APPROVED: John M. Ruiz, Major Professor Kimberly Kelly, Committee Member Joshua N. Hook, Committee Member Vicki Campbell, Chair of the Department of Psychology Mark Wardell, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate School RACIAL/ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN HOSPITAL UTILIZATION FOR CARDIOVASCULAR- RELATED EVENTS: EVIDENCE OF A SURVIVAL AND RECOVERY ADVANTAGE FOR LATINOS? James J. García Thesis Prepared for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS May 2014
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APPROVED: John M. Ruiz, Major Professor Kimberly Kelly, Committee Member Joshua N. Hook, Committee Member Vicki Campbell, Chair of the Department of
Psychology Mark Wardell, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate
School
RACIAL/ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN HOSPITAL UTILIZATION FOR CARDIOVASCULAR-
RELATED EVENTS: EVIDENCE OF A SURVIVAL AND
RECOVERY ADVANTAGE FOR LATINOS?
James J. García
Thesis Prepared for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS
May 2014
García, James J. Racial/ethnic differences in hospital utilization for cardiovascular-
related events: Evidence of a survival and recovery advantage for Latinos? Master of Science
Evidence continues to demonstrate that racial/ethnic minority groups experience a
disproportionate burden of disease and mortality in cardiovascular-related diseases (CVDs).
However, emerging evidence suggests a health advantage for Latinos despite a high risk profile.
The current study explored the hospital utilization trends of Latino and non-Latino patients and
examined the possibility of an advantage for Latinos within the context of CVD-related events
with retrospective data collected over a 12-month period from a local safety-net hospital.
Contrary to my hypotheses, there was no advantage for in-hospital mortality, length of stay or re-
admission in Latinos compared to non-Latinos; rather, Latinos hospitalized for a CVD-related
event had a significantly longer length of stay and had greater odds for re-admission when
compared to non-Latinos. Despite data suggesting a general health advantage, Latinos may
experience a relative disparity within the context of hospital utilization for CVD-related events.
Findings have implications for understanding the hospital utilization trends of Latinos following
a CVD-related event and suggest a call for action to advance understanding of Latino
cardiovascular health.
Copyright 2014
by
James J. García
ii
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I’d like to thank my sister (Julissa), my parents (Blanca & Amado) and the rest of
my siblings (Angel, Carmen & Alex), whose emotional, spiritual and social support helped me
reach this point in my career. Second, I want to thank my advisor (Dr. Ruiz) for his continued
academic support in my academic journey. Lastly, I’d like to thank the patients from Parkland
Hospital and Health Systems, who participated, formed and made this study possible.
Primero, agradesco a mi hermana (Julissa), mis padres (Blanca y Amado), y mis
hermanas/o (Angel, Carmen, y Alex), cuyo apoyo emocional, espiritual, y social, me ayudó a
llegar a este punto en mi carrera. También agradesco el apoyo de mi tutor (Dr. Ruiz) por su
ayuda en mi camino académico. Por último, agradesco a los pacientes de Parkland Health and
Hospital System que formaron, participaron, e hicieron esta investigación posible.
“Simple solutions to complex problems are dangerous. Complexity is your friend.” (“Soluciones simples a problemas complejos son peligrosas. La complejidad es tu
amigo.”)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ............................................................................... vi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
8.1. Demographic Characteristics By Race/Ethnicity.............................................................. 50
8.2. Binary Hierarchical Logistic Regression for In-Hospital Mortality at First Admission with Age as a Covariate .................................................................................................... 51
8.3. Binary Hierarchical Logistic Regression for In-Hospital Mortality across the 12-Month Study Period with Age as a Covariate .............................................................................. 51
8.4. Analysis of Covariance for Initial and 12-Month Length Of Stay (LOS) with Post-Hoc Comparisons ..................................................................................................................... 52
8.5. Binary Hierarchical Logistic Regression for Re-Admission across the 12-Month Study Period with Age as Covariate ........................................................................................... 52
Figures
8.1. Percentage of deaths from overall CVD as reported by the Vital Statistics of the National Center for Health Statistics in 2008 (National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, 2012).... 49
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Although there are improvements in overall health and longevity for most of the U.S.
population, evidence continues to demonstrate that racial/ethnic minority groups experience a
disproportional burden of disease and mortality in cardiovascular D\diseases (CVDs). This has
contributed to a national call to reduce and eliminate health disparities as part of the national
health agenda and legislation of Healthy People 2010 (US Department of Health and Human
Services [DHHS], 2000) and the Affordable Care Act (ACA; DHHS, 2010).
1.2 Racial/Ethnic Health Disparities
Despite the robust data supporting a disproportionate burden of disease and mortality
among racial/ethnic minorities, there are important exceptions. For example, Latinos in the U.S.
live longer than their non-Hispanic Latino counterparts despite a lower socialeconomic status
profile; a phenomenon coined the Latino mortality paradox (Franzini, 2001; Markides &
Eschbach, 2011). This mortality advantage is evident in all-cause and disease-specific mortality.
For example, a recent meta-analysis documented a 25% mortality advantage for Latinos relative
to non-Latinos in the context of CVDs (Ruiz, Smith, & Steffen, 2013). These findings do not
indicate reduced likelihood of health disparities in Latinos, but instead suggest that the disease
course and longevity trends of minorities may not be as generalizable as is sometimes believed.
With respect to Latinos, the reduced mortality risk of CVDs may reflect a number of possibilities
including a survival and recovery advantage following hospitalization for an acute cardiac event,
such as a heart attack. However, there is little published data on this possibility.
2
1.3 Current Study Hypotheses
The current study aims to compare Latinos and non-Latino differences in survival and
recovery following hospital admission for an acute cardiac event. I plan to examine
retrospective data, collected over a 12-month period, from a local safety-net hospital. The
sample of interest will be adults from 3 major racial/ethnic groups (non-Hispanic White, non-
Hispanic black, and Latino) who have a primary admission code (ICD-9-CM) for CVD-related
events. I hypothesize that Latinos admitted for a cardiac issue will: 1) experience lower odds of
in-hospital mortality, 2) lower lengths of stay during the initial hospitalization and aggregated
over the 12-month study period, and 3) have lower odds of re-admissions over that time
compared to non-Latinos. The implications of this work include: 1) comparative evidence for
racial/ethnic differences in CVD-related hospitalization use, 2) replicating and extending the
conceptualization of a recovery and a survival advantage to disease-specific acute clinical events
(i.e., cardiac-related events) for Latinos and 3) enhancing the Latinos mortality paradox literature
by providing evidence for a recovery and survival advantage for Latinos within the context of
CVD-related diseases.
3
CHAPTER 2
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
2.1 Description of Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a collection of medical conditions that affect the
heart and circulatory systems, account for 30% of deaths globally, and are projected to result in
mortality for 23.3 million people worldwide by 2030 (Mathers & Loncar, 2006). Prevalence
rates suggest 82 million people in the United States (U.S.) have a cardiovascular-related disease
(National Heart Lung and Blood Institute [NHLBI], 2012). Incidence cases estimate over one
million new occurrences of heart attacks, 795,000 stroke-related events, and 670,000 cases of
heart failure among the U.S. population (NHLBI, 2012). In 2009, the age-adjusted mortality
from CVDs was estimated at 237.1 per 100,000 people in the U.S, which decreased 6% from
2007 (NHLBI, 2012); a finding in line with the impact goals of the American Heart Association
(AHA) to reduce cardiovascular-related mortality to 20% by the year 2020 (Lloyd-Jones et al.,
2010). Given the pervasiveness of CVDs as the leading cause of death in the U.S. (Heron,
2012), examining these diseases becomes important in order to the address and improve the
cardiovascular health of the U.S. nation.
2.2 Classification of CVDs
There are a variety of diseases covered under the term cardiovascular diseases. For
example, overall (total) CVD is an umbrella term typically used to capture all diseases of the
circulatory system according to the ninth edition of the International Classification of Diseases
Ninth Edition (ICD-9) which contains codes 390-459 (NCHS, 2002) and is adopted by the
American Heart Association (AHA). Alternatively, the term disease of the heart denotes specific
years). Regarding diagnoses at admission, the subsample contained a variety of CVD-related
events, ranging from diseases of the tricuspid valve, acute myocardial infarction, to unspecified
hypotension.
6.5 Independent and Outcome Variables
The primary independent variable was dummy coded to reflect combined ethnicity and
race. Ethnicity was assessed with the item: “Are you of Hispanic or Latino origin or descent”
(Office of Management and Budget, 1997). Moreover, race was self-reported by the patient
from a standard list that included Black, White, and Asian. For the purposes of the current study,
we focused on three specific groups: non-Hispanic Whites, non-Hispanic Blacks, and Latinos.
There were three primary hospital utilization outcomes of interest in the current investigation.
First, we examined CVD-related in-hospital mortality during initial 2008 hospitalization as well
as over the course of the study period. Second, we examined differences in the length of stay
(LOS) of CVD-related conditions at first admission and differences in total LOS during the study
period. In order to estimate LOS, we subtracted the admission date from the discharge date to
obtain a LOS interval. Lastly, we examined differences in CVD-related re-admission statistics,
including time (days) to first admission and total re-admissions during the study period.
6.6 Statistical Analyses
Two separate one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for age, were used
to examine racial/ethnic differences in LOS during initial 2008 hospitalization and aggregated
LOS across the 12 month study period. Three separate hierarchical logistic regression analyses
were used to examine racial/ethnic differences in dichotomized mortality and re-admission
40
variables, controlling for age. The first two hierarchical logistic regression analyses focused on
examining the risk of in-hospital mortality at admission and at the end of the study period,
whereas the third logistic regression analysis focused on the risk of re-admission as a function of
race/ethnicity. The control covariate, (i.e., age), was entered in the first step of the all the
regression analyses, followed by the three level race/ethnicity variable (NH White, NH Black,
Latino) in the second step. Categorical variables were coded using Latino ethnicity as the
reference group of greatest interest. Latinos were used as the reference group, as it is
hypothesized they have better cardiac-related outcomes compared to non-Hispanic Whites and
Blacks. This is in line with the methodological recommendations proposed by the National
Center for Health Statistics for researchers who examine health disparities (Keppel, et al., 2005).
41
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS
There were a total of 2,272 CVD-related admissions to PHHS. Heart Failure (14%),
occlusion of the cerebral arteries (11%), acute myocardial infarction (6%), unspecified essential
hypertension (6%), and intermediate coronary syndrome (5%) comprised the top five CVD-
related conditions (ICD-9 coded) for patients at initial admission in the study period.
7.1 Initial In-Hospital Mortality
Hypothesis 1: Latinos admitted for a cardiac issue would experience lower rates of in-
hospital mortality during the initial hospitalization and aggregated over the 12-month study
period.
To test this hypothesis I used a hierarchical binary logistic regression analysis, with
Latinos as the reference group. For the current sample, approximately two percent of the sample
died at first admission to PHHS (see Table 1 for a racial/ethnic breakdown). In block one, the
covariate age was entered in order to control for the effect of age on in-hospital mortality. Block
two contained the race/ethnicities non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black, dummy coded.
Concerning block one, a chi square goodness-of-fit test demonstrated that age reliably
distinguished those who died versus those who survived, χ2 (2, 2272) = 23.24, p < .001. For
patients in this CVD-related subsample, every one year increase in age significantly increased
the odds of in-hospital mortality by three percent, (OR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.03-1.05, Wald (1) =
22.67, p < .001, Nagelkerke R2= 0.05). Compared to Latinos, non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks
had lower odds of in-hospital mortality during the initial 2008 hospitalization (OR = 0.85, 95%
CI: 0.33-1.23; OR = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.43-1.65, respectively), though these effects were not
42
statistically significant (WaldNHW (1) = .244, p = .621 and WaldNHB (1) = 1.816, p = .178,
Nagelkerke R2 = 0.03, see Table 2). Thus, results suggest no significant advantage for Latinos in
odds of in-hospital mortality at first admission.
7.2 Twelve Month In-Hospital Mortality
To test for a 12-month in-hospital mortality advantage, I used a hierarchical logistic
regression. Descriptive results suggest 1.5% of CVD patients died during the study period (N =
91). Results for block one were similar to those found previously for age χ2 (2, 2272) = 21.107,
p < .001: every one year increase in age significantly increased the odds of in-hospital mortality
by 3% (OR = 1.03, 95% CI: 1.02-1.05, Wald (1) = 22.67, p < .001, Nagelkerke R 2 = 0.03).
Similar to the initial in-hospital mortality findings, compared to Latinos, non-Hispanic Whites
and Blacks had lower odds of mortality, though this effect was not statistically significant,
(WaldNHW
(1) = .244, p = 0.21 and WaldNHB
(1) = 1.816, p = 0.14, Nagelkerke R squared = 0.03,
see Table 3). Together, these results do not demonstrate an in-hospital mortality advantage for
Latinos during the 12-month study period.
7.3 Initial Length of Stay
Hypothesis 2: Latinos will have lower lengths of stay during the initial hospitalization
and aggregated 12-month study period.
To test this hypothesis, I used an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with age as a
covariate. Descriptive results suggest the average LOS at admission was about seven days for all
patients admitted for CVD-related condition in this sample, with variation by race/ethnicity (see
Table 1). As shown in Table 4, controlling for age, results of the ANCOVA demonstrated no
43
racial/ethnic differences in LOS at initial hospitalization, F (2, 2268) = 1.49, p = .226, partial η2
= .001. Thus, results do not indicate a lower length of stay for Latinos at initial hospitalization.
7.4 Twelve Month Length of Stay
A separate ANCOVA, with age as a covariate, tested the hypothesis of lower length of
stay for Latinos during the 12-month study period. Descriptive results suggest the average
length of stay for patients with CVD-related conditions was 13 days with racial/ethnic variation
(see Table 1). As shown in table 4, controlling for age, results of the ANCOVA demonstrated
significant racial/ethnic differences across the 2008-2009 study period, F (2, 2268) = 4.206, p =
.015, partial η2 = .004, with simple contrast comparisons indicating that non-Hispanic Whites
and Blacks had significantly lower hospital length of stay across all admissions (3.044 and 1.939,
days respectively) compared to Latinos. These results suggest Latino patients admitted to PHHS
with CVD-related conditions stayed longer in the hospital during the study period.
7.5 Re-admission
Hypothesis 3: Latinos will have lower odds of re-admissions over the 12-month study
period compared to non-Latinos
To test this hypothesis, I used a hierarchical logistic regression. Descriptive results
indicated a total of 931 patients with CVD-related conditions were re-admitted during the study
period, with variations by race/ethnicity (see Table 1). In block one, the covariate age was
entered in order to control for the effect of age on re-admission, whereas block two contained the
dummy coded race/ethnicities non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black. Regarding block
one, a chi square goodness-of-fit test demonstrated that age reliably distinguished those who
44
were re-admitted or not, χ2 (2, 2272) = 8.989, p = .003. Results from block two demonstrated
that compared to Latinos, the odds of re-admission were significantly lower for non-Hispanic
White (OR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.995-0.997, WaldNHW (1) = 6.994, p = .008), but not for non-
Hispanic Black CVD patients (OR = .1.035, 95% CI: 0.84-1.28, WaldNHB (1) = .102, p = .750,
see Table 5). Thus, results do not indicate an advantage for hospital re-admission for Latinos;
rather, Latinos were more likely to be re-admitted to PHHS during the study period.
45
CHAPTER 8
DISCUSSION
The current study explored the hospital utilization trends of Latino and non-Latino
patients and examined the possibility of an advantage for Latinos within the context of CVD-
related events. Contrary to our hypotheses, there was no advantage for in-hospital mortality,
length of stay or re-admissions in Latinos compared to non-Latinos. Instead, Latinos
hospitalized for a CVD-related event had a significantly longer length of stay and had greater
odds for re-admission when compared to non-Latinos. Together, the findings of the current
investigation suggest a different hospital utilization pattern for Latinos following admission for a
CVD-related event and suggest a disparity in hospital utilization that may result in worse
recovery outcomes for this racial/ethnic group.
8.1 Poor Cardiac-Related Recovery
Although there are inconsistent findings in the literature regarding the hospital utilization
for Latinos, my findings are in line with data suggesting poor cardiac-related recovery. For
example, evidence suggests that once Latinos are admitted into the hospital, they have greater
odds for a longer LOS compared to non-Hispanic Whites (Schwamm et al., 2010). Relatedly,
poor recovery has been documented in Latinos with heart failure (Vivo, Krim, Cevik, &
Witteles, 2009), demonstrating higher rates of hospitalization (Alexander, Grumbach, Remy,
Rowell, & Massie, 1999) and higher odds for re-admission (Brown, Haldeman, Croft, Giles, &
Mensah, 2005; Jiang et al., 2005) compared to non-Hispanic Whites. Together, these findings
suggest that once Latinos develop CVDs, they experience a decrease in cardiac-related recovery.
46
Evidence from the current study does not demonstrate an advantage for in-hospital
mortality within the context of all-cause CVD admissions for Latinos. These null findings are in
line with the Corpus Christi Heart Project (Pandey, Labarthe, Goff, Chan, & Nichaman, 2002),
San Antonio Heart Study (Hunt, Resendez, Williams, Haffner, Stern, & Hazuda, 2003) and with
data collected by the National Registry of Myocardial Infarctions (Canto, Taylor, Rogers,
Sanderson, Hilbe, & Barron, 1998); however, the abovementioned cardiac findings are largely
based on post-MI samples whereas my data were for all-cause cardiovascular admissions. It is
important to note that my findings are inconsistent with the limited evidence regarding Latinos
and hospitalization (Ruiz, Hamman, Lewis, Prather, Garcia, & Santini, 2014); however, results
from this study shed light on the trends of Latinos hospitalized following a cardiac event.
8.2 Worse Recovery from CVD Hospitalizations
Although the literature depicts the cardiovascular health profile of Latinos as having
lower risk for developing CVDs (Go et al., 2013), lower age-adjusted mortality within the
context of diagnosed CVDs (Cortes-Bergoderi et al., 2013; Ruiz, Steffen & Smith, 2013),
findings of the current study suggest worse recovery from a CVD hospitalization. It may be
possible that once Latinos develop CVDs, they experience a decrease in cardiac-related recovery
resulting from the burden of co-morbid major CVD risk factors, such as hypertension,
hypercholesteremia, diabetes, and obesity (as suggested by the Hispanic Community Health
Study/Study of Latinos; Daviglus et al., 2012), which lead to a disease trajectory requiring and
involving frequent contact with healthcare systems (i.e., longer lengths of stay and more re-
admissions as found in the “Get with the Guidelines- Coronary Artery Disease Registry”; Krim
et al., 2011) but not mortality; the former is supported by findings from the current study,
47
whereas the latter point is extensively documented in meta-analytic and systematic evidence
(Cortes-Bergoderi et al., 2013; Ruiz, Steffen & Smith, 2013). Furthermore, it may be that the
Latino advantage is present only for initial risk of developing CVDs (despite a significant co-
morbidity in CVD risk factors) and in CVD-related mortality; thus, this may suggest that Latinos
have an advantage at different points throughout the disease course of CVDs. Together, my
findings have implications for understanding the cardiovascular health Latinos post-
hospitalization
8.3 Limitations
There are several limitations in the current study. For example, data were collected from
only one hospital site, which limits the generalizability of the current findings; thus, a multi-site
investigation is warranted. Relatedly, the current study followed patients hospitalized for only
one year; perhaps following patients for more than one may elucidate the reliability of these
trends overtime. Moreover, the current study relied on medical records, not individual patients;
this does not account for mortality outside the hospital setting nor disease severity markers that
may have contributed to the null findings. Also, the current study classified CVDs consistent
with AHA standards but conflated all CVD-related conditions; however, given that CVDs have
substantial variance in disease course/progression, it may be possible that the groups differed in
survival and LOS within specific conditions such as recovery from a myocardial infarction but
that such differences were lost when the data was viewed in the aggregate. Additionally, perhaps
re-admission may be a marker of illness sensitivity which may vary by group, such that some
groups may and return to the hospital not because their condition have worsened and/or require
medical attention, but rather returning to the hospital due to an increased adherence to medical
48
treatment. Lastly, LOS may vary as a function of recovery but may also reflect lack of trust
towards health system (Armstrong, Ravenell, McMurphy, & Putt, 2007) or perceived
discrimination (Dovidio et al., 2008; Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2009).
8.4 Summary
In summary, our findings suggest that although the incidence and prevalence for CVDs is
low for some Latino groups, once Latinos ultimately develop a CVD-related condition
(reflecting a progression in the disease course), they may require significantly more
hospitalizations and days in the hospital to recover from the burden of established CVDs. Given
the costly impact of hospital length of stays and re-admissions at the individual and societal
level, findings from the current study suggest a pressing need to monitor Latinos who develop
CVD-related conditions, as the disease course for this racial/ethnic group indicate greater use of
hospital resources to address their CVD-related medical needs. Furthermore, research efforts are
encouraged to test the reliability of my findings in order to help clarify these hospital use patterns
in Latinos with CVDs. This becomes imperative, given the mandate to reduce hospital re-
admission as part of the Affordable Care Act, as hospitals that provide clinical care to
racial/ethnic minority communities may be disproportionately penalized (McHugh, Carthon, &
Kang, 2010)
49
Coronary Heart
Disease50%Stroke
17%
Other CVD16%
Hypertensive Diseases
7%
Heart Failure (underlying
cause)7%
Diseases of Arteries
3%
Percentage of Deaths from CVDs
Figure 8.1. Percentage of deaths from overall CVD as reported by the Vital Statistics of the National Center for Health Statistics in 2008 (National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, 2012). Figure 1..
50
Table 8.1 Demographic Characteristics By Race/Ethnicity
Variable Latino non-Hispanic Black non-Hispanic White Total N 508 1059 705 2272 Age in years (M) 56.01c*** 56.26c*** 59.03ab*** 57.06 Sex (N)
non-Hispanic Black 44% 1.035 0.836-1.282 0.102 1 0.75 non-Hispanic White
21% 0.728 0.576-0.921 6.994 1 0.008
53
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