F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 1 REFLECTIONS ON RABBIT NUTRITION WITH A SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON FEED INGREDIENTS UTILIZATION LEBAS F., 2004. Reflections on rabbit nutrition with a special emphasis on feed ingredients utilization. 8 th World Rabbit Congres Puebla Mexico, WRSA Ed. Invited paper, 686-736. LEBAS F. Cuniculture, 87a Chemin de Lassère, 31450 Corronsac, France [email protected]ABSTRACT In this invited communication the author proposes a list of nutritional recommendations for rabbits of different categories : growing from 18 to 42 days, from 42 to 80 days, for breeding does according to productivity (40-50 kits weaned per doe/year or more than 50) and for a single diet usable for all rabbits. Recommendations taking account the last published data, are divided in 2 groups. The first corresponds to nutrients which contribute mainly to feed efficiency : digestible energy, crude and digestible protein, amino acids, minerals, and fat-soluble vitamins. The second group corresponds to nutrients which contribute mainly to nutritive security and digestive health: different fibre components (lignins, cellulose, hemicelluloses) and their equilibrium, starch and water soluble vitamins. In a second part, were analysed 387 papers published during the last 30 years on raw material utilisation in rabbit feeding. In a total of 14 tables, the 542 corresponding experiments were summarised each by the identification of the raw material, by the highest level of incorporation used in the experiment, by the highest acceptable level, by the main ingredient(s) replaced by the raw material studied, and finally by the authors reference. Raw materials studied were those used in temperate as well as in tropical countries. The raw material were grouped according to the following categories : raw material used as single food (24 experiments), cereals and by-products (43 exp.), other carbohydrates source of energy (62 exp.), fats (27 exp.), full-fat oleaginous grains (10 exp.), oil cakes and meals (43 exp.), proteic seeds such peas or beans (42 exp.), miscellaneous sources of protein such yeast or leaf protein (18 exp.), animal products (21 exp.), non-protein nitrogen source such urea (9 exp.), forages (157 exp.), cereal straws, alkali treated or not (33 exp.), cover or parts of dried grains source of fibre such stalks, hulls or cobs (19 exp.) and industrial by-products usable as fibre source (51 exp.). Key words : nutritional recommendations, raw materials, data basis
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F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 1
REFLECTIONS ON RABBIT NUTRITION WITH A SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON FEED INGREDIENTS UTILIZATION
LEBAS F., 2004. Reflections on rabbit nutrition with a special emphasis on feed ingredients utilization. 8th World Rabbit Congres Puebla Mexico, WRSA Ed. Invited paper, 686-736.
LEBAS F.
Cuniculture, 87a Chemin de Lassère, 31450 Corronsac, France [email protected]
ABSTRACT In this invited communication the author proposes a list of nutritional recommendations for rabbits of different categories : growing from 18 to 42 days, from 42 to 80 days, for breeding does according to productivity (40-50 kits weaned per doe/year or more than 50) and for a single diet usable for all rabbits. Recommendations taking account the last published data, are divided in 2 groups. The first corresponds to nutrients which contribute mainly to feed efficiency : digestible energy, crude and digestible protein, amino acids, minerals, and fat-soluble vitamins. The second group corresponds to nutrients which contribute mainly to nutritive security and digestive health: different fibre components (lignins, cellulose, hemicelluloses) and their equilibrium, starch and water soluble vitamins. In a second part, were analysed 387 papers published during the last 30 years on raw material utilisation in rabbit feeding. In a total of 14 tables, the 542 corresponding experiments were summarised each by the identification of the raw material, by the highest level of incorporation used in the experiment, by the highest acceptable level, by the main ingredient(s) replaced by the raw material studied, and finally by the authors reference. Raw materials studied were those used in temperate as well as in tropical countries. The raw material were grouped according to the following categories : raw material used as single food (24 experiments), cereals and by-products (43 exp.), other carbohydrates source of energy (62 exp.), fats (27 exp.), full-fat oleaginous grains (10 exp.), oil cakes and meals (43 exp.), proteic seeds such peas or beans (42 exp.), miscellaneous sources of protein such yeast or leaf protein (18 exp.), animal products (21 exp.), non-protein nitrogen source such urea (9 exp.), forages (157 exp.), cereal straws, alkali treated or not (33 exp.), cover or parts of dried grains source of fibre such stalks, hulls or cobs (19 exp.) and industrial by-products usable as fibre source (51 exp.). Key words : nutritional recommendations, raw materials, data basis
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 2
NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS Recent progresses in rabbit nutrition research have increased the number of criteria included in the nutritional recommendations, specially in the domain of fibrous components (GIDENNE, 2000; FORTUN-LAMOTHE and GIDENNE 2003). Thus it becomes very difficult to conceive an economical diet which respects exactly all recommendations. More, the basic reason of some recommendations is the highest performance possible in term of production or feed efficiency. For some others, the basic reason is the digestive flora nutrition and the digestive health of the rabbit. In the first group are recommendations for energy, protein quality and quantity, fat-soluble vitamins or minerals. For these nutrients, the objective of the nutritionist is to conceive a diet which, after digestion, absorption and blood transport, can provide the rabbit cells for the vital elements at the lowest physiological price possible. This means that diet's digestibility must be as efficient as possible and that the nutrients proportions must be as balanced as possible in order the avoid deficiencies or nutrients excesses which would be eliminated at great cost through urine or faeces. In the second group, are recommendations for starch, fibre quantity and quality (lignins, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins and their equilibrium) and for water soluble vitamins normally synthesized by the flora. For these nutrients, the objective of the nutritionist is to conceive a diet which provides balanced carbohydrate sources for the flora, and to provide water soluble vitamins in case of flora malfunctioning (first step of any digestive trouble). Recommendations for the best digestive functioning make necessary the inclusion in diets of components with low or very low digestibility such as cellulose and lignins. It is well known that these recommendations are conflicting with the highest possible diet's digestibility or feed efficiency, if the health situation of the rabbits is perfect. Thus we have separate the new proposed recommendations for rabbits nutrition in 2 groups (table 1) : the first corresponds to recommendations for an optimum feed efficiency and the second corresponds to recommendations which must be scrupulously respected in case of endangered digestive situation in the rabbitry. Data included in the table were determined mainly according to the most recent synthesis available in the literature (DE BLAS and VISEMAN, 1998; GIDENNE, 2000; FORTUN-LAMOTHE and GIDENNE 2003, LEBAS, 2003) and according to our own experience and literature knowledge. Despite the recent direct demonstration made by GUTIERREZ et al. (2003) of the noxious consequences of a high ileal flux of protein entering the caecum, no quantitative recommendation was made in relation with the optimum protein flux at the end of the small intestine. The reason is the absence of quantification of the optimum flux and the absence of characterisation of ieal digestibility of a sufficient number of feed ingredients. Such determination in the future would certainly represent an important step for the improvement of rabbits nutrition security. Recommendation for total sulphur amino-acid (TSSA) was made without proposition of a minimum level for methionine. Effectively a lot of years ago, COLIN (1978) has clearly demonstrated that methionine can replace cystine in the TSAA and vice versa within the widest possible range of variation. Since that time, as far as we know, nobody had experimentally demonstrated that a minimum of methionine (or of cystine) must be provided in rabbits diets.
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 3
Table 1 : Nutrients recommendation for rabbit feeding.
GROWTH REPRODUCTION (1) Type or period of production Without any other indication, unit = g/kg as fed (90% DM)
18 => 42 days
42 => 75-80 days Intensive ½ intensive
Single feed (2)
GROUPE 1 : Recommendations for the highest productivity (kcal / kg) 2400 2600 2700 2600 2400 Digestible Energy MJoules/ kg 9,5 10,5 11,0 10,5 9,5
Crude Protein 150-160 160-170 180-190 170-175 160 Digestible Protein 110-120 120-130 130-140 120-130 110-125
GROUPE 2 : Recommandation for the best health possible for rabbits Ligno-cellulose ( ADF ) ≥ 190 ≥ 170 ≥ 135 ≥ 150 ≥ 160 Lignins ( ADL ) ≥ 55 ≥ 50 ≥ 30 ≥ 30 ≥ 50 Cellulose ( ADF – ADL ) ≥ 130 ≥ 110 ≥ 90 ≥ 90 ≥ 110 ratio lignins / cellulose ≥ 0,40 ≥ 0,40 ≥ 0,35 ≥ 0,40 ≥ 0,40 NDF ( Neutral Detergent Fiber) ≥ 320 ≥ 310 ≥ 300 ≥ 315 ≥ 310 Hemicelluloses ( NDF – ADF ) ≥ 120 ≥ 100 ≥ 85 ≥ 90 ≥ 100 ratio (hemicelluloses+pectins) / ADF ≤ 1,3 ≤ 1,3 ≤ 1,3 ≤ 1,3 ≤ 1,3 Starch ≤ 140 ≤ 200 ≤ 200 ≤ 200 ≤ 160 Water soluble Vitamins - vitamin C (ppm) 250 250 200 200 200 - vitamin B1 (ppm) 2 2 2 2 2 - vitamin B2 (ppm) 6 6 6 6 6 - nicotinamid (vitamin PP) (ppm) 50 50 40 40 40 - pantothenic acid (ppm 20 20 20 20 20 - vitamin B6 (ppm) 2 2 2 2 2 - folic acid (ppm) 5 5 5 5 5 - vitamin B12 (ppm) 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 - choline (ppm) 200 200 100 100 100 (1) For does, ½ intensive production means a average yearly production of 40-50 weaned kits in the rabbitry, and an intensive production corresponds to a higher productivity (more than 50 kits /doe/year). (2) The single feed recommendation corresponds to a diet used for all rabbits in the rabbitry. It is a compromise between requirements of the different categories of rabbits.
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 4
For amino-acids in general, the correct recommendations would be done in term of digestible amino-acids as correctly proposed by the Madrid research staff (DE BLAS and MATEOS, 1998). But up to the moment no table for the feed's digestible amino-acids content is available for the rabbit. More, the correct recommendation would be done in amino acids digestible at the end of ileum because of the previously mentioned effect of excessive proteic-N entering the caecum. Thus the inclusion of recommendations for digestible amino acids remains of theoretical interest. For this reason they were not included in the tables of recommendations. For the other components, composition of raw materials usable in a feed's formulation respecting the table 1 recommendations could be found for example in the recent tables of composition published by SAUVANT et al. (2002). This tables describe most of feed resources in use in Western European countries, for the gross composition including the fibre fractions, but also composition in amino acids, macro- and micro-minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and nutritional value for the farm animals, rabbits included. When available, for rabbits are indicated the digestible and metabolizable energy content and digestibility coefficient of energy and nitrogen. An other important information source for raw materials, usable in most of the developing countries is AFRIS, the FAO data basis on Animal Feed Resources Information System. AFRIS is available on Internet with free access (AFRIS, 2004). For an impressive list of raw materials are given some explanations on the product (origin and possibilities of utilisation), data on gross composition, digestibility (mainly by ruminants), amino acids composition and a list of some references (with abstract available on line) on the use of this material, sometimes by rabbits. In addition this data basis is available in English but also in French, Spanish, Arabic and Chinese language.
FEED INGREDIENTS UTILISATION Methodology for the estimation of the nutritive value of feed ingredients All the analysis described in composition tables are useful to search the nutrients mentioned in recommendations. They are used by nutritionists with the help of a computer to know if a specific raw material is able or not to provide such or such nutrient mentioned in the recommendations, and how to mix different raw materials to obtain a balanced diet. But raw ingredient components are more complex than the description made through a list of nutrients, even if the list is very long. Some molecules present in a raw material may have consequences on the animal physiology, that of rabbits in particular. Some of these molecules can be tolerated if their final level in the complete diet is not too high e.g. case of mimosine content in diets with Leucaena leucocephala (SZYSZKA et al., 1985), for other molecules, rabbits may prefer an intermediate concentration, e.g. for the saponin concentration in diets with lucerne (AUXILIA et al., 1983). For these raw materials, the "key" molecules (mimosine or saponin) are known. Then a chemical determination can be done before utilisation and the result may be included in the computer for formulation. But for many raw materials, such components are not known. But that does not mean they don’t exist and that they have no effect. Up to now the only reliable method to know if a raw material can be used for rabbit nutrition is to ask rabbits themselves. The most common method consists to include
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 5
graded levels of the studied raw material in rabbits ration, and to measure the performance. But the total of the ration remains always at 100% ; then if one ingredient is introduced at graded levels, one or some others ingredients must be withdrawn. For this reason many published experiments could be interpreted symmetrically from the reverse side as a progressive reduction of the incorporation level of an other raw material. Which one is responsible of the observed variation of the performance ? the increase of the first or the decrease of the second ? In many cases, for a supposed easy future interpretation, the studied material is introduced in substitution to one unique ingredient or to the basal diet. In the later case if the basal diet (or control diet) is balanced according to rabbit's requirements, at the highest level of substitution the experimental diet is not balanced. Then, is the resulting performance a consequence of the presence of the studied ingredient or only a consequence of the ration imbalance ? We consider that there is no perfect solution. Nevertheless, a reliable synthetic position may be established after a critical analysis of the different works published on the nutritive value of the studied raw material. Revue of literature on raw material studies, methodological aspects To make possible a reliable synthetic position, we have analysed a great number of works on raw material evaluation, published during the last 30 years (1973-2003). The data basis was obtained through a CAB International interrogation on Internet and through the analysis of all communications presented during the successive World Rabbit Congresses (1st to 7th) or during the successive French rabbit Days (1st to 10th). The final list contains 387 publications corresponding to 542 studies of diets with various levels of a raw material : most generally one control without the studied material and 1 to 5 levels of incorporation. This list is not exhaustive, but represent probably more than 90% of the literature available. The CAB International interrogation has given an abstract for each reference. Full text and abstract were available in the CD Rom of the World Rabbit Congresses (available at the WRSA office) or in the CD Rom of the French rabbit Days (available at the ITAVI office in Paris). Most of studies were made with growing rabbits (91.7%). Breeding does were used for 5.4% of the experiments and 1.5% of the studies were made using angora wool production as the main criterion for evaluation or using various other physiological criteria. In the experiments with growing rabbits we have given priority to the growth rate observed during the whole duration of the study, to establish the highest acceptable level of incorporation of the raw material. But in many cases the authors have also determined the feed efficiency, the digestibility of the experimental diets, the carcass characteristics, and sometime the meat quality, mortality rate or blood parameters. In the following tables (3 to 15), when the highest acceptable level of incorporation is identical to the highest level studied, it means that at this level the growth rate (more generally the performance) was not significantly different from that observed with the control diet, or was significantly better. When the highest acceptable level is an intermediate level it means that at this level the performance is higher or equivalent to that observed with the control, and that a higher level induced a significant
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 6
reduction of the performance. When the highest acceptable level is 0%, it means that at all incorporation levels the performance of the experimental rabbits was significantly lower than that of the control. Sometimes the reason was a real contre-performance, and the raw material must be discarded from rabbit nutrition. But in many other cases, the lower performance observed after introduction of the raw material was only the consequence of the imbalance created by this introduction. In this case, a careful analysis of the other studies made on the same raw material is necessary to establish a correct opinion. Nevertheless, one of the questions which remains frequently unanswered is the following: was the raw material studied in different publications effectively the same or not ?. Only a comparative analysis of the different publications made in great detail can give a beginning of answer. It's the occasion for each of us to exercise his or her critical sense. Raw materials studied as only feed Some raw materials were used as the only feed source in some experiences (table2). When some growth or adult live weight maintenance were observed (marked "OK") it means that the studied raw ingredient had no important toxic compound and nutrients are relatively balanced. The direct analysis of the publication reveals the Table 2. Raw ingredients studied as only feed.
Ingredients type of rabbit
Maintenance or growth Authors
Arachis pintoi + Pennisetum purpureum growing OK Nieves et al., 1996 arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) forage growing OK Erdman, 1986 bermuda grass fresh (Cynodon dactylon) adult no Deshmukh et al., 1989 bermuda grass fresh (Cynodon dactylon) adult no Deshmukh et al., 1993a berseem fresh (Trifolium alexandrinum) adult OK Deshmukh et al., 1989 berseem fresh (Trifolium alexandrinum) adult OK Deshmukh et al., 1990 broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima) fresh or dried growing OK Rohilla et al., 2000b
cabbage leaf wastes growing OK Prawirodigdo et al., 1985 Grewia optiva leaves adult OK Deshmukh et al., 1989 groundnut haulms growing OK Ngodigha et al., 1994 guinea grass (Panicum maximum) growing no Bamikole et al., 1999 lucerne (100%) growth OK Perez et al., 1994
lucerne (96%) growing or pregnant OK Pascual et al., 2002
lucerne (99.5%+NaCl) growing OK Perez et al., 1998 maize whole grain soaked overnight adult no Prasad et al., 1996 mulberry fresh leaves (Morus alba) adult OK Deshmukh et al., 1989 mulberry fresh leaves (Morus alba) adult OK Deshmukh et al., 1993b oats (green, preflowering) adult OK Deshmukh et al., 1989 rabbit faeces dried (98%+minerals) !!!!!! growing OK (!?) Fekete et al., 1985 robinia (Robinia pseudoacacia) leaves growing OK Singh et al., 1997a robinia (Robinia pseudoacacia) leaves growing OK Singh et al., 1999 Stylosanthes hamata cv. Verano growing no Bamikole et al., 1999 sweet potato tops (dehydrated) growing OK Abu et al., 1999 wheat bran (98.75%) growing OK Robinson et al., 1986
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 7
real performance which is an indirect estimation of the nutritional balance of the raw material. When the growth or maintenance column is marked "no", it means that this raw material was nutritionally completely imbalanced or contained a toxic compound. To be as complete as possible, we have mentioned the work of FEKETE et al. (1985) where rabbit faeces were used as quasi only feed for rabbits (98% inducing a growth rate of 12 g/day), but in no way we will recommend the inclusion of faeces in the rabbit nutrition because of the corresponding uncontrolled sanitary risk. Utilisation of cereals and cereal by products To interpret correctly all experiences made on progressive introduction of cereals in rabbits rations (table 3) it is necessary to search the cereal in the "ingredient" column as well as in the "substitution" column. Most of the cereals and by-products can clearly be used up to 40-50%. The main limitations are those associated with diets nutritional balance, specially the starch maximum when rabbitry health is not optimum. Table 3 : Experiments on the incorporation of cereals and cereal by-products in rabbit feeding.
Carbohydrates source of energy, other than cereals If in numerous rabbit's rations cereals are the main source of digestible energy, many other ingredients can provide also starch (e.g. cassava roots) or other highly digestible carbohydrates (e.g. beet or citrus pulp, molasses). Many of such raw materials are listed in the table 4, and most of them were introduced in substitution to cereals. A special attention should be made the technological quality of the raw material studied and to the exact origin of the product. For example citrus pulp is frequently proposed and used without botanical indication, but citrus pulp from lemon and from orange are not necessary equivalent. The same type of citrus pulp (orange) may also be positively evaluated in on experiment and negatively in a second (LETO et al., 1984) probably in relation with the batch of citrus used.
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 9
Table 4. Experiments on the incorporation of carbohydrates sources of energy other than cereals, in rabbit feeding.
fodder beet roots (fresh) 3 ~20% ~20% concentrate growth Bassuny et al., 1999 garri sievate (residue of grated cassava fermented, dried and sieved for garri production)
3 30% 20% maize growth Ngodigha et al., 1995
molasse (sugar cane molasse) 3 10% 5-10% basal diet growth Sanchez et al., 1984 oak acorn (Quercus coccifera) 2 20% 20% maize growth Nowar et al., 1994
olive pulp 4 30% 30% - growth Tortuero et al., 1989 plantain peel (Musa cv) sun dried 4 100% of
maize 66% of maize maize growth Fanimo et al., 1996
Fat use in rabbit nutrition The different fats were frequently studied in addition to a basal diet or in substitution to one of the ingredient in order to increase the digestible energy of the diet (table 5). In many other studies one type of fat was introduced in substitution to an other source of fat. In later case the conclusion is that all the oils can be changed from one to the other. In some experiments the highest substitution level was very high : 8-9%
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 11
and even 16% (HEMID et al., 1995; BEYNEN, 1988), but with such levels it is impossible to obtain pellets of acceptable quality. Table 5. : Experiments on fat incorporation in rabbit feeding.
vegetable oils (mixed waste from edible oil refining) 2 1% 1% maize oil growth Abd-El-Rahim et al.,
1994 Full fat oleaginous grains The increase of diet's lipid content – and generally of the digestible energy content - could be done with the incorporation of pure fats as studied in the previous section, but it is also possible with the use of oleaginous grains. In this case the raw material provides non only lipids but also protein. When the diets were balanced, all tested oleaginous grains were considered as usable at the highest tested level i.e. up to 30-40% (table 6). Nevertheless, a special mention must be done for the sunflower
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 12
seeds. The lower performance observed with 30% of full-fat seeds is surprising because when seeds are separated in 2 parts, sunflower oil and sunflower meal, both parts can be used without restriction other than the diet's balance (tables 5 and 7). Thus we suggest that in the 2 experiments with sunflower seeds mentioned in table 6, some pollutant had reduced the acceptability of seeds (BALOGUN et al., 1991;. MESINI, 1994). However some additional experiments with this raw material should be welcome. Table 6. Experiments on oleaginous-seeds incorporation in rabbit feeding.
Ingredient Nb Levels
Highest level
studied
Accep-table level
substituted mainly to
Evalua-tion on Authors
cotton seeds whole, extruded 2 43% 43% soybean m. growth Johnston et al., 1984
Oil cakes and meals When the oil is removed from oleaginous seeds, generally for human utilisation, the remaining part is protein rich and may be used for animal nutrition. For rabbits as for the other animals, the reference meal is the toasted soybean meal. Not less than 15 oil cakes were studied. Most of them can be introduced at 15-20% or more, and they can provide up to 60% of the diet's protein without problem. Table 7. Experiments on oil cakes (meals) incorporation in rabbit feeding.
sunflower meal 2 15% 15% soybean m. growth Battaglini et al., 1977 sunflower meal 2 10% 10% soybean m. growth Gippert, 1980
sunflower meal 2 ~30% of
diets proteins
~30% of diets
proteins
soybean meal growth Gutierrez et al., 2003
sunflower meal 5 21.6% 21.6% - growth Ismail et al., 1999 Proteic seed (peas, beans, …) Leguminous seeds with medium to low lipid content (less than 10% in general) and some similar seeds may be also sources of protein for rabbits. Experiments of utilisation were conducted with not less than 18 types of proteic seeds (table 8). Some of the seeds can be used only if different components of the seed are removed by an adequate treatment (e.g. debittered Lupinus mutabilis - JOHNSTON et al.,1989). For some others, the presence of a noxious compound is the main factor limiting the incorporation in rabbit's ration (e.g. presence of mimosine in the Leucaena leucocephala seeds – AWOSANIA et al., 1996). For some other seeds such Lathyrus cicera the antinutritional factors which reduces feed intake and growth rate were not Table 8. Experiments on proteic seeds (beans, peas, …) incorporation in rabbit feeding.
Ingredient Nb Levels
Highest level
studied
Accep-table level
substituted mainly to
Evalua-tion on
Authors
African locust-bean (Parkia filicoidea) (raw, autoclaved or water extracted)
4 27% 27% water
extracted
oil cakes & maize growth Balogun et al., 1983
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) raw or autoclaved pinto beans 2 40% 0% lucerne &
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 16
identified (FALCÃO-E-CUNHA et al., 1996). The consequence is that up to now, the only solution is to discard this protein source from rabbit nutrition. Yeasts, mycelium, leaf protein and other protein concentrates The only raw material of this heterogeneous group, that cannot be used in rabbit nutrition is the raw guar meal (residue after extraction of the guar gum) even when it's introduction represents only 25% of the soybean protein (Prasad et al., 1998). Table 9. : Experiments on incorporation of yeast, mycelium, leaf protein and other protein concentrates, in rabbit feeding.
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 17
For the other protein concentrates, the main limiting factor seems to be the protein quality when no correction of the amino acids balance was made at the occasion of the substitution. Animal products Most of animal products experimented in rabbit nutrition were tested as source of protein. The only noticeable exception is the whey, fresh or dried, which is a source or energy (lactose). All the tested products seem to be usable, the hydrolysed leather or feather residues included. Table 10. : Experiments on animal products incorporation in rabbit feeding.
Ingredient Nb Levels
Highest level
studied
Accep-table level
substituted mainly to
Evalua-tion on
Authors
blood meal 2 10% 10% fish meal growth Sahu et al., 1990
cattle hide scrap (hydrolysed meal) 5
100% of soybean
meal
50% of soybean
meal
soybean meal growth Furlan et al., 1997
earthworms meal from Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus
2 ~12% ~12% soybean m. growth Orozco Almanza et al., 1988
extruded hatchery waste 5 6% 6% fish meal growth Handa et al., 1996 feather meal, enzymatically digested 2 30% 30% soybean m. growth Fekete et al., 1986
fish meal 2 16% 16% poultry offals growth Fotso et al., 2000
krill meal 3 6% 6% animal protein growth Niedzwiadek et al.,
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 18
Urea and other non protein sources of nitrogen Because rabbit's caecal flora can use urea to synthesise true proteins (SALSE et al., 1977), many experiments were conducted to try to replace in rabbit feeding true proteins by industrial non proteic compounds. When the protein level of the basal diet was very low (12% or less) a real utilisation of urea or biuret was generally demonstrated (table 11). But when the basal diet has 13-14% of true protein or more, the non-proteic source was valueless. In this case, the only positive result is that it demonstrates that rabbits can tolerate up to 2% urea in their ration without trouble. Table 11. Experiments on the incorporation of industrial non-protein nitrogen sources in rabbit feeding.
Ingredient Nb Levels
Highest level
studied
Accep-table level
Substituted mainly to
Evaluation on Authors
biuret 2 1.6 1.6% - N retention Gioffre et al., 1988b oxycellurea 2 5.3 0% - N retention Gioffre et al., 1988b
urea 2 1% 1% soybean m. growth Abou-Ashour et al., 1983
urea 2 1.5 0% - N retention Gioffre et al., 1988b
urea 3 2% 1% fish meal breeding Niedzwiadek et al., 1975
urea 3 2% 1% fish meal breeding Niedzwiadek et al., 1976
urea 4 3% 0% addition growth Zhou et al., 2002 Forage studied for rabbit nutrition In the forage group we have included about 80 raw materials. These feed ingredients have in common a chemical composition relatively close to nutritional recommendations. They also correspond to the whole or a part of the vegetative apparatus of plants harvested when growing. Most of them can be used in rabbit nutrition, even those with antinutrional factors such Leucaena leucocephala (20 experiments in the table 12) For this specific forage we have also include the study of SZYSZKA et al. (1985) which have worked with extracted mimosine to determine the acceptable level of this toxic amino acid. Table 12. Experiments on forages incorporation in rabbit feeding.
carrot tops (sun dried) 4 60% 60% - growth El-Kerdawy et al., 1992 Continuation on next page =>
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 20
Table 12. Forages (continuatioN° 2)
carrot tops (sun dried) 3
75% of soybean
meal protein
75% of soybean
meal protein
soybean meal growth Magouze et al., 1998
cassava leaves and stems hay 4 30% 10-20% - growth Scapinello et al., 2000 cassava leaves and stems meal 4 50% 50% clover hay growth Toson et al., 1999
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 24
Cereal straws (alkali treated or not) Straws have generally a poor nutritive value for rabbits, but this type of raw material may be an excellent source of fibre. Alkali treatment which makes soluble one part of lignins may sometime improve the nutritive value, but it also modify the "fiber" ability of treated straw to provide fibre component necessary for digestive health control (table1 part 2). The normal incorporation level can be increase up to 15-20% with satisfactory results. With higher level it is clearly impossible to formulate a balanced diets. Table 13. Experiments on straw (alkali treated or not) incorporation in rabbit feeding.
Ingredient Nb Levels
Highest level
studied
Accep-table level
substituted mainly to
Evalua-tion on
Authors
barley straw 4 45% 15% basal diet growth Radwan et al., 1983 barley straw 2 10% 10% lucerne growth Ben Rayana et al., 1995 barley straw (NaOH or NH3 treated) 4 45% 0% untreated
Hulls, husks, corn and stalks Parallel to that of straw, the utilisation of the cover of some dried grains may provide fibres of different qualities. Most of these products may be used widely in rabbit nutrition (table 14) and the acceptable incorporation level may be increased up to 15-20% as it is for straws. Nevertheless for formulation it must be taken in account that fibrous cell walls composition vary widely from one source to the other (SAUVANT et al., 2002), and that a mixture of various fibre sources is frequently the only solution to meet the qualitative recommendations during rabbits diet formulation. Table 14. Experiments on hulls, husks, cobs, stalks, … incorporation in rabbit feeding.
Industrial by products used mainly as fibre source The treatment of vegetable products for human consumption (tomatoes for juices or sauces, grapes for wine, …) or for industry (wood for sawing or paper production,…)
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 26
produces a lot of fibrous by-products which can be used in rabbit nutrition. Even if some of them have no interest as feed source (e.g. date pits – ABOU-ELA et al., 1999), most of the others can be used at 15-20% and sometimes up to 30% (table 15). Nevertheless according to our experience on the practical utilisation of products of this group, their main problem is not the proportion of such or such nutrient, but the risk of mycotoxins presence (LEBAS et al., 1998). Effectively these products are generally damp when produced and they are rarely processed quickly enough to avoid mouldy developments. For this reason before to try to use one product of this category in rabbit feeding, the first precaution is to study its industrial process of production and storage and to evaluate the risk of mycotoxins presence. Table 15. Experiments on industrial by-products used mainly as source of fibre in rabbit feeding.
Ingredient Nb Levels
Highest level
studied
Accep-table level
substituted mainly to
Evalua-tion on
Authors
alder bark (Alnus) 2 25% need of
balanced diets
lucerne growth Ayers et al., 1992a
alder sawdust (Alnus) 2 25% need of
balanced diets
lucerne growth Ayers et al., 1992a
apple pomace (dried) 3 20% 20% lucerne growth Gippert et al., 1988 apple pomace (dried) 4 30% 11% - growth Sawal et al., 1995 apple pomace (dried) 5 50% 30% - growth Schurg et al., 1980 artichoke bracts, dried 3 30% 15% lucerne growth Bonanno et al., 1994 artichoke bracts, dried 3 20% 20% - growth El-Sayaad et al., 1995 barley screenings 2 20% 20% lucerne growth Evans et al., 1983 brewer's grains, dried 4 45% 15% - growth Omole et al., 1976b
brewer's grains, dried 2 30% 30% soybean m. & maize growth Berchiche et al., 1999
brewer's grains, dried 2 30% 30% basal diet growth Maertens et al., 1997 date pits 5 20% 0% - growth Aboul-Ela et al., 1999 eggplant (Solanum melongena) waste from the freezing industry
tea marc 4 18% 18% - growth Eekeren et al., 1991 tobacco fibrous residues after removal of protein fractions 3 24% 24% lucerne growth Costantini et al., 1988
tomato pomace (dried) 4 40% 10% - growth Caro et al., 1993 tomato pomace (dried) 3 50% 50% concentrate angora Caro et al., 1995 tomato pomace (dried) 3 10% 10% maize growth El-Razik, 1996 tomato pomace (dried) 4 30% 20% lucerne growth Gippert et al., 1988 tomato pomace (dried) 3 20% 13% - growth Sawal et al., 1996
tomato skins without seeds 2 10% <<10% oats growth Battaglini et al., 1978b tomato skins and seeds 2 10% 10% oats growth Battaglini et al., 1978b tomato skins and seeds 2 20% 20% lucerne growth Alicata et al., 1988b tomato skins and seeds 2 20% 20% lucerne breeding Alicata et al., 1996 vine residues (dried) 3 10% 5% - growth Martina, 1983
CONCLUSION This invited report has been for the author the occasion to propose a practical updated table of nutrients recommendations for rabbits feeding, as complete as possible. The long list of ingredients studied for rabbit feeding must be considered mainly as an annotated list of references on the subject. It may be risky to use the highest acceptable levels mentioned in tables 3 to 15 for a specific raw material without reading of original papers. In addition, if some raw material were extensively studied and don’t need more experiments (wheat or barley straw for example), for many others new experiments would be welcome.
Acknowledgments The author would particularly like to thank Mrs Sylvie COMBES (INRA Rabbit Research Station, Toulouse) for her valuable help in the CAB International Internet interrogation.
F. LEBAS Reflections on rabbit nutrition – Invited report, 8th World Rabbit Congress - Puebla 2004 – page 28
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