facilities, together with details of methods for their certification. The
Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan (NSC) published the report on clearance level of the metal generated
from dismantling of the uranium facilities on 6 October, 2009.
High-level radioactive waste (HLW)
HLW includes the highly active liquid that arise from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels, and the
solid glass waste form produced by the vitrification of these liquids. It contains substantial quantities of
both fission products and actinides.
Low-level radioactive waste (LLW)
This is the general category of radioactive waste, other than HLW, which arises from various facilities
and is sub-classified in some cases according to its origin.
Very low-level radioactive waste (VLLW)
VLLW is waste with a very low level of activity that is suitable for shallow ground disposal without
the need for waste encapsulation or engineered structures.
Transuranic waste (TRU)
This is low-level radioactive waste arising from spent fuel reprocessing and mixed-oxide fuel
fabrication that contains radionuclides of atomic number larger than uranium (e.g. neptunium plutonium,
americium, etc.).
Waste from uranium fabrication facilities
This is the waste that arises from uranium fuel fabrication facilities, uranium enrichment facilities and
other similar facilities. It contains the very long-lived uranium together with the products of its radioactive
decay. Much of this waste comprises VLLW.
3
Waste from Research Facilities, etc.
This waste is LLW that arises specifically from research institutes and other facilities that use
radioisotopes such as hospitals and industrial facilities. The amounts of radioactive wastes in storage in
Japan in 2009 are shown in the table below, together with some information about disposals of LLW and
VLLW and clearance of waste arising from decommissioning of nuclear facilities.
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
Waste management policies
In Japan, the disposal of LLW from nuclear reactors has taken place since 1992. In regard to disposal
of the high-level vitrified radioactive waste from reprocessing of spent fuel, a Specified Radioactive Waste
Final Disposal Act came into force in June 2000, defining the procedure for disposal-site selection, the
nature of the implementing entity involved and the arrangements for accumulation of the necessary funds.
Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE), Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
amended the Specified Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act in June 2007. According to this amendment,
TRU wastes from reprocessing that need to be geologically disposed of and high level radioactive wastes
that are returned from overseas reprocessing plants in exchange for TRU wastes were added to the wastes
to be finally disposed of by the Nuclear Waste Management Organization of Japan, and generators of such
radioactive wastes were legally requested to provide the cost needed for final disposal.
For establishing a sound basis on which a sufficient level of public confidence will be built, it is
essential for the technical community to be duly confident in the engineering feasibility as well as in the
long-term safety of geological disposal system. This can be accomplished by conducting well designed and
quality controlled R&D activities and the integration of results thereof into a form of collective confidence
of a technical community as a whole.
With a substantial amount of experiences and expertise in this field, the JAEA’s Geological Isolation Research
& Development Directorate (GIRDD), continues to bear the responsibility for R&D activities aimed to
enhance the reliability of repository technology and to establish safety-assessment methodology and a
relevant database. Among these, the demonstration of a site-characterization methodology from the ground
surface in two ongoing URL projects (at Mizunami and Horonobe) is essential for supporting NUMO’s
programme as well as for establishing relevant regulatory infrastructure at an early stage. Basic studies and
experiments to be conducted in experimental facilities ENTRY, QUALITY and NUCEF will contribute to
better understanding of the observed phenomena in two URLs.
Apart from JAEA/GIRDD there are other organizations such as RWMC, Central Research Institute
of the Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology (AIST) and NIRS which are also promoting R&D to support government policy-making,
formulation of regulations and implementation of the HLW disposal programme. In July 2005, a
"Coordination Executive" was established to maximize the output from these R&D organizations,
including JAEA/GIRDD. The Executive is comprised of senior members of R&D organizations and is
chaired by ANRE of METI. The regulator and its associated R&D organizations and NUMO have been
participating in it as observers. From April 2009, NUMO has become a member of the Executive more
actively to take a lead of the national R&D programme.
Research infrastructure by Regulation Side
Infrastructure for regulatory research is independently constructed under Nuclear and Industrial
Safety Agency (NISA). NISA promotes regulatory support research in cooperation with Japan Nuclear
Energy Safety Organization (JNES), Nuclear Safety Research Center (NSRC) of JAEA and the Research
Core for Deep Geological Environments (RCDGE) of AIST.
In the field of geological disposal, JNES, JAEA and AIST concluded “the agreement concerning
the safety of radioactive waste in geological disposal” and are promoting joint research, human resource
exchange, sharing of the data in this field.
R&D on HLW disposal
Research and development for Implementation
In regard to implementation of R&D on HLW disposal, JAEC has specified the overall framework in
the Long-Term Programme issued in November 2000.
NUMO is responsible for conducting R&D focused on the safe implementation of disposal with the
best available technology, taking economic and practical aspects into consideration. The Government and
other relevant organisations carry out R&D in support of the safety regulation framework and on other
fundamental issues related to safety assessment. These include geoscientific studies and repository
technology development aimed at increasing confidence in the concept. In this context, JAEA/GIRDD is
required to ensure further the reliability of repository technology and to establish safety assessment
methodology based upon previous experience and technical achievements. This work will be carried out by
the research projects on crystalline and sedimentary rocks at the Underground Research Laboratories (URL)
in Mizunami and Horonobe respectively, and on the work at the ENTRY and QUALITY facilities in Tokai.
8
Surface-based investigation of a site at the Mizunami URL has been in progress since 1996.
Mizunami City has proposed transferring the work to a municipally-owned area, and an agreement for use
of this area between the city and JAEA/GIRDD was signed in January 2002. Shaft sinking was to start in
2003. The Horonobe URL project was approved by the agreement between the local Governments and
JAEA/GIRDD in November 2000. A JAEA/GIRDD office was opened in Horonobe in April 2001 and a
surface-based investigation started. JAEA/GIRDD selected the site for constructing an underground
facility in the region of Horonobe town in July 2002. Shaft sinking will begin in 2005. At the end of
December 2009, the excavation progressed to a depth of 420 m at Mizunami, and 250 m at Horonobe.
Research for Regulation
Regulatory bodies, the NSC and NISA, have introduced research programmes for nuclear safety,
independent from the Coordination Executive’s comprehensive R&D programme. The regulatory bodies’
research programmes cover low- to high-level radioactive wastes and decommissioning of nuclear
facilities.
Nuclear Research Programmes Important to Safety
The NSC published their report "Nuclear Research Programmes Important to Safety" in July 2004.
NSC developed the safety research strategy and identified important research topics to be conducted
intensively in five years starting 2005; waste disposal research topics include those to develop site
characterization methodology, to establish the fundamental concept of safety assessment, and to develop
safety assessment methodology and understand underlying science; decommissioning research topics
include those for inventory estimation, to develop safety assessment for workers and the public during
dismantling, and establish fundamental concept for site closure.
Regulatory Support Research Plan
Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) of METI, also promotes regulatory support research. NISA,
based on its regulatory needs, funds regulatory research implemented aiming at establishing safety criteria,
and maintaining and developing the safety regulatory infrastructure.
NISA has intensively discussed regulatory research and its implementation structure in Radioactive
Waste Safety Subcommittee since October 2008, and issued "Regulatory Support Research Plan on
Radioactive Waste Management (2010-2014)" in October 2009.
The main contents of "Regulatory Support Research Plan on Radioactive Waste Management (2010-
2014)" are research to support a technical review for the results of stepwise site investigations (the
preliminary investigations and the detailed investigations), research to establish fundamental requirements
including safety design and basic concept of safety assessment, and to support a technical judgment for
licensing application, draft of “Regulatory Research Report on Geological Disposal” and transmission of it
in international communities such as IAEA and OECD/NEA, establishment of the quality assurance
system on data available for safety regulation and so on.
“The Regulatory Research Report on Geological Disposal” represents the regulatory status for
geological disposal, and will be published in accordance with the progress of disposal implementation. The
report is also expected to make communications between the regulatory body and the implementer
transparent, and gain the public understanding on safety regulation of geological disposal.
9
DECOMMISSIONING AND DISMANTLING POLICIES AND PROJECTS
Several nuclear research facilities have already been decommissioned, or are in the stage of planning
for final shutdown and decommissioning. So far, the nuclear-powered ship “Mutsu” and the Japan Power
Demonstration Reactor (JPDR) have been decommissioned by JAEA. The JAEA Reprocessing Test
Facility (JRTF) and the Japan Research Reactor No. 2 (JRR-2) decommissioning programmes and “Fugen”
plant decommissioning programmes (http://www.jaea.go.jp/04/fugen/jhaishi_e/index.html) are the current
major decommissioning projects in JAEA. For Example, the Fugen nuclear power station, a prototype of
the advanced thermal reactor operated by JAEA, was shut down in March 2003. The decommissioning
plan of Fugen was approved in February 2008 and the decommissioning activities started.
The Tokai power station, which is the oldest commercial gas-cooled nuclear power plant of the Japan
Atomic Power Company (JAPC), was finally shut down in March 1998. This will be the first example of
commercial nuclear power plant decommissioning in Japan. The decommissioning notification was
submitted in 2001 by the previous regulation system and the decommissioning plan was approved based on
the present system in June 2006. Dismantling process is now underway.
Hamaoka Unit 1 and 2, which are BWRs of CHUBU Electric Power Co.,lnc, ended the operation in
January 2009 because of economical reason. The decommissioning plan was submitted in June 2009 and
was admitted by NISA in November 2009.
Regulatory Support Research Plan
In NISA, regulatory research for decommissioning has also been planned by Decommissioning
Safety Subcommittee since February 2009, and "Regulatory Support Research Plan on Decommissioning
(2010-2014)" was issued in November 2009.The main contents of "Regulatory Support Research Plan on
Decommissioning (2010-2014)" are research for decommissioning programme of nuclear cycle facilities,
research for termination of decommissioning, research for appropriate control of decommissioning waste
and so on.
TRANSPORT
Regulations for the transport of nuclear materials on land are based on the Law for the Regulation of
Nuclear Source Material, Nuclear Fuel Material and Nuclear Reactors. They are administered by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), METI, the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) and the Prefectural Public Safety Commission (PPSC). The
MLIT and the Japan Coast Guard govern transport by sea under the Ship Safety Law, and the MLIT
governs transport by air under the Civil Aviation Act.
The technical standards for nuclear fuel transport are stipulated in ministerial ordinances and
notifications based on the Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material recommended by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (Safety Requirements No.TS-R-1).
10
Under these regulations, confirmation of safety is required before shipping of packages containing 0.1
kg or more of uranium hexaflouride, fissile material packages or so-called type B packages. This
confirmation is divided into three phases:
design approval for nuclear fuel packages;
approval and registration of packaging;
shipment confirmation for packages and for the method of transport.
COMPETENT AUTHORITIES
The main government organisations responsible for nuclear safety regulation, including radioactive
waste management, are METI/NISA, METI/ANRE, MEXT, and MLIT. They answer to the cabinet, which
is advised by the NSC. These ministries and the NSC are supported by various specialist divisions and
committees.
In accordance with the Specified Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act, the NUMO was established
in 2000 as the organisation responsible for implementing HLW disposal. It was set up by the private sector
and was approved by the Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry.
NUMO is responsible for implementation of final geological disposal of HLW and TRU, and for
collection of the fees necessary to fund its disposal activities.
The act further specifies that METI shall evaluate the NUMO work plan in order to ensure that it has
sufficient technical, financial and human resources to carry out its responsibilities.
METI/ANRE, together with a HLW disposal technical consultants group organised under the
Advisory Committee for Energy, will also investigate whether the process for disposal facility siting is
scientifically appropriate.
Concerning the disposal of Waste from Research Facilities, etc., MEXT amended the Law for the
Incorporated Administrative Agency, JAEA and designated JAEA as the implementation entity of the
disposal of the waste in May 2008.
11
The key organizations for nuclear safety regulation are as follows: CAO/NSC
Planning, deliberation and decisions on the basic principles related to nuclear safety regulation Establishment of safety standards Review of the results of the safety examination by regulatory bodies (so-called “double check” )
METI / NISA
Regulation of the use of nuclear materials for energy utilization
MEXT Regulation of scientific use of nuclear materials, use of radio-isotopes, radiation generating
apparatuses
MLIT Regulation of maritime transportation of nuclear materials
12
Governmental Organizations Related to Nuclear Safety Regulation
The main organisations and resources for radioactive waste regulation are as follows:
Subsequent Regulation Review Division (CAO/NSC)
Investigation and examination concerning basic principles of regulation of radioactive waste
management
Establishment of safety standards of radioactive waste management
Review of the safety examinations of radioactive waste management facilities by regulatory
bodies
Radioactive Waste Regulation Division (METI/NISA)
Drafting of regulatory laws and provisions
Regulation of radioactive waste disposal facilities and storage facilities
Regulation of off-site radioactive waste management
Regulation of decommissioning of nuclear facilities
a. Radioactive Waste Safety Subcommittee, Nuclear and Industrial Safety Subcommittee, Advisory
Committee for Natural Resources and Energy (METI)
Investigation into safety policy concerning radioactive waste disposal and storage
b. Decommissioning Safety Subcommittee, Nuclear and Industrial Safety Subcommittee, Advisory
Committee for Natural Resources and Energy (METI)
Investigation into safety policy concerning Decommissioning of nuclear installations
Nuclear Safety Division, Science and Technology Policy Bureau (MEXT)
Regulation of management of radioactive waste originating from scientific use of nuclear
materials, use of radio-isotopes and radiation-generating apparatuses and decommissioning of
research & test reactors
Technology and Safety Division, Policy Bureau (MLIT)
Regulation of the maritime transportation of radioactive waste
JNES, JAEA/NSRC and AIST/RCDGE
Implementing regulatory support research for NISA
Cabinet Office (CAO)
Cabinet Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan (NSC)
(Advisory Committee to Prime Minister)
Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)
13
Governmental Organizations Related to Radioactive Waste Regulation
(Number shows persons of the organization in total)
Special Committee on Radioactive Waste Disposal Safety and Decommissioning Safety
Special Advisory Board on High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Safety
Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan (NSC) (5 commissioners)
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
Japan Nuclear Energy Safety Organization
(JNES) (ca. 460)
Radioactive Waste Safety Subcommittee
Advisory Committee for Natural Resources and Energy (Advisory Committee to Minister of Economy,
Trade and Industry)
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
Nuclear Safety Division (ca. 100)
Science and Technology Policy Bureau
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)
Technology and Safety Division
Policy Bureau
Radioactive Waste Regulation Division
Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) (ca. 350 for nuclear)
Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
(ca.4200)
Subsequent Regulation Review Division
National Institute of Advanced Science and
Technology (AIST) (ca. 3100 /total)
Secretariat (ca.100)
Research Core for Deep Geological Environments
(RCDGE)
Radioactive Waste Management and Transport Safety Division
Nuclear Safety Research Center
(NSRC)
Decommissioning Safety Subcommittee
Nuclear and Industrial Safety Subcommittee
14
FINANCING
Financing system for HLW disposal
In accordance with the Specific Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act enacted in May 2000, operators
of power reactor facilities deposit funds for disposal of high level radioactive waste to NUMO, the
implementing body for disposal, who entrusts management of the fund to RWMC ANRE of METI, every
year, notifies utilities of the amount of money to be deposited to the fund. 0.2 yen/kWh is charged as a fee
for the HLW and TRU waste management operation. The amount of deposit per vitrified package was
40,413,000 yen in the year of 2007. The amount of money for construction of depository and disposal of
about 40,000 vitrified packages of high level waste is estimated about 3 trillion yen. The amount of the
money deposited to the Radioactive Waste Management Funding and Research Center at the end of March
2007 was about 500 billion yen.
Financing system for disposal of Waste from Research Facilities, etc.
As for disposal of Waste from Research Facilities, etc., a generator of waste must pay for the disposal
under the principle of generators’ responsibility, as set forth in the Framework for Nuclear Energy Policy.
The largest generator of the waste, JAEA started funding for disposal basing on the amendment of The
Law for the Incorporated Administrative Agency, JAEA in May 2008. The amount of budget plan for
fiscal year 2008 is about 4.3 billion yen.
Funding for decommissioning
For the financial base of the decommissioning of nuclear installations, METI stipulated the
Ministerial Order established under the Electricity Utilities Industry Law on the reserves for
decommissioning of nuclear power generation facilities. Based on the Ministerial Order, Electric Utilities
internally reserved the money for the decommissioning as the expense of dismantling and removal of
commercial power reactor facilities, and as the expense of the processing and disposal of the waste from
decommissioning. The amount of reserve by the end of March 2007 is about 1,200 billion yen by 10
electric utilities.
Financial basis of a license holder of nuclear fuel material use is to be confirmed through procedures
to approve the Operational Safety Programme and the steps to be taken at the time of decommissioning.
15
PUBLIC INFORMATION
For more information, the websites of the relevant authorities and organizations are listed below: